(Matric, F.A & B.A)

Allama Iqbal Open University

By

Muhammad Ramzan M.A History, M.A Political Science & M.A Library Science

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Table of Contents

Tags Question ............................................................................... 4

Wh- Question ................................................................................. 8

Accepting and Declining ............................................................. 11

Making, Accepting, and Declining an Invitation ........................ 13

Likes and Dislikes ....................................................................... 17

Agreeing and Disagreeing .......................................................... 18

Extroverts and Introverts. ........................................................... 20

Verb .............................................................................................. 21

Adverb .......................................................................................... 21

Preposition ................................................................................... 21

Conjunction ................................................................................. 22

Interjection ................................................................................... 22

Negative and Interrogative Sentences ....................................... 22

Active and Passive Voice ............................................................ 27

Possibility and Impossibility ...................................................... 29

Facts and Opinions ..................................................................... 32

Asking For and Giving Permission ............................................ 33

Asking and giving advice and suggestions .............................. 34

Reported Speech (Indirect Speech) ........................................... 34

Expressing Preference & Intention ............................................ 39

Introducing yourself and other people ...................................... 39

Greeting ....................................................................................... 40

Making an Appointment .............................................................. 41

Preferences .................................................................................. 42

Making Invitations ....................................................................... 43

Making and Responding To Suggestions .................................. 44

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Talking about Cause and Effect ................................................. 46

Writing a Cause and Effect Paragraph ............................. 47 Punctuation .................................................................................. 48

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Tags Question

Definition A tag question is a grammatical structure. It refers to a declarative statement or an imperative that are modified to become a question by adding an interrogative fragment. Use Tag questions:

can be considered as an indicator of politeness, emphasis, or irony;

they may suggest confidence or lack of confidence; they may be confrontational or tentative; in legal settings, tag questions can be found in leading

question. Form Tag questions vary according to different factors such as the choice of auxiliary, the negation. The structure is generally as follows:

Affirmative statement Negative Tag

he likes him doesn't he?

Negative statement Affirmative Tag

she doesn't care about him does she?

Examples Statements

Affirmative statement Negative tag

He is excellent at languages, isn't he?

You were late, weren't you?

They are working on a new project, aren't they?

She writes good peoms, doesn't she?

We have worked hard to earn this money, haven't we?

He called her, didn't he?

You should see a doctor, shouldn't you?

He can drive, can't he?

You will help us, won't you?

Negative statement Affirmative tag

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He isn't an athlete, is he?

They weren't early, were they?

You aren't writing a new book, are you?

She doesn't work in a hospital, does she?

He hasn't found the solution, has he?

You didn't visit the museum, did you?

We shouldn't sleep late, should we?

You won't tell her, will you?

Imperatives

Imperative Tag

keep quiet, won't you ? will you? would you? could you?

Functions and examples 1. We use tag questions to confirm information.

This meal is horrible, isn't it? That film was fantastic, wasn't it? 2. We use tag questions when we are already sure of the answer and just want confirmation (falling intonation with the tag question). 3. We use tag questions to check information. You haven't got a piece of paper, have you? You don't know where the boss is, do you? The meeting's tomorrow at 9am, isn't it? 4. If we do not know the answer, these are real questions, and we use a rising intonation with the tag question. Important points

1. In the present tense, if the subject is 'I', the auxiliary changes to 'are' or 'aren't'. I'm sitting next to you, aren't I?

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2. With 'let's', the tag question is 'shall we'. Let's go to the beach, shall we? 3. With an imperative, the tag question is 'will you'. Close the window, will you? 4. We use a positive tag question after a sentence containing a negative word such as never, hardly, nobody. Nobody lives in this house, do they? You've never liked me, have you? 5. When the subject is nothing, we use 'it' in the tag question. Nothing bad happened, did it? 6. When the subject is nobody, somebody, everybody, no one, someone, or everyone, we use 'they' in the tag question. Nobody asked for me, did they? 7. If the main verb in the sentence is 'have' (not an auxiliary verb), it is more common to use 'do' in the question tag. You have a Ferrari, don't you? 8. With used to, we use 'didn't' in the tag question. You used to work here, didn't you? 9. We can use positive question tags after positive sentences to express a reaction such as surprise or interest. You're moving to Brazil, are you? Degrees of Adjectives

Adjectives can express degrees of modification: Gladys is a rich woman, but Josie is richer than Gladys, and

Sadie is the richest woman in town.

The degrees of comparison are known as the positive, the

comparative, and the superlative. (Actually, only the comparative

and superlative show degrees.) We use the comparative for

comparing two things and the superlative for comparing three or

more things. Notice that the word than frequently accompanies the

comparative and the word the precedes the superlative. The inflected

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suffixes -er and -est suffice to form most comparatives and

superlatives, although we need -ier and -iest when a two-syllable

adjective ends in y (happier and happiest); otherwise we use more

and most when an adjective has more than one syllable

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

rich richer richest

lovely lovelier loveliest

beautiful

more beautiful

most beautiful

Certain adjectives have irregular forms in the comparative and

superlative degrees:

Irregular Comparative and Superlative Forms

good better best

bad worse worst

little less least

much many some

more most

far further furthest

Be careful not to form comparatives or superlatives of adjectives

which already express an extreme of comparison — unique, for instance —

although it probably is possible to form comparative forms of most

adjectives: something can be more perfect, and someone can have a fuller

figure. People who argue that one woman cannot be more pregnant than

another have never been nine-months pregnant with twins.

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Wh- Question

Types of questions There are two types of questions: Yes or no questions Wh questions

Question words Question words are also called wh questions because they include the

letters 'W' and 'H'.

Question words

Meaning Examples

who person Who's that? That's Nancy.

where place Where do you live? In Boston

why reason Why do you sleep early? Because

I've got to get up early

when time When do you go to work? At 7:00

how manner How do you go? By car

what object, idea or

action What do you do? I am an engineer

which choice Which one do you prefer? The red

one.

whose possession Whose is this book? It's Alan's.

whom object of the verb Whom did you meet? I met the

manager.

what kind description What kind of music do you like? I

like quiet songs

what time time What time did you come home?

how many quantity

(countable) How many students are there?

There are twenty.

how much

amount, price (uncountable)

How much time have we got? Ten minutes

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how long duration, length How long did you stay in that

hotel? For two weeks.

how often frequency How often do you go to the gym?

Twice a week.

how far distance How far is your school? It's one

mile far.

how old age How old are you? I'm 16.

how come reason How come I didn't see at the

party?

Asking questions 1.If you ask about the subject of the sentence, simply add the question

word at the beginning: Example:

James writes good poems. — Who writes good pems? 2.If you ask about the predicate of the sentence (the part of a sentence

which contains the verb and gives information about the subject), there are three options:

If there is a helping (auxilary) verb that precedes the main verb ( foe example, can, is, are, was, were, will, would...), add the question word and invert the subject and the helping (auxilary) verb. Examples: He can speak Chinese. — What can he speak? They are leaving tonight. — When are they leaving?

If you ask about the predicate and there is no helping (auxilary) verb and the verb is "to be", simply add the question verb and invert the subject and the verb. Example: The play was interesting. — How was the play?

If there is no helping (auxilary) verb in the the predicate and the main verb is not "to be", add the auxilary "do" in the appropriate form. Examples: They go to the movies every Saturday. — Where do they go to the movies? He wakes up early. — When does he wake up? They sent a letter. — What did they send?

Look at some examples Look at these five wh- questions. What information is being sought?

How are the questions formed--and how are they alike or different from

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each other in their formation? Analyze each for subject and predicate.

Example Wh- Questions 1. Who plans to take SLA this summer?

2. What causes students to select particular majors? 3. Who will John ask for information about summer courses? 4. When can we register for graduation? 5. Where do we go to register for graduation?

Examples

#1. Whose car is blocking the entrance to the store? #2a. Which textbook was used in SLA last summer? #2b. Which textbook did the teacher use in SLA last summer? #3. How carefully have you considered your future career? #4. To whom did you send your job application? #5. What did you do last summer?

'Where do you learn English?' In English there are seven ‗Wh…‘ questions. Here‘s what they are and

how they are used: What is used for a thing. ‘What is it?’ Who is used for a person. Whose has the same meaning but it is always

followed by a noun. ‘Who were you talking to?’ ‘Whose car is that?’ Why is used for a reason. ‘Why were you late?’ When is used for a time or date ‘When did you start working here?’ Which is used for a choice. ‘Which do you prefer, tea or coffee?’ Where is used for a place. ‘Where do you live?’ How is used for an amount or the way. ‘How much does it cost?’ ‘How do I get to the station?’

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Make WH questions of the following sentences using the WH words given

in the brackets.

i. I‘m Zain Ali. (Who) ii. I‘m twenty four years old. (How) iii.I work in railway department. (Where) iv.I work because I want to pay my University fees. (Why) v. My job is to make bills. (What)

i. Who are you? ii. How old are you? iii. Where do you work? iv. Why do you work? v. What is your job responsibility?

Write a paragraph describing your daily routine. I get up early in the morning and offer Fajar Prayer. I go for a morning

walk in the park. After walk I come back home and take bath. I take breakfast and prepare my bag leave for school. I come back from school about at 2 o clock. I do my lunch and offer Zuhar Prayer. After prayer I take rest and then do my home work. At evening time I go to play cricket with my friends. I come back from ground about at 7 o clock. After a while a do my dinner and lean my lesson. Sometime I do watch drama and then go to bed. Accepting and Declining

Whenever we are invited by someone we either accept the invitation or Refuse (decline). If we do not accept then we politely need to give the reason. The general expressions used for accepting an invitation offer are: Thank you for the offer. Yes, I would love to Yes, that‘s very kind of you I would very much like to I would be delighted to I won‘t say no Thanks a lot I‘d love to That‘s great Sure why not

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If we cannot accept the invitation we do not say a plain ―no‖ because it is considered rude and the person who has invited us may not like it. We may, therefore, use the following expressions for declining or refusing and invitation by giving a reason: Thank you for the offer but I can‘t accept it because I‘ve another

better offer I am afraid I can‘t as I‘ve another engagement I am sorry I can‘t make it at that time as I will be at office Thanks a lot for inviting but I‘ll not be able to come as I‘ve flu I would love to but I‘ve to pick my children from school That‘s very kind of you but I can‘t come as I won‘t be here on that day

Accepting and refusing politely may depend on what you are asked. For

example

Would you like some cake?

Yes, please.

Sure. Thanks

Okay. Thank you

No, thank you

I'd better not.

No, but thanks for offering.

Would you like to go see a movie?

Okay. Sounds good.

Sure. I'd love to.

Yeah. Good idea

No, I'd rather not.

I'm sorry, but I can't.

No, but thanks for inviting me.

How about some more pie?

All right. Thanks

Looks good. Thanks

Don't mind if I do.

No, thanks.

I'm really full. Thanks anyway.

Looks delicious, but I'll have to pass.

How about going skiing this weekend?

Great. What time? Sorry. I'm busy this weekend.

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Sounds like fun.

All right. When and where?

I don't think I can.

How about some other time?

Example: Your friend invites you for a riding. I would love to, but I am busy these days.

a) Your friends invite you for a lunch. Ans: Thank you for the offer, but I have to prepare for my test.

b) Your brother wants you to join him for a talk show. Ans: Why not I will surely join the talk show.

c) Your family is going to Lahore for a day. They want you to go with them.

Ans: Thanks a lot, but you know I am busy in my exam. d) Your friend invites you on his birthday.

Ans: I am sorry; I have to go with my family on a weeding ceremony. e) There is a very good movie being shown in the cinema, your sister asks

you to accompany her. Ans: I‘d very much like to watch that movie. i. Can we have a dinner together? Ans: I would love to, but I am busy these days ii. How about visiting the zoo? Ans: I am crazy to visit zoo. iii. Let‘s have some drinks? Ans: I always keen to drink. iv. Would you come to my house for the dinner? Ans: Thank you for the offer, but I have to prepare for my test. v. Shall we play cricket? Ans: No I don‘t like play cricket Making, Accepting, and Declining an Invitation

Do you know how to invite someone to your house for dinner or party? Or, do you know what to say in English when someone invites you? Here are some common expressions you can use.

Inviting Someone to Come to Your House for Dinner (Informal) Wanna come over for dinner tonight? (Wanna = want to) Wanna pop over for a quick dinner? How about coming over for dinner tonight? Care to come over for dinner tonight? Inviting Someone to Come to Your House for Dinner (More

formal)

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Would you like to come over for dinner tonight? Would you care to join us for dinner at our house tonight? I was just wondering if you would like to come over for dinner tonight. Please come over for dinner tonight. We'd be delighted to have you over for dinner tonight. Accepting an Invitation (Informal) Sure. What time? Why not? When do you want me to be there? Sure. When should I be there? Yes! Want me to bring something? I'd love to. I'll bring dessert. Accepting an Invitation (More formal) Thank you! I'd love to. Would you like me to bring anything? Thank you very much! I'd be delighted to. What time should I be

there? Oh, certainly! Thank you. Do I need to bring anything? Declining an Invitation (Informal) I can't. I have to work. Tonight's no good. I have an appointment. I'm busy tonight. Can I take a raincheck on that? (*raincheck: if someone invites you to dinner on a night that you are

busy, you can say, "Can I take a raincheck?" This means that you hope they will invite you again on another night.)

Declining an Invitation (More formal) I'd love to, but I'm afraid I'm busy tonight. I'd love to, but I already have plans tonight. Examples:

Dialog 1: (between 2 co-workers) Ann: Bob and I are having a little get-together at our place tonight .

Wanna pop over after work? Jim: Sure, why not? What time do you want me to be there? Ann: Around 6. Jim: OK. Want me to bring something? Ann: No. Just bring yourself.

Dialog 2: (between 2 friends) Sam: Wanna come over for a quick meal tonight? Tom: Tonight's no good. I have a date. Can I take a raincheck?

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Sam: OK. No problem. Enjoy your evening! Tom: You too.

Dialog 3: (a parent is making an invitation to her son's teacher) Jan: Mr. Brown, my husband and I were just wondering if you

would like to come over for dinner this evening. Brown: Oh, thank you! I'd be delighted to. Jan: Great! Could you come over at around 6? Brown: Sure. Do I need to bring anything? Jan: No, but thanks for asking. Brown: OK. See you this evening then.

Dialog 4: (a parent is making an invitation to her son's teacher) Jan: Mr. Brown, my husband and I were just wondering if you

would like to come over for dinner this evening. Brown: Well, I'd love to, but I have another appointment tonight. Jan: Oh, that's too bad. Well, maybe next time then. Brown: Yeah! Thank you for asking. Enjoy your evening!

1. Which of the following answer is NOT appropriate? A: Wanna come over for dinner tonight? B: ____

A. ? Sure. What time? B. ? Why not? When should I be there? C. ? Why?

2. Which of the following answer is NOT appropriate? A: Want to come over for a quick meal tonight? B: _____

A. ? No. B. ? I'd love to, but I have an appointment. C. ? I'm busy tonight. Can I take a raincheck?

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3. Which of the following answer is NOT appropriate? A: My husband and I were wondering if you'd like to come over for dinner this Saturday. B: _____

A. ? Thank you very much! I'd be delighted to. B. ? I'd love to, but I'm afraid I'm busy this Saturday. C. ? I don't go out on Saturdays.

4. Which of the following answer is NOT appropriate? A: Would you care to join us for dinner tonight? B: _____

A. ? Yes, I would. B. ? Thank you. I'd love to. C. ? I'm sorry but I already have plans tonight.

5. Which of the following answer is NOT appropriate? A: Tonight is no good. Can I take a raincheck? B: _____

A. ? OK. No problem. B. ? Sure. Let's do it some other time. C. ? No, you can't.

6. Which of the following answer is NOT appropriate? A: Do you want me to bring something? B: _____

A. ? No, just bring yourself. B. ? Why? You don't like my cooking? C. ? OK, bring some dessert if you want

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Likes and Dislikes

Expressing likes and dislikes

To talk about your likes and dislikes, you can use these expressions.

Expressing likes:

I like…

I love...

I adore…

I ‗m crazy about…

I‘m mad about…

I enjoy…

I‘m keen on…

Expressing dislikes:

I don‘t like…

I dislike...

I hate…

I abhor…

I can‘t bear...

I can‘t stand…

I detest...

I loathe...

Examples of likes and dislikes :

I'm mad about basketball, but I can’t bear ice hockey.

I adore reading poetry, but I loathe doing the housework.

If you neither like nor dislike something:

"I don't mind doing the housework."

Things to remember about likes and dislikes:

1. When these expressions are followed by a verb, the latter is put in the -

ing form.

Examples:

"I like listening to music."

"I hate wearing sunglasses."

I like VERB+ING

I detest

I don't mind

2. Note that" very much" & " a lot" always come after the things you like.

Examples:

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"I like basketball very much/a lot. NOT" I like very much/a lot basketball."

3. Be careful when you use "I don't mind..."

Examples:

"Do you mind playing football?"

"No, I don't mind."(Although it's in a negative form, it means that it's ok for

me. I neither love it nor hate it.)

Dialogue:

Steve is at home. His girlfriend comes in...Notice how they express

their likes and dislikes

Steve: Hello, darling. Do you fancy watching a film tonight?

Girlfriend: Oh, no thanks, I don't really feel like watching a film

tonight. How about going out instead.

Steve: OK. Do you feel like going to the theatre?

Girlfriend: Oh, no. I hate it. Do you like eating at the new

Chinese restaurant?

Steve: I don't mind. The Chinese cuisine is alright.

Girlfriend: Well I really love it. Let's go.

Example: I love watching television.

Ans: Likes 1. I adore reading books 2. I enjoy singing a song. 3. I like cleaning the house. 4. I love playing cricket. 5. I adore attending tutorial class. 6. I adore going to hills for a climb. Dislikes 1. I hate wating for a bus. 2. I don‘t like cooking meal. 3. I don‘t like those who don‘t offer prayer regularly. 4. I especially dislike to sweep the house. 5. I don‘t like to be conscious about status. 6. I don‘t enjoy meaningless gossip.

Agreeing and Disagreeing

Whenever we have a conversation or discussion, we either agree or disagree with the ideas, opinions or arguments of the person or people we are talking to. Some of the ways of agreeing and disagreeing in English.

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Agreeing I think you‘re right. I agree with you.

Strong agreement I couldn‘t agree with you more. You‘re absolutely right. I agree entirely. I totally agree.

Agreeing in part I agree with you up to a point, but…………… That‘s quite true, but………………. I agree with you in principle, but…………..

Disagreeing I‘m not sure I agree with you. I‘m afraid I don‘t agree. I‘m afraid I disagree. I don‘t share your opinion.

Disagreeing strongly I don‘t agree at all. I totally disagree.

Agreement, partial agreement and disagreement

The way people agree or disagree in an argument or discussion

varies in different languages.

Agreement:

It is worthwhile saying that silence is not understood as agreement. If

you agree with an opinion or an idea, you are expected to say so.

Expressions

There is no doubt about it that...

I completely / absolutely agree with you.

I agree with you entirely.

I totally agree with you.

I simply must agree with that.

I am of the same opinion.

I am of the same opinion.

That‘s exactly what I think.

Disagreement:

Expressing disagreement is always respected as honest, and

sometimes as courageous.

Expressions

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I don't agree with you.

I‘m sorry, but I disagree.

I'm afraid, I can't agree with you.

The problem is that...

I (very much) doubt whether...

This is in complete contradiction to...

With all due respect,…

I am of a different opinion because ...

I cannot share this / that / the view.

I cannot agree with this idea.

What I object to is...

I have my own thoughts about that.

Partial agreement:

You can also agree but with reservation especially when there is a

doubt or feeling of not being able to accept something completely

Expressions

It is only partly true that...

That‘s true, but…

I can agree with that only with reservations.

That seems obvious, but...

That is not necessarily so.

It is not as simple as it seems.

I agree with you in principle, but…

I agree with you in part, but…

Well, you could be right. Extroverts and Introverts.

Extroverts are those people who are social by nature, like to make friends, love to socialize and arrange parties and other fun activities. They are‖doers‖ and like to keep themselves busy. Introverts, on the other hand are quieter, less social, keep their feelings, thoughts and ideas to themselves and take very little interest in social gatherings and functions. In fact, most of them are ―thinkers‖.

Extroverts Introverts Like to have a lot of friends Like to be on their own, enjoy

ones own company Found of partying Dislike socializing and

partying Love sharing things and Hate disclosing personal

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personal details details Love crowds Avoid large gatherings and

crowds Interested about people and

social news Prefer to be reserved and

observant Good conversationalists Love to sit at home and enjoy

doing personal things such as listening to classical music and reading.

Love outdoor activities as sports, picnics, trips, etc

Enjoy a working environment that is quieter and private

Prefer jobs that involve public dealing

Don‘t like to be noticed

Verb

A verb is a word like ask, make, wait, go and work. Most verbs refer to

actions or states.

I want to go.

She made a cake.

He works in a factory.

I asked him a question.

She wrote a letter.

Adverb

An adverb is a word used to add something to the meaning of a verb.

Examples are: carefully, well, quickly, now, then, today etc.

She can speak English well.

He finished his meal quickly.

He worked hard.

I want to go now.

Preposition

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A preposition is a word used with a noun or a pronoun to show how the

person or thing denoted by the noun or pronoun stands in relation to some

other word in the sentence. Examples are: in, out, of, to, for, under, above,

from, between etc.

He sat under the tree.

The lion is in the cage.

He sat on the table.

Conjunction

A conjunction is a word used to join words or sentences. Examples are:

and, but, or, because, since, as, though etc.

James and Alice are cousins.

He is very hardworking but his brother is lazy.

You can have tea or coffee.

Interjection

An interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feeling.

Examples are: alas, hurrah etc.

Alas! We have lost the match.

Hurrah! We have won the match.

Negative and Interrogative Sentences

Transform the following sentences into the negative and the interrogative. 1 Example: (See unit 22.) I can dance. I can’t dance/I cannot dance. Can I dance? a She can swim. b They can help you. c We can ride a horse. d He can drive a lorry.

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e It can fly. 2 Example: (I am; he, she, it is; we, you, they are; see unit 6, part 1, section 1.) He’s happy/He is happy. He isn’t happy/He is not happy. Is he happy? a It‘s snowing. b They‘re working. c It‘s spitting with rain. d She‘s worried. e You‘re watching television. 3 Example: (he, she, it has; other persons, have; see unit 6, part 4, section 1.) It’s got five doors/It has got five doors. It hasn’t got five doors/It has not got five doors. Has it got five doors? a I‘ve got a farm. b He‘s got a lot of friends. c They‘ve got my help. d It‘s got three eyes. e We‘ve got everything. 4 Example: (all the persons, but he, she, it; see unit 7, part 1.) I hate running. I don’t hate running/I do not hate running. Do I hate running? a His sisters dust every single day. b My friends wish to go abroad. c I live in London. d They like singing. e We need more dancers.

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5 Example: (third person singular: he, she, it; see unit 7, part 1.) He works hard. He doesn’t work (infinitive) hard/He does not work hard. Does he work (infinitive) hard? a She pays them a short visit from time to time. (infinitive: pay) b He looks like his father. (infinitive: look) c It dries soon. (infinitive: dry) d It flies. (infinitive: fly) e She washes down the kitchen walls once a month. (infinitive: wash) 6 Revision exercise. a It takes time. b He‘s got three parrots. c My car is being repaired. d You can mend my watch. e She loves talking to friends. f It worries him. g There‘s a man in the street. h They‘ve got all she wishes. i They look tired. j There are two old ladies at the door. k We need a teacher. l She can speak five languages. m I work in Bristol. n You can play tennis. o They swim very well. p She buys everything. q He always pays everything for her. r They want to stay at home. s Margaret is very fond of classical music. t There is a lot of bread. u They keep on talking all the time. v I can speak and write German.

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w They‘ve got a bad reputation. x She plays chess every week. y We hate drinking whisky. z She feels very lonely. 7 Example: (irregular verbs; see the list provided in unit 8, and unit 7, part 3.) I had to do it. (infinitive: have; simple past: had) I didn’t have (infinitive) to do it/I did not have to do it. Did I have (infinitive) to do it? a Mary went to the ball. b They made coffee. c I saw you yesterday. d My computer broke down. e They overslept yesterday morning. 8 Example: (regular verbs; see unit unit 7, part 3.) It killed (simple past) the fly. It didn’t kill (infinitive) the fly/It did not kill the fly. Did it kill (infinitive) the fly? a John and Margaret enjoyed Tom‘s speeches. b It rained cats and dogs yesterday. c They opened the window. d She passed her examinations. e He used to knock his children about. 9 Example: (I, he, she, it was; you, we, they were; see unit 6, part 1, section 2.) I was exhausted. I wasn’t exhausted/I was not exhausted. Was I exhausted? a There were two rivers.

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b There was a cup of tea on the table. c He was my best friend. d They were dancing when I saw them. e You were very cruel to animals. 10 Revision exercise. a Tim broke the window. b Jane listens to music every evening. c It‘s bucketing down. d We can park here. e She‘s got a black eye. f He denies it. g They got married last year. h They came here yesterday. i She fried two eggs. j He helped her with her homework. k They wanted to beat him up. l They robbed me yesterday. m They take care of Jennifer. n There was an armchair. o They look down on him. p I was fast asleep. q His grandmother was wide awake when he came home last night. r I ran into Peter last Monday. s She always looks ahead. t They steal cassette-players from cars. u They are looking into the matter carefully. v I came across these documents yesterday. w We ran out of petrol. x She slept very well. y It fell to pieces. z There were plenty of mines in the area. 11 Example: (he, she it has; other persons, have; see unit 6, part 4, section 9, and unit 7, parts 5 and 6.) They’ve been ill/They have been ill since the day before yesterday.

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They haven’t been ill/They have not been ill since the day before yesterday. Have they been ill since the day before yesterday? a She has been living here since she was born. b You‘ve made a mistake. c He has arrived. d It‘s gone sour. e We‘ve been longing to get divorced for the last few months. Active and Passive Voice

There are two special forms for verbs called voice: 1. Active voice

2. Passive voice

The active voice is the "normal" voice. This is the voice that we use most of the time. You are probably already familiar with the active voice. In the active voice, the object receives the action of the verb:

active subject verb object

>

Cats eat fish.

The passive voice is less usual. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb:

passive subject verb object

<

Fish are eaten by cats.

The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb:

subject verb object

active Everybody drinks water.

passive Water is drunk by everybody.

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Conjugation for the Passive Voice: We can form the passive in any

tense. In fact, conjugation of verbs in the passive tense is rather easy, as

the main verb is always in past participle form and the auxiliary verb is

always be. To form the required tense, we conjugate the auxiliary verb. So,

for example:

present simple: It is made

present continuous: It is being made

present perfect: It has been made

Here are some examples with most of the possible tenses:

infinitive to be washed

simple present It is washed.

past It was washed.

future It will be washed.

conditional It would be washed.

continuous present It is being washed.

past It was being washed.

future It will be being washed.

conditional It would be being washed.

perfect simple present It has been washed.

past It had been washed.

future It will have been washed.

conditional It would have been washed.

perfect continuous present It has been being washed.

past It had been being washed.

future It will have been being washed.

conditional It would have been being washed.

Exercise 1. The tiger killed the deer. 2. The boy is learning his lessons. 3. This house was built by my grandfather. 4. Alice has been waiting for a long time. 5. Mother was making a cake. 6. The postman was bitten by the dog. 7. The thief was caught. 8. The accused were sent to jail. 9. The loud noise frightened the baby. 10. The dog chased the cat.

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11. The letter was posted yesterday. 12. The oldman takes snuff. 13. The cat drank all the milk. 14. That boy of yours has broken my window again. 15. These shoes of mine pinch me terribly. 16. I can answer the question.

Possibility and Impossibility

probability or improbability:

See the difference between probability and possibility.

There are many ways to say that something will probably or improbably

happen.

Probability / improbabilty

... may

might

can

could

...

...

will

probably

It's probable

improbable

likely

unlikely

th

at ...

I doubt

suppose

guess

... will ...

'd be

surprised

if ....

Perh

aps

May be

...

will ...

Examples of probability:

It is probable that my grandfather repairs my bike.

May be / perhaps the problem won‘t be serious.

It will probably rain this evening.

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I‘m likely to do the work myself.

Examples of improbability:

No, probably not.

I don't suppose my grandfather will repair the bike.

I doubt my father will buy me a new computer, either.

She is unlikely to return home early this evening.

I'd be surprised if he got the best score.

It's unlikely he will find his lost keys.

Expressing probability in the past:

.

..

m

ay

might

can

could

h

ave

Past

Participle

Examples of probability in the past:

He may have robbed your computer while you were out.

The criminal might have threatened her. That's why, she was afraid

of him.

The author might have carried a deep research on the subject.

That's why his book is so interestring.

Examples of improbability in the past:

He may have not lived in this town. Nobody seems to know him.

She can't have helped him in his crime as they have never met

before. Something is possible and certain if it is meaningful. Something that

makes no sense and is meaningless is impossibility or uncertainty. To say that something is possible, probable and impossible, use the following expressions: POSSIBILITY

NEUTRAL INFORMAL FORMAL

It’s possible/probable … It’s likely … I expect … It may be … It could/might/may be … It is/looks/seems possible. Is it possible to ... ?

Could be … If you ask me,

… It looks as if … You can be

sure … There’s a

I think there’s possibility …

I believe … There’s always

possibility of … It’s more than

likely …

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Is there any possibility of ... ?

What are the chances of ...?

What possibility is there that ... ?

What's the possibility of ... ?

good chance I reckon … I bet …

ü It’s reasonable to believe …

v IMPOSSIBILITY

NEUTRAL INFORMAL FORMAL

I don’t think … It’s not likely … I don’t expect … It’s not probable

… It’s unlikely… It’s impossible … That's not

possible. It's unlikely. Not a chance! It was impossible

to ... There's no chance

of ... It's not likely that

...

Probably not. Impossible. Perhaps not. May be not. No way. Surely not. Not a chance.

It’s very doubtful… It’s extremely

unlikely/improbable … I think there’s absolutely

no possibility of … I think there’s very little

chance of ..

Look at the example: Jimmy : Is there a chance that we‘ll win the football match? Alex : Of course there is a chance. We are one of the ten best teams in the district. Jimmy : Is it possible coz our rival is the first place? Alex : Well, there’s possibility of being the winner. Don‘t be discouraged. THE EXERCISES EXERCISE 1 Answer the following questions by choosing the correct option. 1) Mike : ‗are you sure to come to Dina‘s party tonight?‘

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Bella : Probably, I‘m not sure. The underlined sentence means … (A) disagreement (B) displeasure (C) certainty (D) uncertainty (E) disappointed 2) Marry :‗Tom, do you think that we can finish this project by today?‘ Tom : ‗I have no doubt that we can finish it in time.‘ The underlined sentence means … (A) agreement (B) disagreement (C) certainty (D) uncertainty (E) impossibility 3) Betty :I‘d like to go to the cinema tonight, will you join me? Charlie : …. Its great. (A) I don‘t think I‘ll go with you (B) Sure, I‘m really looking forward to seeing it (C) I think I have the qualification to see it (D) Oh really, but I don‘t like it (E) I‘d love to, but I have something to do. EXERCISE 2 State whether the followings are possible or impossible. 1) …. A man can survive in a jungle without any help. 2) …. A fat guy cannot run fast. 3) …. Flowers can grow inside the house. 4) …. People can live without sun. 5) …. Students do not need to wear uniform to school. 6) …. Expensive dress must be durable. 7) …. A house can be built in a week. 8) …. Riding car shows being a rich person. 9) …. Being diligent must be successful. 10) …. Most smokers suffer from lung cancer. Facts and Opinions

A fact is a statement that is true or real and is based on evidence. An opinion is a statement that gives a personal opinion or view and may or may not be true.

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So we can say that a fact is statement of actuality and is based on evidence, actual experience, or observation. Whereas, an opinion is a statement of belief or feeling. It shows one‘s feelings about a subject. Asking For and Giving Permission

When you ask for permission to use something that belongs to someone else you have to do your best to be polite. It is desirable to use the word "please."

Asking for Permission:

Can I go out, please?

May I open the window, please?

Please, can I have a look at your photo album?

Please, may I taste that hot spicy couscous dish?

Do you mind if I smoke?

Would you mind if I asked you something?

Is it okay if I sit here?

Would it be all right if I borrowed your mobile Phone?

Giving Permission:

Yes, please do.

Sure, go ahead.

Sure.

No problem.

Please feel free.

Refusing to give permission:

No, please don‘t.

I‘m sorry, but that‘s not possible.

I'm afraid, but you can't.

Dialogue:

Liza, eight years old, is asking her mother for

permission to use the computer...

Liza: Please mum, can I use the computer?

Her mother: No, dear you can't. It's time to go to bed.

Liza: May I read a story before I sleep?

Her mother: Sure! But try to sleep early.

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Liza: Thanks a lot mummy.

Asking and giving advice and suggestions

Asking Giving

What do you recomend we do about ... ?

I would recommend that you ...

Waht would you advice us to do? My advice would be to ...

Do you have any suggestions? May I suggest that we ...

What would you do about ...? If I were you, I would ...

Accepting advice Rejecting advice

Yes, I agree with that. I'm sorry, i can't agree with that.

That sounds like a good idea! I don't think that's a good idea.

OK, why don't we do that. I don't think we should do that.

That's very interesting. That's very interesting, but ...

Reported Speech (Indirect Speech)

What is reported speech?

Reported speech is when you tell somebody else what you or a person

said before.

Distinction must be made between direct speech and reported speech.

Direct speech vs Reported speech:

Direct speech Reported speech

She says:" she likes tuna fish." She says that she likes tuna fish.

She said: "I'm visiting Paris

next weekend"

She said that she was visiting Paris the

following weekend.

Different types of sentences

When you use reported speech, you either report:

Statements

questions

requests / commands

other types

I. Reporting Statements

When transforming statements, check whether you have to change:

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pronouns

tense

place and time expression

1-Pronouns

In reported speech, you often have to change the pronoun depending on

who says what.

Example:

She says, ―My dad likes roast chicken.‖ – She says that her dad likes roast

chicken.

2-Tenses

If the sentence starts in the present, there is no backshift

of tenses in Reported speech.

If the sentence starts in the past, there is often backshift

of tenses in Reported speech.

Direct speech Reported speech

(no backshift) ―I write poems.‖ He says that he writes poems.

(backshift) ―I write poems.‖ He said that he wrote poems.

No backshift

Do not change the tense if the introductory clause is in a present tense

(e. g. He says). Note, however, that you might have to change the form of

the present tense verb (3rd person singular).

Example:

He says, ―I write poems.‖ – He says that he writes English.

Backshift

You must change the tense if the introductory clause is in a past tense

(e. g. He said).

Example:

He said, ―I am happy.‖ – He said that he was happy.

Examples of the main changes in tense:

Direct Speech Reported Speech

Simple Present

He said: "I am happy"

Simple Past

He said that he was happy

Present Progressive

He said: "I'm looking for my keys"

Past Progressive

He said that he was looking for his

keys

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Simple Past

He said: "I visited New York last

year"

Past Perfect Simple

He said that he had visited New York

the previous year.

Present Perfect

He said: " I've lived here for long

time "

Present Perfect

He said that he had lived there for a

long time

Past Perfect

He said: "They had finished the

work when I arrived"

Present Perfect

He said that they had finished the

work when he had arrived"

Past Progressive

He said: "I was playing football

when the accident occured"

Past Perfect Progressive

He said that he had been playing

football when the accident had

occured

Present Perfect Progressive

He said:"I have been playing

football for two hours."

Past Perfect Progressive

He said that he had been playing

football for two hours

Past Perfect Progressive

He said: "I had been reading a

newspaper when the light went

off"

Past Perfect Progressive

He said that he had been reading a

newspaper when the light had gone

off

Future Simple (will+verb)

He said: "I will open the door."

Conditional (would+verb)

He said that he would open the door.

Conditional (would+verb)

He said: "I would buy Mercedes if

I were rich"

Conditional (would+verb)

He said that he would buy Mercedes

if he had been rich"

The verbs could, should, would, might, must, needn’t, ought to, used to do

not normally change.

Example:

He said, ―She might be right.‖ – He said that she might be right.

3-Place and time expressions

Place and time expressions change if the context of the reported statement

(ie the location and/or the period of time) is different from that of the direct

speech.

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In the following table, you will find ways of transforming place and time

expressions into reported speech.

Direct Speech Reported Speech

today that day

now then

yesterday the day before

… days ago … days before

last week the week before

next year the following year

tomorrow the next day / the following day

here there

this that

these those

B. Reporting Questions

When transforming questions, check whether you have to change:

pronouns

place and time expressions

tenses (backshift)

Also note that you have to:

transform the question into an indirect question

use the question word (where, when, what, how) or if /

whether

Types of questions Direct speech Reported speech

With question word

(what, why, where,

how...)

"Why" don‘t you

speak English?‖

He asked me why I

didn‘t speak English.

Without question word

(yes or no questions)

―Do you speak

English?‖

He asked me

whether / if I spoke

English.

C. Reporting requests / commands

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When transforming requests and commands, check whether you have to

change:

pronouns

place and time expressions

Direct speech Reported speech

―Nancy,do the exercise.― He told nancy to do the exercise.

"Nancy, give me your pen, please." He asked Nancy to give him her pen.

Tenses are not relevant for requests – simply use to / not to + verb

(infinitive without "to")

Example:

She said, ―Sit down." - She asked me to sit down.

She said, "don't be lazy" - She asked me not to be lazy

For affirmative use to + infinitive (without to)

For negative requests, use not to + infinitive (without to).

D. Other transformations

Expressions of advice with must, should and ought are

usually reported using advise / urge.

Example:

―You must read this book.―

He advised / urged me to read that book.

The expression let’s is usually reported using suggest. In this

case, there are two possibilities for reported speech: gerund or

statement with should.

Example:

―Let‘s go to the cinema.―=

1. He suggested going to the cinema.

2. He suggested that we should go to the cinema.

Main clauses connected with and/but

If two complete main clauses are connected with ‚and‘ or ‚but‘, put ‚that‘

after the conjunction.

Example:

He said,―I saw her but she didn‘t see me.― – He said that he had seen her

but that she hadn‘t seen him.―

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If the subject is dropped in the second main clause (the conjunction is

followed by a verb), do not use ‚that‘.

Example:

She said,―I am a nurse and work in a hospital.― – He said that she was a

nurse and worked in a hospital.― Expressing Preference & Intention

We all have our preferences or choices in food, clothes, colours, music, books, films, and people. What do we mean when we say ―I prefer‖ well it means to make a choice, to favor something rather than the other. We express our preferences in a number of ways. A few sentences that express preference: I prefer a glass of fresh juice in the morning. I rather have fruit for lunch than a full meal. I like cotton clothes better than silk ones. I would like to choose Maths as a subject. I would opt to travel by train as it is cheaper.

Introducing yourself and other people

Introducing yourself and others

There is a range of ways to introduce yourself and people.

Introducing yourself:

Here are expressions to introduce

yourself:

My name is ...

I'm ....

Nice to meet you; I'm ...

Pleased to meet you; I'm

...

L&et me introduce myself;

I'm ...

I'd like to introduce myself;

I'm ...

Introducing others:

Here are expressions to introduce others:

Jack, please meet Nicolas.

Jack, have you met Nicolas?

I'd like you to meet Liza.

I'd like to introduce you to Betty.

Leila, this is Barbara. Barbara this is Leila.

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Useful responses when introducing yourself or other people:

Nice to meet you.

Pleased to meet you.

Happy to meet you.

How do you do?

Dialogue:

Alex is talking to the new manager and his assitant. Notice how they

introduce themselves:

Alex: Hi! My name is Alex Litterman, the new

manager.

William: Hi! I'm William O'Brian. Nice to meet you,

Mr Alex Litterman.

John: William, please meet Mr Steve Lynch, my

assistant

Jack: How do you do?

Nicolas: How do you do?

Things to remember:

When introducing yourself or other people in a formal situation

use full names. ("I'm Alex Litterman.")

"How do you do?" isn't really a question, it just means "Hello" Greeting

There are different ways to greet people:

Greeting means welcoming someone with particular words or a particular

action.

When meeting people formally for the first time, we greet by shaking hands

and saying "How do you do?" or "Pleased to meet you."

"How do you do?" isn't really a question, it just means "Hello".

When young people meet informally they sometimes greet and say "Give

me five!" and slap their hands together (high five).

Generally we do not greet by shaking hands with people we know well. We

greet by just saying 'hi' or 'hello'

Here are some expressions you can use to greet people.

Greeting

Hi, hello.

Good morning, good

afternoon, good evening.

How are you?

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How are you doing?

How do you do?

Responding to greeting

Hi, hello.

Good morning/Good afternoon/Good evening.

I'm fine thank you (thanks)/Okey! Thank you (thanks)/Can't

complain/Not bad.

How about you?/And you?

How do you do?

Things to remember about greeting:

When you greet someone and say:

"How do you do?"

this isn't really a question, it just means "Hello". Making an Appointment

Making an appointment

Being able to make and cancel an appointment is an important

skill in English. You need to be able to:

make an apppointment,

respond to an appointment and

cancel an appointment.

Here are some expressions you can use to do this concisely and

clearly.

Asking to meet:

Are you available on... / next...?

free on... / next...?

Can we meet on... / next ...?

would next ... be ok?

What about next ... ?

Is next ... ok?

Examples:

"Are you available on the 17th?"

"Can we meet on the 16th?"

"How does the 3rd sound to you?"

"Are you free next week?"

"Would Friday suit you?"

"Is next Tuesday convenient for you?"

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"What about sometime next week?"

Responding to an appointment:

Yes, ... is fine

.... would be fine.

.... suits me

would be perfect.

I'm afraid

I'm sorry

I can't on ....

I won't be able to... on ...

I really don't think I can on ...

Examples:

"Yes, Monday is fine."

"Monday suits me."

"Thursday would be perfect."

"I'm afraid I can't on the 3rd. What about the 6th?"

"I'm sorry, I won't be able to make it on Monday. Could we meet

on Tuesday instead?"

"Ah, Wednesday is going to be a little difficult. I'd much prefer

Friday, if that's alright with you."

"I really don't think I can on the 17th. Can we meet up on the

19th?

Cancelling an appointment

You can cancel an appointment as follows

Unfortunately, due to some unforeseen business, I will be

unable to keep our appointment for tomorrow afternoon.

Would it be possible to arrange another time later in the week?

I‘m afraid that I have to cancel our meeting on Wednesday, as

something unexpected has come up.

You know we were going to meet next Friday? Well, I'm very

sorry, but something urgent has come up.

I'm afraid that I'm not going to be able to meet you after all. Can

we fix another time? Preferences

Talking about your preferences:

Questions about prefences

Which do you prefer tea or coffee?

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Which do you prefer drinking science or physics?

Which do you prefer to drink juice or mineral water? (Notice:

prefer to + present simple)

Which do you like better basketball or football?

Do you prefer pizza or spaghetti?

Would you prefer to eat a cake or a fruit?

Would you rather eat a cake or a fruit?

Replies

I prefer baseball.

I'd prefer to drink juice

I'd rather drink mineral water

If I had a choice, I would eat a sandwich.

A cup of coffee would be suitable.

Things to remember about preferences

1. "I'd prefer" + to + verb

2. "I'd rather" + verb Making Invitations

Making invitations

Do you know how to invite someone to your house for dinner or to go to the

movies?

What do you say in English when someone invites you?

Here are some common expressions you can use when making or

responding to invitations

Inviting:

Do you want to go to the movies tonight?

Would you like to go to the theatre tomorrow?

Would you be interested in going to the the stadium next

Sunday?

How do you fancy going to the the restaurant for dinner?

How about going to the movies?

Care to come over for lunch?

I was just wondering if you would like to come over for a drink.

We'd be delighted to have you over for my birthday party.

Accepting invitations:

Sure. What time?

I'd love to, thanks.

That's very kind of you, thanks.

That sounds lovely, thank you.

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What a great idea, thank you.

Sure. When should I be there?

Declining invitations:

I can't. I have to work.

This evening is no good.

I have an appointment.

I'm busy tomorrow. Can I

take a rain check* on

that?

That's very kind of you,

but actually I'm doing

something else this

afternoon.

Well, I'd love to, but I'm

already going out to the restaurant.

I'm really sorry, but I've got something else on.

I really don't think I can - I'm supposed to be doing something

else.

(*rain check: used to tell someone that you cannot accept invitations now,

but would like to do so at a later time:)

Dialogue:

Mike and Ann are in a wedding party:

Mike: Do you want to dance?

Ann: No thanks. I'm a bit tired right now

Mike: How about having a drink?

Ann: Sure, I'd love to!

Making and Responding To Suggestions

Suggestions

The following English phrases and expressions are all used to make

suggestions and give advice to people.

Making suggestions:

Let‘s revise our lessons.

What about going to the cinema tonight?

How about playing cards?

Why don't we do our homework?

Couldn't we invite your grandmother to our party?

Shall we have a walk along the river?

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What would you say to a cup of coffee?

Don't you think it is a good idea to watch TV?

Does it matter if we use your car?

Accepting suggestions:

Ok. Yes, let's.

Yes, I'd like to.

Yes, I'd love to.

What a good idea!

Why not?

Yes, with pleasure.

Yes, I feel like taking a walk.

That sounds like a good idea.

Refusing suggestions:

No, let's not.

No, I'd rather not.

I don't feel like it.

I dislike going for a walk.

What an awful / bad idea!

Things to remember about suggestions:

1.The verb "suggest" can be followed by either:

should + verb = I sggest (that) we should go to the theatre.

a verb (in the subjunctive form)= I suggest (that) we go to

the theatre.

2."That" is optional:

"I suggest that we should go to the theatre."

"I suggest we should go to the theatre."

Dialogue:

Two friends talking about where to go this evening:

Alice: You know Alan, why don't we go to the cinema to

watch Titanic?

Alan: No, let's not. We've seen the film many times before.

What about going to the library? We have to finish

our school project!

Alice: That sounds like a good idea. But when we finish

let's go to the cafè.

Alan: Yes, I'd love to.

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Talking about Cause and Effect

Cause and effect When we talk about an effect resulting from a certain cause, we use expressions such as: because, since, as, owing to, due to... Examples

The police arrested him because he broke into a bank.

The police arrested him since he broke into a bank.

She can't read the letter as she is illiterate.

He can't run fast for he is too fat. Owing to his intelligence, he managed to solve the problem. Due to the bad weather, they didn‘t go for a picnic.

Other ways to express cause and effect: You can also express cause and effect as follows:

The cause of …is… …is caused by / is due to … Thanks to ...

Examples:

The cause of global warming

is polluton.

Global warming is caused by pollution.

is due to

Thanks to his hard work , he passed the exam

Is there a difference between due to and owing to? Owing to and due to are used interchangeably by native speakers although some state that there is a difference. a. Due to: If you can use caused by then you can also use due to: Example: "The cancellation of the flight was due to (caused by) high winds." b. Owing to: If you can use because of then you should use owing to rather than due to:

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Example: "The flight was cancelled owing to (because of) high winds." Use of thanks to People tend to use thanks to in positive situations. Example: "Thanks to his intelligence he managed to find the solution to that math problem." Sometimes thanks to is used ironically in a nagative way Example: "Did she lose the election?" "Yeah, thanks to you and to all the others who didn't bother to vote." "The baby is awake thanks to your shouting." Things to remember about cause and effect: a. Due to, because of, owing to and thanks to are followed by a noun. b. Because, since, as, for are followed by a verb.

Due to + Noun because Subject + Verb

Because of since

Owing to as

Thanks to for

Examples:

Due to his laziness, he didn't pass the exam. Thanks to her beauty, she attracted the attention of all the

guests. Because / since /as / they are in love, they forgive each other's

mistakes. Writing a Cause and Effect Paragraph

How to write a cause and effect paragraph What makes something happen is called a cause. An effect is what happens as a result of the cause. Here are a few basics on writing a coherent cause and effect paragraph. Pre-writing Decide whether to write about a cause or an effect or both. You can choose to discuss only the causes or only the effects of an event. Alternatively, you can discuss the causes AND effects of a certain event.

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Make a list of causes or effects. Then narrow down that list to include only the most important causes or effects. Writing Write a draft explaining each cause or effect in the paragraph in as much detail as possible. and don't forget to use transitional words in your paragraph, such as: also, as a result, because, first and finally. It is very important to include in your paragraph a clear topic sentence. This sentence should state the main idea of your paragraph.

Punctuation

Punctuation rules Punctuation marks are symbols which

1. organize the structure of written language, 2. and idicate intonation and pauses to be observed when reading

aloud. Punctuation marks are also used to avoid ambiguity. For example, "woman, without her man, is nothing" has a different meaning from "woman: without her, man is nothing" This is a summary of punctuation rules. Read the punctuation rules and study the examples given. End punctuation marks: 1. Full stop , or period (.)

Used a full stop at the end of a sentence: She stood up and went away. She was furious.

Used for abreviations: Co. (Company) M.P. (Member of Parliament)

2. Question marks (?) Question marks are used at the end of direct questions:

Where do you live? Are you crazy? Did you do the homework?

Use a question mark at the end of tag questions: You will help me, won't you? He likes soccer, doesn't he?

3. Exclamation marks (!) Used to indicate strong emotions:

She's so beautiful! What a nice girl! How interesting!

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Used after interjections: Oh! It's awful. Hi! What's up?

Commas (,) Commas are used between items in a series or list. The last

two items of the series usually do not need a comma between them. They are separated by "and". I like spaghetti, fish, pizza and couscous.

Commas are also used between adjectives or adverbs: I'd like to have a big, black, German car. She speaks slowly, quietly and eloquently.

After the street address and city in an address: 34 Hassan II Street, Rabat, Morocco.

Before or after direct speech: He said,"I hate being treated like that." "I'm sorry", she replied.

Before a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) He woke up late, so he had to drive to work.

Semicolons (;) Semicolons are used instead of a full stop or period to separate

independent sentences: They woke earlya book; then they went jogging.

Use a semicolon to separate items in a series when those items contain punctuation such as a comma: They visited the Eiffel Tower, Paris; Big Ben, London; and the statue of liberty, New York

Colons (:) Use a colon to introduce a list:

He visited three cities last summer holiday: Madrid, Roma and Athens.

To introduce an idea or an explanation: He had one idea in mind: to see her as soon as possible.

To introduce direct speech or a quotation: The secretary whispered in his ear: "Your wife is on the phone. "

Dashes (--) To introduce paranthetical information:

I put on a blue jacket --the one my mother bought me-- and blue jeans.

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To show an afterthought: I explained to him my point of view-- at least I tried!

Apostrophes (') Use an apostrophe to indicate a missing letter or letters in a

contraction. I'm fed up with his strories

Use an apostrophe plus the letter "s" to show possession. My brother's girlfriend is such a sweet girl.

Quotation marks ("") Quotation marks are used to quote speech, sentences or

words. She said, "I love you."

The Coordinating Conjunction

And, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet—these are the seven coordinating

conjunctions.

The bowl of squid eyeball stew is hot and delicious.

The squid eyeball stew is so thick that you can eat it with a fork or

spoon.

Rocky, my orange tomcat, loves having his head scratched but hates

getting his claws trimmed.

Rocky terrorizes the poodles next door yet adores the German

shepherd across the street.

Rocky refuses to eat dry cat food, nor will he touch a saucer of squid

eyeball stew.

I hate to waste a single drop of squid eyeball stew, for it is expensive

and time-consuming to make.

Even though I added cream to the squid eyeball stew, Rocky ignored

his serving, so I got a spoon and ate it myself.

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