realms of wonder education resource
TRANSCRIPT
Education resource
TEACHER NOTESRealms of Wonder is the Art Gallery of South Australia’s first major exhibition dedicated exclusively to the art of India. The exhibition
includes more than two hundred paintings, sculptures, textiles and decorative art objects dating from the ninth century to the twenty first
century. Realms of Wonder provides opportunities for early years to senior students to explore the rich diversity of Indian art, inspired by the
three great spiritual traditions of India – Jainism, Hinduism and Islam.
This education resource has been developed to assist teachers in supporting students’ exploration and understanding of the Realms of Wonder exhibition. The learning experiences are designed to encourage students to take a closer look at selected works of art, and to learn about key
concepts associated with the diversity of Indian art, culture and religions.
The exhibition offers opportunities for students to connect with the Australian Curriculum: Arts (Visual Arts) through the strands of
Responding and Making, by considering the cultural and historical contexts in which the works were created. It also supports the Cross-
curriculum priority of Asia and Australia’s engagement with Asia, as well as the General Capabilities, developing students’ intercultural
understanding by:
• investigating culture and cultural identity
• exploring and comparing cultural knowledge, beliefs and practices
• developing respect for cultural and linguistic diversity.
ABOUT THIS RESOURCEIdeas for ‘Responding’ and ‘Making’ activities in relation to key works are suggested. Teachers may select and adapt these according to
students’ level, contexts, and particular interests. More detailed explanations of works may be found in the catalogue Realms of Wonder which
accompanies the exhibition.
Please note that in the catalogue, Hindu, Jain and Islamic terms have been transliterated with diacritics in accordance with current scholarship.
In this resource, for ease of recognition and research by students, the older system has been used (for example: Ganesha instead of Gaṇeśa;
Krishna rather than Kṛṣṇa). Captions accompanying images in this resource, however, use diacritics in accordance with Gallery protocols.
Words given in bold appear in the Glossary.
To facilitate your visit, described works are given in the order they occur in the exhibition. Each work described will also be clearly indicated
in the exhibition by an elephant logo, and numbered as in the resource.
cover detail: India, King Srenika and his retinue proceed to Salibhadra’s mansion, f. 8r from Dhanna Salibhadra Mahamuni Caupai, dated VS 1839/ 1782 CE, Rajasthan, India, ink, opaque watercolour and gold on paper, 20 loose leaves,11.5 x 26.0 cm; Collection of Michael Abbott AO QC
BEFORE YOUR VISITDevelop a range of questions that will help your students define the characteristics of Jain, Hindu and Islamic art of India. Use these questions
as a guide to help students explore and respond to the exhibition.
Introduce students to the geography of India. The accompanying map will assist students to locate India’s neighbouring countries, as well as
its principal states, rivers and cities.
The following geographical locations are mentioned in this education resource:
(Numbers refer to specific works)
Afghanistan (no. 11), Agra (no. 16), Bangladesh, Bengal, Delhi, Ganges River, Gujarat (no. 1), Himalayan Mountains (no. 4, 5), Indus River,
Jumna River, Mathura (no. 10), Nepal (no. 9 ), Pakistan (no. 14), Rajasthan (no. 1), Surat (no. 1), Tamil Nadu (no. 7, 8),
Uttar Pradesh (no. 10, 16), Varanasi, Vraj (no. 10), Yamuna River (no. 10)
Ask questions: What do students already know about India? What do you want students to find out? Is anyone in your class from India, or of
Indian descent? Has anyone visited India? Invite students to provide a talk or visual presentation to share their personal experiences of India.
Use this education resource to familiarise yourself, and your students, with the exhibition. The Glossary provides an overview of key terms
used in the descriptions of works of art, as well as in the Responding and Making tasks.
Discuss the importance of the visual arts in enhancing our understanding about Indian culture.
Introduce the belief systems of Hinduism, Jainism and Islam in India.
Research the various religions, celebrations and festivals, as well as the diversity of languages and writing systems in India.
AFTER YOUR VISIT Share impressions and learnings about the exhibition. Consider the following activities:
• Discuss works of art you most enjoyed/connected to, and explain why. Describe the work and how it made you feel. (Materials used,
composition, colour etc.) When was the work made? Why might the work have been made? (to convey a religious belief, story etc…)
• Undertake relevant Responding and Making activities.
• What role does the imagery of plants and animals, as well as geometric pattern-making, play in Indian art? Compare and contrast pattern-
making in Jain, Hindu and Islamic works.
• Think about the diversity of materials and technologies that were used by the artisans who created the works in the exhibition. Which
material or medium would you most like to work with, and why?
• Define and discuss the features or characteristics of Jain, Hindu and Islamic art of India.
INTRODUCTIONThe works of art on display in the exhibition, Realms of Wonder, reflect three religions practised in India: Jainism, Hinduism and
Islam. These works come from many regions of India, as well as from the nearby countries of Pakistan and Nepal. Some objects
date from as early as the ninth century, while a few have been created more recently. Note that the makers’ identities are unknown
as is customary in Indian religious art.
There are many other religions in India such as Buddhism, Christianity, and Sikhism, but Hinduism has the most worshippers,
with nearly a billion believers. As India’s oldest religion, Hinduism is thought to have begun over 4,000 years ago. Jainism, with
fewer than 5 million believers, broke away from Hinduism in the sixth century BC and so is about 2,500 years old. Islam is not as
old as Hinduism or Jainism. It was introduced in the tenth century, about eleven hundred years ago. In India there are 170 million
Muslims (followers of Islam).
With a total population of 1.27 billion, India is a country remarkable for the number of its religions and languages. Unlike in
Australia, there is not one official language. In fact there are nearly twenty official languages, with Hindi being the most widely
spoken. There are also many writing systems. Each of the three religions featured in the exhibition uses different writing scripts.
As you view the works of art remember to look at the writing on the statues, paintings and manuscripts.
Himalayas
INDUS
RIV
ERCh
enab
River
River
Jhelam
Yamuna
River
GANGES
RIVER
BAYof
BENGAL
ARABIANSEA
INDIAN OCEAN
NEPAL
PAKIST
AN
INDIA
SRILANKA
New Delhi
Mumbai
Andhra Pradesh
UttarPradesh
Himachal Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh
Karnataka
Rajasthan
Gujarat
Kerala
Tamil Nadu
West Bengal
Maharashtra
Odisha
Jainism teaches a path to spiritual purity and enlightenment
through strict self-control and non-violence. Jainism arose as a
reaction against Hinduism, however, it continued to observe and
to adapt aspects of Hindu beliefs. There are many similarities in
religious and artistic practices, but also differences.
It is said that there may be as many as 330 million Hindu gods
and devas (deities or supernatural forms of the gods). Jains,
however, worship the 24 Jinas ‘spiritual victors’ who conquered
the weaknesses and distractions of life to achieve the right faith,
knowledge and conduct. The Jinas provide guidance and models of
ideal behaviour for Jain followers. The stories of their births, lives
and achievement of moksha (spiritual freedom) were spoken about
in the ancient language called Jain Prakrit. Later, they were written
down in the Agama religious texts in the special script known as
Jain nagari. The texts are based on the teachings of the 24th Jina,
Mahavira who lived in the sixth century BC.
Jainism is practised mostly in Western India, in Gujarat and
Rajasthan, and in southern Deccan. One of the main principles of
Jainism is non-violence (ahimsa).
Non-violence is the ultimate duty - Jain teaching
Jains are strict vegetarians. They do not eat any killed animal or
insect, and even avoid root vegetables as they believe insects would
have been killed when the vegetables were pulled out of
the ground.
Jains disagree with the Hindu caste system, but they share with
Hindus a belief in karma in which people pass through many
existences, and have many births and deaths according to the
merits earned in this life. Death is not final; reincarnation, or the
form in which believers return to life, is determined by their good
or bad deeds. The continual cycle of birth and death stops when
the believer achieves moksha. By exercising self-control and by
following strict religious teachings, the souls of those who achieve
moksha become siddhas and live at the top of the Jain universe.
In order to overcome the karma of many lives and rebirths, Jain
monks live very austere lives. They have no possessions. They
cannot ride on animals or machines; they wander on foot begging
for food, often going without in order to win merit in this life.
Jain monks belong to one of two groups or sects: the Shvetambaras
‘putting on of white clothes’; and the Digambaras, ‘sky robed’ or
naked. Jain sculptures will show jinas either lightly dressed in a
white cloth, or naked. Because Jains reject violence, Jain statues
are always peaceful.
Jainism
Invitation letter to a Jain monk 1
India
Invitation letter to a Jain monk (vijñaptipatra)
dated bright 5 Māgasira VS 1851 / November 1795 CE
Surat, Gujarat
ink and opaque watercolour on paper
955.0 x 26.0 cm
Gift of Michael Abbott AO QC through the
Art Gallery of South Australia Foundation 2013
Invitation letter to a Jain monk
Jain monks live a wandering life, except for the four months of the
rainy season (June/July to September/October) when they remain
in one place. They are allowed to travel only on foot so they need
to make arrangements well in advance in regard to where they will
spend the approaching wet season.
In the monsoon season the Jain festival of Paryushan takes place,
and the monks are in great demand. It is a time of intense religious
practice when the guidance of monks is most needed. During this
festival period, all Jains study religious texts, deny themselves
pleasures including food, and seek forgiveness from each other for
any offence they may have caused.
Local communities compete to invite monks to come and teach in
the temples of their city or village. The vijnaptipatra, or ‘letter of
request’, is the official way to invite a monk. It is written in the best
calligraphy and includes many painted images of the town.
Invitation letter to a Jain monk (vijnaptipatra) was written by Jain
businessmen or merchants in November 1795. It is addressed to
the monk named Vijaya-Lakshmi-Suri who was born in 1741, and
who became a monk at the age of 16.The letter requests that he
come from Sirohi, near Mount Abu in south Rajasthan, to Surat in
Gujarat. This means that he would have to walk between 400 and
500 kilometres in about seven months.
The letter, which is nearly ten metres long, unfolds like a scroll.
The joyful pictures of the people of Surat are intended to make the
monk feel welcome, and to encourage him to accept the invitation.
The painted images show how magnificent Vijaya-Lakshmi-Suri’s
reception would be, and how devoted the Jains of Surat are.
The images show elephants and processions of horses passing
through the streets, and musicians playing trumpets or drums.
The temple where the monk would preach is also included. Inside
the temple is a Shvetambara monk dressed in white. The men are
seated separately from women, as is the custom in Jain temples.
The letter also shows the ‘Eight Auspicious Symbols’ (ashta mangala) which Shvetambara Jains believe will bring
good luck. These can be generally found on Jain paintings,
sculptures and manuscripts. The auspicious symbols for the two
Jain sects vary a little.
The Shvetambara sect’s auspicious symbols are painted in pairs:
they are the swastika and the mirror (darpan) ; the diamond-shaped
shrivatsa and the seat (bhadrasana) ; a small box decorated with
flowers and the vase (kalasha); and the pair of fish (meen yugala)
and the nandyavarta, a complex curved swastika of nine angles.
• The right facing swastika represents female cosmic energy or
shakti. For Jains it is the symbol of the seventh Jina Suparsva.
• The mirror is important because it reflects a person’s
inner soul.
• The diamond-shaped shrivatsa appears on the chest of
the Jinas.
• The bhadrasana is the royal throne, reserved for Jinas or
‘victors’ who achieve spiritual freedom (moksha).
• The holy vase (kalasha) used in Jain ceremonies has two
divine eyes and two pieces of scarves attached to the handles.
• The pair of fish represents freedom in the cosmic ocean.
The letter shows people busy at work in the port of Surat, and also
British sailors who worked for the East India Company. The British
flag, the Union Jack, is flying on the ship and on the town’s castle.
The British captured the city in 1759. When this letter was written
in 1795, the people of Surat were used to seeing European sailors
and traders.
It is not known whether the monk, Vijaya-Lakshmi-Suri, accepted
this particular invitation but he certainly went to Surat. Documents
record that in 1787 he ceremoniously installed an image of the
twelfth Jina, Vasupujya, in the city temple. Seven years later he
died in Surat.
Responding
Imagine you are making a journey of 400-500 kilometres on foot.
What preparations would you make? How would your preparations
be different from those of the Jain monk who journeyed to Surat?
Making
Write an extended invitation to someone you would like to visit
your sports club, school, town or district. Show good reasons
for the visit, as well as the attractions you have to offer. Follow
a similar format to the Jain letter, and include formal writing
followed by images that entice the person to visit.
Include a decorative border around the letter as well as various
symbols associated with your club, school etc.
Put all the invitations together to make a long and decorative
invitation letter (scroll) which can be placed in the classroom.
1
Altarpiece with Sambhava 2
Jains pray in a temple where there are large statues, or they may
have small altars in their homes. This particular altar honours
Sambhava, the third Jina. Sambhava is the large figure sitting on
a throne in the middle of the altar. Above him is an umbrella or
parasol which protects the Jina from evil. Either side of Sambhava
are two clothed and standing Jinas.
Altogether 24 Jinas surround Sambhava, and there are various
other figures. Either side of the altar, on the edges, there are two
female attendants known as Yakshini, who are clothed. This helps
to identify the altar as belonging to the Shvetambara sect.
Underneath Sambhava’s throne are pairs of lions and elephants. The
space between the elephants is blank. This is where an inscription
could have been written naming the jina, or the date when the altar
was made, or even the name of the owner.
At the top of the altar is a kalasha water jar which is one of the
Jain ‘Eight auspicious objects’ (ashta mangala). On the upper
outside corners of the altar there are pairs of mythical creatures
called makara and vyala, which protect Hindu and Jain temples
from evil. They are often carved into pillars of buildings. Makara
are sea dragons. Beneath the makara is a vyala. Vyala have a lion’s
body and the head or features of another animal.
As Sambhava’s attributes or signs are the colour gold (the colour of
this altar) and the horse, the vyala might be an ashva-vyala, a lion
with a horse’s head.
Responding
Look at the statue of Malli (no.5) and the statue of Sambhava.
What are the similarities in their body shape and posture? Discuss
with a classmate.
Research an altar piece used in another religion. Summarise the
differences between your chosen altar piece and the Jain altar.
Making
Design, and then make or draw an altar piece of your own that
incorporates symbols and colours important to you. Report back to
the class on the differences between this altar and the Jain altar.
India
Altarpiece with Sambhava and twenty-four attending Jinas, caturviṃśatipaṭṭadated VS 1671 / 1614 CE, Gujarat or Rajasthan, bronze, silver, 28.0 cm (high)
Collection of Michael Abbott AO QC
3 Game of Knowledge (Gyanbaji)
Many children are familiar with the board game known in English
as Snakes and Ladders. It is a game that aims to teach about right
and wrong behaviour and attitudes. This game has been played
in India for nearly two thousand years, and was borrowed by the
British when they colonised India in the eighteenth century.
The game that the Jains play is called Gyanbaji, ‘Game of
Knowledge’. The ladders offer the step up to virtues such as faith
and knowledge, while the snakes represent the path to vices such
as greed. There are more snakes than ladders because humans are
tempted by evil. It takes more effort to be good. As in the English
game, players use dice to move along the board. The higher you
move up the board, the bigger the fall.
Like the Jain-Hindu drawings of the cosmic universe, the game is
in the shape of a body. The upper part of the body represents the
upper world of the gods. The snakes lead down to the underworld
of hell.
The numbered squares show virtues and vices such as vanity (44),
reliability (51), generosity (57), drunkenness (62), murder (73) and
pride (95). Square 100, the winning square, represents the ultimate
prize, moksha, freedom from continual birth, death and rebirth.
Gyanbaji is popular amongst Jain nuns as a tool to teach children
right from wrong. It is often played during the festival of
Paryushan, in the monsoon season when for about eight to ten
days Jains and Hindus fast and pray.
Responding
Research the festival of Paryushan and the activities that take
place.
Making
Create your own mini-board game of Gyanbaji. The theme could
be school rules and/or classroom behaviour. Use the ladders to
show good outcomes of behaviour and the snakes to show the
negative consequences of actions.
India
Game of Knowledge, Gyānbājilate 18th century, western India, ink on paper, 38.5 x 43.5 cm
Gift of Michael Abbott AO QC through the Art Gallery of South Australia Foundation 2013
4 Hanuman
The god Hanuman was born with a monkey head and tail on
a human body. He is sacred to Hindus as well as to Jains. His
supernatural powers enabled him to run as fast as the wind, change
his size so that he could lift the Himalayan Mountains, and shrink
small enough to fit through a keyhole.
He is the hero of several Hindu epics. The most famous story, the
Ramayana, describes Hanuman’s attempts to help his friend, Rama,
save his beautiful wife, Sita, from the evil demon Ravanna. The
epic highlights the monkey god’s supernatural powers and his
ability to destroy demons with his various weapons and magic
powers.
This auspicious drawing of Hanuman portrays him in n battle. He
is lifting the sacred mountain, Mount Meru (or Sumeru),
and crushing demons under his feet.
In several places on his body there is a square shaped symbol
sacred to Jains. This is the mantra (sacred message) hrim which
represents the energy of the twenty four Jinas or ‘victors’ who are
worshipped by Jains. The most widely used mantra is aum (om) which is hummed before and after prayers by Jains as well as
Hindus and Buddhists. (see Hinduism for further explanation)
Responding
Research the story of Hanuman. Describe his magical powers.
Making
Copy the Jain mantra hrim written in Jain nagari, and the mantra
aum written in Devanagari, using a chisel-edged pen or thick texta.
Follow the numbers and arrows in order. Both scripts are written
left to right.
You will need to practice several times.
Trace the outline of your hand and decorate it by writing the Jain
and Hindu manta hrim and aum that you have just perfected. Aum mantra in Devanagari
1
2
3
4
India
Auspicious drawing of Hanuman
late 18th–early 19th century, Mewar, Rajasthan, ink on paper, mounted on cloth, 62.5 x 53.0 cm
Gift of Michael Abbott AO QC through the Art Gallery of South Australia Foundation 2013
4 Hanuman
Hrim mantra in Jain nagari
3
67
1
2
4
5
5 Malli the nineteenth Jina
There are 24 Jinas or ‘Spiritual Victors’ who help Jain believers to
achieve moksha by providing examples of perfect being.
The statue Malli, the nineteenth Jina, is made of black stone.
It once sat in a Jain temple made of stark white marble. Malli
wears a cloth around his waist, indicating that he would have been
worshipped in a temple belonging to the Shvetambara sect. He
sits on a cushion in a yoga position as he meditates. His hands are
folded in a mudra for meditation, the dhyāna mūdra.
On Malli’s chest there is a diamond-shaped mark known as a
shrivatsa, one of the eight Jain signs (ashta mangala). Malli’s hair
is very tightly curled, rising to a bump on top. This bump is called
an ushnisha which shows Malli’s superior wisdom. When the statue
was carved nearly eight hundred years ago, Malli may well have
had long earlobes, a sign of his superior faith. Jain statues of Jinas
have broad shoulders, long arms and long fingertips.
RespondinG
Look closely at the decorative elements on this statue such as its
colour, the cushion Malli sits upon, and his body features. How can
we tell this is a Jain statue? What is the mood of this statue?
Making
Sketch the statue of Malli seated in the ‘lotus’ position with his
hands in the dhyāna mudra (or get a classmate to pose in the same
position). Try to capture the serenity of the pose.
India
Malli the nineteenth Jina
dated bright 10 Mārga VS 1239 / 8 November 1182 CE
Gujarat or Rajasthan
black stone, 64.0 cm (high)
Gift of Michael Abbot AO QC through the
Art Gallery of South Australia Foundation 2003
6 The universe in the shape of a person
Jains, Hindus and Buddhists have diagrams or maps that are used
as aids to meditation and to understanding the universe. The maps
do not show the geography of countries, rivers and oceans of the
human world, but the entire universe including heaven and hell.
The making of diagrams or maps to show the religious universe
(rather than the scientific universe) is known as cosmography.
The Jains divide the universe or cosmos into three parts or loka:
the heavens or upper world called Urdhvaloka; the middle world of
Madhyaloka where humans live; and the lower world of Adholoka, hell.
At the very top of the upper world live the siddhas, the souls who
have achieved moksha and who no longer pass through the cycle of
continual death and rebirth.
The middle world is the smallest. This is the world where animals
and humans live, as well as the Jinas who help Jains in their
prayers and guide them to reach moksha. All animals and humans
must go through birth and rebirth, returning in a form according to
whether they have lived their current life with good intentions or
have done bad things.
The lower world is the largest. This is hell where people who
commit evil are sent. As you go lower and lower into hell,
Adholoka, the suffering gets worse and there is ‘burning heat,
intense cold … unquenchable thirst, insatiable hunger … and
ill treatment’. (Rachel Parikh Diagrams of the Universe, Realms of Wonder: Jain, Hindu and Islamic Art of India Catalogue, Art
Gallery of South Australia, 2013, page 57)
The shape of the Jain universe (as well as the Hindu universe) is
usually a circle or mandala, but the universe can be represented in
other shapes. It might be a geometric diagram or grid in the shape
of a two-ended musical drum, or even, as in this map, the shape of
a human body.
The woman’s head, her necklace, and the top half of her dress
represent the upper world of the heavens and the home of the gods.
Inside the crescent moon shape on her forehead there are three
siddhas. Her eyes represent the home of the upper class of gods. The nine circles of the woman’s necklace represent the graiveyaka,
or nine classes of gods. (In Sanskrit, a classical language of India,
the word graiveyaka has two meanings: necklace and nine classes
of gods).
The middle world, our world, is a round disk. In Jain cosmology
the circle represents the imaginary continent of Jambudvipa, the
world of human life. At the very centre is Mount Meru which is
sacred to Jains, Buddhists and Hindus. Jains believe that Mount
Meru is really Mount Kailash in the Himalayan Mountains of
Tibet, and so they make pilgrimages there. Mount Meru is believed
to be the axis or pivot of the universe or cosmos.
The woman’s skirt represents Adholoka, hell. In the middle of the
skirt are seven panels that show people suffering in each level
of hell. The different coloured squares of the dress represent
mathematical measurements which are used to measure the time
and distance before a person can achieve moksha.
Four squares make one rajju, or ‘rope’. This is the distance covered
by a god or supernatural being flying continuously for six months
at the speed of 216.5 light years.
Responding
Research Jain and Hindu cosmology and maps of the universe.
Making
Create your own cosmic universe in the shape of a human, animal
or god.
India
The universe in the shape of a person
late 18th century, west India
ink and opaque watercolour on paper, 69.5 x 56.5 cm
Gift of Michael Abbott AO QC through the
Art Gallery of South Australia Foundation 2013
The names for both the country, India, and its main religion,
Hinduism, are very closely connected. The words, ‘India’ and
‘(H)indu’, share the same origin and derive from the classical
Greek and Persian words for the River ‘Indus’ which flows
through the northwest of India and modern-day Pakistan.
An understanding of Hinduism is closely linked to the geography
of India. In the far north, the Himalayan Mountains, the highest
mountains in the world, are believed to be the home of the
Hindu gods. The rivers Indus, Ganges and Jumna, flow from the
Himalayas down to the fertile lands where most Indians live.
Along these rivers are many religious centres where pilgrims
come to pray. The River Ganges is the most auspicious for Hindu
pilgrims who travel to wash in its sacred water at Varanasi (also
known as Benares) or are cremated on the banks of the river when
they die.
Hindus believe in many gods, not the one almighty god of
Christianity and Islam. In Hindu art, gods or deities are the
most important images. They are celebrated through sculptures,
paintings, manuscripts and ritual objects. These art or religious
works might be found inside temples, in smaller shrines or on
family altars within private homes. While there are millions of
Hindu gods or different forms of the same god, a believer in
Hinduism might pray to only one or several favourite gods.
Often the choice depends on community and family traditions.
All the gods, whatever their shape or form, support the most
important element in Hinduism: Brahman ‘the universal truth’.
Brahman has no shape and cannot be drawn. The role of the gods
is to bring Brahman, the universal truth, to believers on earth.
There are three main Hindu gods: Brahma ‘the creator’; Shiva
‘the destroyer’; and Vishnu ‘the preserver’. Each of these gods
has many forms, both human and animal. Each god or incarnation
of the god shows vertain characteristics of human behaviour: they
can be calm and harmonious, or they might be fierce and furious.
Gods can be male or female. They marry and have children who
are gods.
There are many signs that help to identify the gods and their
incarnations. They may have many arms to hold their special
sacred objects such as a lotus, conch shell or a bow and arrow.
They might have many heads, be of different colours, and may be
accompanied by special animals such as the bull, snake, or eagle.
These signs help us to distinguish one god from another. The god
Ganesha, who has many distinct attributes, is a good example
to consider.
Ganesha is the son of the god Shiva and the goddess Parvati. He
was born with a human head but the story goes that his father Shiva
accidentally cut off his head, then realising what a terrible thing he
had done, replaced it with an elephant’s head. Ganesha also has a
fat stomach and there is usually a rat near him.
Hinduism
India
Ganesa riding the rat
c.1980, India, Jaipur, Rajasthan
opaque watercolour,
ink and gold pigment on paper
27.0 x 20.0 cm
Myren-Grafton Collection
Ganesha is one of the most popular gods because he protects
against difficulties. Shopkeepers and businesspeople pray to him
to help with their business. The rat is his ‘vehicle’. It usually sits at
his feet; sometimes fat Ganesha is shown riding the rat. Ganesha is
good-humoured and looks after the rat to stop it from ruining the
harvests. He keeps people happy.
Ganesha’s attributes or signs include objects such as a lotus flower,
prayer beads, and a bowl of sweets, each held in three of his four
hands. The fourth hand makes the mudra or the gesture of blessing.
On his forehead he has a tilaka, three lines smeared with red paste,
which show he is a follower of his father, the god Shiva. A mark
in the middle of the forehead which is often seen on Hindu, Jain
and Buddhist statues is called a ‘third eye’. This is a sign of the
god’s enlightenment and special power, enabling him to see what
ordinary people cannot see.
If you look closely, there is also a crescent moon above Ganesha’s
forehead which is another sign that he is ‘Shaivite’ (associated
with the god Shiva). The moon changes shape with the passing of
time, and the god Shiva is the master of time.
For Hindus the most sacred texts are the Vedas, a word that translates into English as ‘knowledge’. The Vedas contain hymns,
chants and prayers for priests and believers. These were composed
in Sanskrit, a classical language of India, around 1200BC.
Sanskrit belongs to the Indo-European family of languages, along
with ancient Greek and Latin. It began as a spoken language only.
It can be written in several different scripts. The name of its most
common writing script is Devanagari which is used to write many
other Indian languages apart from Sanskrit (rather like the Roman
script is used to write European languages such as English, French
and Italian). In Sanskrit Deva means deity or supernatural being,
so Devanagari is the ‘writing of deities’.
Om namah Śivaya - Adoration to Śiva
The prayer to Shiva is written in Devanagari. In all Hindu prayers
the first sound is ‘om’ or ‘aum’. It is made up of three Sanskrit
syllables ‘a’ ‘u’ and ‘m’. It is a mantra (sacred message) from the
Hindu religious texts, the Vedas. Sanskrit words such as Yoga
(union with the supreme spirit) and guru (teacher or spiritual
guide), also appear in the Vedas, and have now been borrowed into
the English language.
Hinduism
7 Shaivite shrine
This large ornate shrine comes from the home of a Tamil family
who lived in Tamil Nadu in Southern India. It includes painted
figures, mirrors and coloured glass beads, and may have been
inspired by lavish Catholic Church altars made in India following
the arrival of the Portuguese in 1498. It is a private altar for
praying to the god Shiva.
The two central images show Shiva and his consort, Uma. The
upper image shows Shiva and Uma seated on a golden throne and
wearing crowns and jewels. In two of his four hands Shiva holds
a drum and a deer, the symbol of his calm character. Uma holds a
lotus, a symbol of purity. On one side of them is their son, Ganesha,
holding a mace to destroy demons, and a noose to remove
obstacles; on the other side is his younger brother, Murugan,
holding the spear of wisdom.
The lower image is of Shiva and Uma together riding Shiva’s sacred
vehicle, the bull Nandi. On either side is Lakshmi, the goddess
of good fortune (and wife of the god Vishnu), and Sarasvati, the
goddess of the arts who holds a musical instrument called a veena.
At the bottom of the shrine are four of the sixty-three saints who
are devoted to Shiva.
Responding
Identify and describe all four members of Shiva’s family. Comment
on their dress and their attributes (symbols) as well as their hand
mudras.
Making
Create your own family shrine showing family members and their
symbols of happiness. Use collage, painting or any other media.
India
Śaivite shrine
c.1920, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu
pigments, stucco, gold, glass beads and mirrors on wood
240.0 x 144.0 cm (including frame)
Gift of Barrie and Judith Heaven 2012
8 Shiva as Nataraja
The Hindu god Shiva, along with Brahma and Vishnu, is one of
the most popular and powerful gods. People who worship him are
known as Shaivites. He has many forms or incarnations. He can
be a yogi practitioner of yoga, a patron of the arts, or assume the
form of Bhairava, the wrathful destroyer of the world.
The image of Shiva as Nataraja appeared in South India, in Tamil
Nadu, during the 6th– 9th centuries. This statue dates from the
sixteenth century. In the form of Nataraja which in Sanskrit means
‘Lord of the Dance’, Shiva, the creator of the world, dances the
universe into being. The dance is known as the ‘dance of bliss’. In
Sanskrit his ‘Lord of the Dance’ pose is called Nataraja-sana by
yoga practitioners.
In one of his upper hands he holds the drum of creation and time,
and in the other, the flame or fire of destruction. Shiva’s third
hand points to his raised right foot symbolising the attainment
of Brahman, the universal truth. His fourth hand is held in the
Abhaya mudra (position of fearlessness) that protects people from
evil if they follow the right teachings. Shiva stands on the dwarf,
Muyalakan, a symbol of ignorance.
Shiva as Nataraja is surrounded by a halo or ring of fire. At the
centre and the ends of the halo are makara, sea serpents. On his
body Shiva wears jewels. Snakes, a symbol of yoga energy, are
wrapped around him. Shiva also wears peacock feathers in his
long hair, and on his forehead he has the crescent moon which can
be seen on other Hindu gods associated with him, such as his son,
Ganesha.
Notice that there are holes in the pedestal base. These show that
this bronze could be secured to a palanquin and carried during
religious processions. At such times the image would be covered
with offerings of garlands of flowers, textiles, gold and jewels.
Responding
How important is dance to the Hindu deities and Hindu
ceremonies? What other religions incorporate dance into their
ceremonies and religious imagery?
Make a short list of some yoga positions, giving their names in
both English and Sanskrit, and demonstrate them in a class yoga
session. Try to include poses from other Hindu statues.
Making
Draw Shiva as Nataraja on a palanquin. List other religions where
followers carry images of saints or gods above their heads.
India
Śiva as Natarāja (King of the Dance)
c.16th century, Tamil Nadu
bronze, 75.7 cm (high)
Gift of Diana Ramsay AO and the Art Gallery of South Australia Foundation 2001
9 Samhara Bhairava and Mahesvari
The deities associated with Hinduism can present themselves
in both peaceful and wrathful forms. Bhairava, the ‘terrible’
or ‘frightful one’ is Shiva in his destructive form. This wooden
sculpture of Samhara Bhairava and his consort Mahesvari was
created in Nepal. The inscription on the base indicates the year of
creation, 1669, and lists the names of the people who donated it to
the temple. It was common practice for Hindu devotees to donate
sacred images to temples. This helped them gain merit in their
next life.
Bhairava ‘the frightful one’ is easily recognised by his bulging
eyes, wild hair, garland of skulls, and a snake coiled loosely
around his neck. He has ten arms which hold weapons and snakes.
His ‘vehicle’ is the dog (shvan) which frequents cemeteries and
scavenges amongst the bones.
Hindu mythology explains why Bhairava’s most noticeable attribute
or sign is the skull:
One day the god Shiva argued with the five-headed god
Brahma about who created the universe. Shiva and Brahma
both claimed to be the creator. In a rage Shiva changed into
Bhairava and chopped off one of Brahma’s heads so that statues
of Brahma now show him with four heads.
The goddess sitting next to Bhairava is his consort, Mahesvari,
who also has various forms and names. In her wrathful form she is
known as Kali. As the wife of Shiva in his harmonious form and as
the mother of Ganesha, she is known as Uma or Pavarti.
Wrathful forms of the gods hold an important place in
achieving moksha, spiritual freedom. They do not harm believers.
By worshipping wrathful gods, believers hope to use their energy
and protection to meet life’s difficulties, and to improve themselves.
In the same way, believers worship the peaceful forms of the gods
to harness their inner peace and guidance.
Responding
Find other incarnations or forms of Shiva. Note whether they are
peaceful or wrathful. Compare and contrast the different forms and
list their attributes.
Find an image of Kali and describe her attributes. What makes her
recognisable?
Making
Using plasticine or clay, create a three-dimensional likeness of
either a wrathful or peaceful form of a Hindu god.
Nepal
Saṁhāra Bhairava and Maheśvarī
dated bright 15 Baiskah 789 NS / mid April-May 1669 CE, Nepal
wood with traces of paint, 86.0 x 53.0 cm
Gift of Geoffrey Hackett-Jones in memory of his brother Frank through the Art Gallery of South Australian Foundation 2004
10 Map of the pilgrimage sites of Vraj
10 Map of the pilgrimage sites of Vraj
In the Map of the pilgrimage sites of Vraj, Krishna, which means
the ‘dark one’, is depicted as a seven year old boy named Shri
Nathji. He is the large figure in the centre, standing in front of a
red doorway. The name Shri Nathji means ‘doorway or portal to the
Lord’. According to ancient texts a black stone carving of Krishna
as a boy appeared on the blue mountain, Mount Govardhan, that
can be seen to the left of the large statue.
Krishna is the eighth incarnation or avatar of Vishnu, one of the
three supreme Hindu gods. Apart from his very noticeable blue
skin, a sign of Krishna’s spiritual power as vast as the blue sky and
sea, his attributes are flowing yellow scarves, the lotus (a symbol
of beauty and detachment) and the flute. Krishna has several
forms and names including Govinda, the ‘Finder of the cows’,
and Gopala, ‘Protector of the cows’.
Pilgrims travel to Vraj in the district of Mathura in Uttar Pradesh to
pray at the sites associated with Krishna. They are required to walk
to the sites following a circular clockwise direction, just as they
would do in a Hindu temple. By visiting the sacred sites pilgrims
feel close to the god Krishna. It is thought that Shri Nathji was once
worshipped as the naga (snake) deity. In the River Yamuna there
are several naga.
This map or yantra shows more than the geography of Mathura
with the river Yamuna flowing through it. The map has magical
powers because it shows Krishna’s religious sites. Like a mandala, a sacred map of the universe, a yantra is a tool for meditation
and worship.
Responding
Look at other images of Krishna. List the attributes that
identify him.
On the painting, Map of pilgrimage sites of Vaj, locate and explain
why the cows might be praying to Krishna. Why are cows so
important in India?
Look carefully at the River Yamuna on the map. What symbols are
represented that tell us this is a sacred river?
Making
Make your own map of a journey to a place important to you.
Include details of things you see along the way.
previous page:India
Map of the pilgrimage sites of Vraj
dlate 19th-early 20th century, Rajasthan
opaque pigment, gold, silver and mica shellac paint on cotton
243.0 x 177.0 cm
Gift of Barrie and Judith Heaven 2012
Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism all began in India. Islam,
however, is an imported religion which has its origins in the
area around Mecca in modern-day Saudi Arabia. Islam, which
in Arabic means ‘submission to God’, was adopted in the tenth
century in the area in the north-west of India bordering Pakistan,
now known as Punjab. By 1200 AD, Muslim warlords, having
conquered much of northern India, founded the Delhi Sultanate
with its capital at Delhi. During the next 300 years, the Delhi
Sultanate defeated the Hindu kingdoms which stretched from
Bengal (modern day Bangladesh) to as far south as Tamil Nadu.
In 1526 the Mughals, a collection of Turko-Mongolian clans from
Central Asia, defeated the Muslims of Delhi and created an empire
that included most of India, modern-day Afghanistan, Pakistan and
Uzbekistan. Islamic art in India flowered under the Mughals from
the 16th – 18th centuries.
Mughal leaders such as Akbar the Great, who ruled from 1556-
1605, introduced Persian culture and literature into India. He built
libraries and encouraged the arts. He invited artists and writers
from all over the world to his court. Akbar the Great’s grandson,
Shah Jahan, ruled from 1628-1658. Shah Jahan was also an
enlightened ruler and is best known for building the Taj Mahal in
memory of his dead wife. He also created many beautiful gardens.
The Mughals were tolerant of other religions and they continued
to rule most of India until the early 1700s. In 1858 when Great
Britain claimed India for the British Empire, the Mughal Empire in
India came to a close.
The Qur’an is the most important religious text for Muslims,
just as the Bible is for Christians and the Vedas are for Hindus.
The Qur’an is usually written in Arabic script which is read from
right to left, the opposite way to English.
Unlike Hinduism, Islam has one God only, called Allah, and
Muhammad is the prophet who taught Muslims about Allah. Today
in some Muslim countries it is not acceptable to draw pictures of
Muhammad, but this was not the case during the Mughal Empire in
India. Many of the Islamic works of art on display in the exhibition
date from the Mughal Empire. Most Mughal portraits of people
show them side on, though several in the exhibition are facing the
viewer.
The written word is the most important element in Islamic art. The
many styles of Arabic calligraphy are usually set within beautiful
borders of floral and geometric designs. The garden is significant in
Islamic art: it symbolises ‘paradise’. Floral designs can be seen on
tiles, manuscripts, metal ware and textiles.
ISLAM
11 Surat One and Two from the Qur’an
The Qur’an is the main religious text of Islam and the sacred
word of God or Allah. God’s words were revealed to the Prophet
Muhammad (c.570 - 632) by the Angel Gabriel over a period of
twenty-three years. The Qur’an is written in Arabic and is divided
into 114 chapters or Surats. Surat One and Two from the Qur’an
are written on these two pages. They are recited in daily prayers.
Because Arabic is written right to left, the pages of the Qur’an will
be read in the reverse order to Western language books. Surat One
is on the right-hand page.
The art of illuminated manuscripts was borrowed by the Mughals
from Persia, where there was a long tradition of illumination in
miniature portraits and illustrations of poetry. The craftsmanship
evident in the calligraphy and illustration of a Qur’an represents an
act of devotion to Allah by the artisans responsible.
The hand-painted illumination or decoration on the pages of
this holy book is regarded as the highest form of art in Islam.
The pages are decorated with floral and geometric abstract designs
and patterns in lavish gold leaf to highlight the importance of the
written word. Bright colours are used. The blue pigment was made
by grinding the semi-precious stone, lapis lazuli, which may have
come from Afghanistan where there were plentiful supplies. The
shades of red were achieved by using a variety of sources including
insects, or metals such as mercury.
The written word on Islamic metal-ware, textiles and porcelains
gives importance to the object, and gives blessing to the owner or
person who uses it. Arabic calligraphy can be used for more than
the writing of words; it can also be used creatively to form images,
usually of plants and animals.
Responding
Research an Islamic work of art decorated in Arabic script (for
example metal ware, ceramics, textiles, or architectural tiles).
Share the results of your research with your class.
The first lines of the first verse of the Qur’an (Surat One) start:
‘In the name of Allah, the most Gracious, the most Merciful …
The Cherisher and Sustainer of the Worlds’
Find and write the first few lines to a Christian prayer such as
The Lord’s Prayer, or a prayer from another religion. Discuss the
purpose of prayers.
India
Sūrat One and Two from the Qur’an
c.1700, north India
ink, opaque watercolour and gold on paper,
double-page from dispersed manuscript
17.0 x 10.0 cm (each leaf)
Gift of Michael Abbott AO QC through the
Art Gallery of South Australia Foundation 2008
11 Surat One and Two from the Qur’an
MAKING
Copy the word written in Arabic for ‘paradise’, using a chisel-
ended pen or thick texta. Follow the numbers and arrows in order.
Remember the Arabic script is written from right to left. You will
need to practice several times.
Al jannah, ‘paradise’ in Arabic
Create a title page of an illuminated manuscript following
Islamic design principles. Place the Arabic calligraphy for
‘paradise’ at the centre.
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2
3
4
5
6
7
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10
12 Portrait of the Prophet Muhammad riding the BuraQ
Pictures of the Prophet Muhammad were created by Shi’a
communities in Iran and India from the 13th– 19th centuries.
One of the most celebrated Islamic stories is about Muhammad’s
miraculous night journey from Mecca to Jerusalem and back again.
In Jerusalem he entered the al-Aqsa Mosque to pray. The archangel
Jibril (Gabriel) appeared to him and escorted Muhammad up to the
heavens where Allah gave him instructions on how Muslims
should worship, including the command for prayers to occur five
times a day.
This journey is shown in Portrait of the Prophet Muhammad riding the Buraq. The bearded Jibril is above Muhammad, and Hindu-
style angels carry garlands and a bowl of fruit. This painting
depicts the prophet’s face, which is usually covered over in
paintings created in Iran.
In Mughal Indian art, the Buraq is shown to be a composite
creature with the jewelled body of a black winged horse with a tail
of peacock feathers, and, as in this image, the head of an Indian
woman. In most Islamic texts the Buraq is described as a white
mule or donkey that could fly. The depiction of the animal has been
adapted to reflect the Mughal Indian context.
Responding
As he rides the Buraq, what book is Muhammad most likely
reading?
Consider the composite creatures and gods already described in
this resource (e.g. Hanuman, Ganesh, Vyala). Find and describe a
composite creature from another culture.
Making
Create a composite creature by means of collage.
India
Portrait of the Prophet Muhammad riding the Burāq
1820–30, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh or Delhi
opaque watercolour and gold on paper
17.7 x 10.9 x 6.6 cm
Gift of Barrie and Judith Heaven 2009
13 Prayer Mat
Islam means ‘submission to God’. As an Islamic duty and
expression of faith, Muslims must pray in the direction of Mecca
five times daily. Prayer involves kneeling and touching one’s head
to the ground as a sign of submission to Allah. The mat might be
used in a private home, or often devotees take their own prayer
mats to the mosque. During prayer the mat is a sacred space. The
designs on it imitate Islamic mosque architecture.
The arched gateway leads into heavenly paradise. Worshippers
kneel on the red middle section looking into the garden paradise
full of carnations and roses. On top of the gate are many
ornamental tips in the shape of an alam or banner carried in
Islamic processions. In the middle of the gate is Arabic writing:
‘All glory and praises are for Allah’. Around the edges of the prayer
mat are cypress trees. This mat is made of hand-painted and block-
printed Indian cotton.
Responding
Research the design of an Islamic garden and its sacred space.
Making
Design a rug or mat for your home. Use Islamic inspired patterns.
India
Prayer mat
mid-19th century, Machilipatnam, Andhra Pradesh
block-printed and hand-painted mordant dyes on cotton, quilting
112.0 x 69.0 cm
Collection of Barrie and Judith Heaven
14 Celestial Globe
Astronomy and astrology have been important sciences in Islam
since early times. Like Greek and Roman astronomers, Muslim
astronomers thought of the heavens as a revolving hollow sphere
that enclosed the earth.
The study of the stars and horoscopes was particularly important in
Islam because it was believed they could reveal a person’s destiny.
Celestial globe shows many familiar zodiac signs, such as Aries the
Ram (al-Hamal), Gemini the Twins (al-Jawza) and Leo the Lion
(al-Asad).
The significance of the heavens and stars is mentioned in the
Qur’an. At the Mughal court in India, astrology determined many
aspects of life including seating plans at court banquets, and the
placement of palace carpets.
Celestial globe was created in the nineteenth century in India as a
decorative object rather than for scientific use. It is cast in silver,
with no join marks, and uses technology which had been perfected
in Pakistan in the mid-sixteenth century. The information contained
on it was based on old texts from the tenth century, as well as
European maps of the stars or constellations.
Responding
Research the technology of casting metal and try to explain how
this globe was made.
What are the differences between astronomy and astrology?
List the zodiac signs that we use. Are they different from the
Arabic zodiac signs on the globe? Find out about your zodiac star
sign and find the constellation it belongs to.
Making
Make a graph plotting the zodiac signs represented in your class.
India
Celestial globe
19th century, India
silver, 15.5 cm (diameter)
Gift of Barrie and Judith Heaven 2007
15 Hand of Fatima
This is an alam like those that decorate the top of the gate on the
prayer mat, but this one is in the shape of a hand. An alam was
carried on a pole in Islamic processions. The Hand of Fatima alam is auspicious and is widely recognised as a protector against evil.
Muslims believe that the five fingers also represent the five
pillars of Islam: Shahadah (belief); Salat (worship); fasting during
Ramadan; Zakat (alms or charitable giving); and the Hajj or
piligrimage to Mecca. These five pillars are essential to Muslim
life.
Fatima (c. 605/615–633) was the Prophet Muhammad’s daughter
who supported her father and her husband Ali (601/607–661) in
championing Islam. In nineteenth century India, as elsewhere
in the Muslim world, women regarded Fatima as an example of
female excellence.
The religious standard or alam was made to be carried during
elaborate festivals celebrating the martyrdom of Fatima’s son
Husain. The ornamentation on the Hand of Fatima includes verses
from the Qur’an. They are written in the very ornate thuluth calligraphic style. Thuluth is a cursive script often seen on mosques
or on plaques on public buildings in Islamic countries.
On the palm of the hand in the rectangular box (beneath the middle
three fingers) is a basmala, which like the Hindu and Jain ‘aum’
is said at the beginning of prayer. The basmala is repeated many
times during the day:
‘In the name of Allah,
the Most Gracious,
the Most Merciful …’
Responding
Find out more about Fatima, and the martyrdom of
her son, Husain.
Making
Create an alam with symbols of goodwill. Cut the shape of a large
hand from thick cardboard. Attach a stick using masking tape to
the base of the hand. Design your alam symbols by gluing string
and smaller pieces of card to the hand, creating raised surfaces.
Cover the hand with silver aluminium foil. Press carefully with
your fingers to mould the foil over the surface to highlight your
alam’s three-dimensional qualities. Place your alam on display.
India
Religious standard, ‘alam’, Hand of Fatima
19th century, Awadh region, Uttar Pradesh, gilt silver, 63.0 x 33.0 cm
Gift of Geoffrey Hackett-Jones in memory of his brother Frank through the Art Gallery of South Australia Foundation 2007
16 Architectural panel with flowers
The Qur’an (XVI: 31) describes paradise as ‘perpetual gardens
graced with flowing streams’. Beautiful flowers, lush plants and
shady trees, promise everlasting bliss.
The white marble Architectural panel with flowers suggests an
Islamic garden, with plants and flowers inlaid with stones. The
garden design is symmetrical and uses geometrical and floral
borders. This panel is similar to the decorations and gardens of the
famous Taj Mahal which took twenty years to build (1632- 1653).
The Taj Mahal, a beautiful example of Mughal Islamic
architecture, is a white marble mausoleum built in Agra in Uttar
Pradesh by Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz
Mahal. Its elegant design was borrowed from Persia.
Responding
Research the history and architecture of the Taj Mahal, and sketch
an outline of its shape showing its Islamic architectural features.
Making
Create a stencil of a symmetrical design using Australian plants as
inspiration and use it to make a decorative class frieze.
India
Architectural panel with flowers
17th century, Agra, Uttar Pradesh
marble inlaid with coloured marble, agate, chalcedony
77.0 x 124.0 cm
Collection of Barrie and Judith Heaven
GLOSSARY Ahimsa (Sanskrit) ‘do no harm’, non-violence observed by Jains
Alam (Arabic) flag, sign or banner
Ashta mangala (Sanskrit) ‘Eight auspicious signs’ of Hinduism
and Jainism
Attributes (English) symbols or signs that identify a Hindu god or
Jain Jina
Auspicious (English) good omen, lucky sign
Avatar (Sanskrit) incarnation of the god Vishnu in human or
animal form
Brahman (Sanskrit) ‘to grow’ or ‘causes to grow’; for Hindus it is
the ultimate truth and has no visible shape (not to be confused with
Brahma, the god of creation, or Brahmin, the Hindu upper caste)
Caste system (English) the division of Indian society into
hereditary classes or groups with Brahmin priests at the top and
pariahs or untouchables at the bottom; made illegal in India in
1950
Consort (English) the husband, wife, partner or companion of a
ruler or god
Cosmography (English) mapping of the entire ‘cosmos’ or
universe. For Jains and Hindus it includes maps of the heavens and
stages of hell.
Deity (English) a god, goddess or divine being
Deva (Sanskrit) Hindu deity or supernatural being; female form is
Devi
Digambara (Sanskrit) ‘sky-clad’, one of two main sects or divisions
of Jainism whose monks reject clothing and personal property.
Monks are male only.
Incarnation (English) a god taking another human or animal form
Jina (Sanskrit) ‘victor or conqueror’, spiritual leader or teacher
who has achieved moksha - release from karma
Kalasha (Sanskrit) ‘pot’ or ‘pitcher’; auspicious to Hindus and
Jains. As a Jain ashtamangala the kalasha is usually shown with
two eyes above it representing right faith and right knowledge. It is
often carried on the head.
Karma (Sanskrit) ‘action, effect, fate’; in Hinduism and Jainism it
is the cycle of cause and effect of a person’s actions that determines
the form of the next life.
Loka (Sanskrit) ‘vast space’ or ‘world’; the word for the Jain
universe consisting of our world as well as heaven and earth
Mantra (Sanskrit) sacred sound, syllable or phrase like aum (om),
or hrim recited during worship
Moksha (Sanskrit) spiritual freedom from the cycle of continual
birth, death and rebirth
Mudra (Sanskrit) symbolic hand gestures to indicate a mood or
action
Muslim (Arabic) ‘one who submits to God’, whose religion is
Islam and whose God is called Allah
Palanquin (Sanskrit) ‘bed or couch’ on poles carried by four
people
Paryushan (Sanskrit) ‘coming together’, time of fasting followed
by festival for Jains
Qur’an (Koran) (Arabic) Islamic holy text
Sanskrit ‘refined speech’; the spoken classical language of India
and the language of Hindu, Buddhist and Jain terminology
Shaivite (Sanskrit) ‘belonging to Shiva’; follower of Shiva or a god
or ‘incarnation’ associated with Shiva
Shvetambara (Sanskrit) ‘white-clad’, one of two main sects or
divisions of Jainism whose monks wear white clothes; both men
and women may take monastic vows
Siddha (Tamil) Jain liberated soul who has achieved spiritual
enlightenment and has broken the cycle of karma
Sultanate (Arabic) ‘strength, authority’; country ruled by a Sultan,
a Muslim ruler
Swastika (Sanskrit) ‘it is good’; cross with four right-facing
arms bent at 90 degrees, auspicious symbol to Jains, Hindus and
Buddhists
Vyala (Sanskrit) also known as yali; a lion-like guardian animal
that first appeared in North Indian monuments in the fourth
century and may have been borrowed from Persia
Wrathful (English) angry, destructive
Yakshini (Sanskrit) female mythical beings, guardian deities;
every Jina is accompanied by Yakshini or Yaksha (male spirits)
CONTRIBUTORS
Principal writer:Dr Jennifer Harris - Art Gallery Guide and independent scholar
Research, writing and editing assistance:Art Gallery Guides - Gai Dudley, Anne Keast, Brian Knott, Lucy Macdonald and Ann Noble
Assistant Curator, Asian Art - Russell Kelty
DECD Education Manager - Mark Fischer
Graphic designTom Gordon
Information for this education resource has been adapted from the accompanying Realms of Wonder: Jain, Hindu and Islamic Art of India
exhibition publication with the support of James Bennett, Curator of Asian Art, Art Gallery of South Australia.
Curriculum-focused learning programs for early years to senior students and teachers are created and managed by DECD Education Manager,
Mark Fischer, a specialist teacher based at the Art Gallery of South Australia.
Education resource