public realtion

7/24/2019 Public realtion

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Public Relations Notes

Instructor

Dr. Ilias Hristodoulakis, Ph.D

Athens, Greece


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What is Public Relations

What is this thing called public relations?

The term public relations is often confusing because it isfrequently used inaccurately.

According to many self-called PR practitioners as well asto managers publicity li!e public relations andcorporate ad"ertising consists of promotional programelements that may be of great bene#t to the mar!eting.$ontinuing they recommend that the use of publicrelations in the promotion mi% is a "ery good idea ta!inginto consideration that&

' public relation is a cheap mean of communicationbecause mostly is coming free through publicity and

' it is percei"ed by consumers as a more crediblesource than other media of promotion such asad"ertising.


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As a result public relations is related to the promotional

acti"ities and is one technical acti"ity used by mar!etingto promote the image of corporations and products.

Public relations is a uniquemanagement function whichhelps organi(ations to establish and maintain mutual linesofcommunications understanding acceptance and

cooperation with their public)s*.+t in"ol"es themanagement of problems or issues, helps management to!eep informed on and responsi"e to public opinion, de#nesand emphasi(es the responsibility of the management toser"e not only the organi(ation but most important thepublic)s* interest)s*, helps management to stay familiar

with en"ironmental changes, ser"ing as a warning systemto help predict trends, and uses research and symmetricalcommunication techniques as its principal tools.


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The #rst step of strategic management of public

relations is to - ma!e a list of the people who are lin!edto or ha"e a sta!e in the organi(ation

' after thoroughly researching their public)s* ran!ingthem according their impact on the organi(ation orthe e%tent to which the organi(ation belie"es it

should moderate its consequences on them,' plan ongoing communication programs with the most

important public)s*. The communication acti"itiesbetween organi(ation and public)s* need to bebased on the principle of symmetrical

communication. As a result communications, understanding,

acceptance, and cooperation with their public(s).


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Public relations departments help organizations to

manage problems or issues' 0rgani(ations in which the public relations department is part

of their decision management le"el will ha"e resol"ed mostof the problems with publics before they become issues.

' 1%cellent public relations departments ma!e sure that theyscan the en"ironment around the organi(ation and balance

their organi(ation mission with e%ternal and internaldemands

' 0n the one hand they must interpreter the philosophiespolicies programs and practices of their management to thepublic)s*, and on the other hand they must translate theattitudes and reactions of the public)s* to their management.

' 1"en when they are not represented in the dominant

coalition as en"ironmental scanners public relationspractitioners are sensiti"e to changes ta!ing place in thelarger en"ironment surrounding the organi(ation that mayin2uence the public opinion.


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Public relations serves not only the organization but most

important the public(s) interest(s)' Public relations practitioners must constantly communicate

with many di/erent publics each ha"ing each own specialneeds and requiring di/erent types of communications.

' Public relations practitioners role is to identify with criticalpublics with whom the organi(ation must communicate on a

frequent and direct basis.

' 3nder the quittance of public relations organi(ations learn ofhow to get more sensiti"e to the self interests desires andconcerns of each public.

' They understand that self interest groups today are

themsel"es more comple% and with more power than e"erbefore.

' They harmoni(ing actions necessary to win and maintainsupport among each groups.

' 1mphasi(ing and achie"ing a win- win arrangement.


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!"cellent public relations departments must use research

techniques as its principal tools for developing decisions +f communicators and public relations practitioners are decision

ma!ers then operations research can contribute to publicrelations management by helping to pro"ide decisions thatproduce e4cient and5or e/ecti"e courses of action in a rigorousand demonstrable manner. 0perations research can be used tohelp de"elop well formulated obecti"es that is

' assist in goal setting,

' disco"er states of nature )situation analysis*,

' identify possible strategies

' competiti"e strategies,

' handle e%cessi"e numbers of strategies and states of nature,

' determine outcome,' e"aluate outcomes that is quantifying the outcome6s

desirability, and

' select a speci#c strategy that is the best or the most e4cientor both.


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The three primary forms of public relations research as

they ha"e been suggested are methods mostly indirectof obser"ing human beha"ior

' sur"eys to re"eal attitudes and opinions

' communication audits to e"aluate how anorgani(ation is doing with respect to particular

public)s* and

' unobtrusi"e measures such as fact #nding contentanalysis and readability studies.

As a result helps management to stay familiarwith environmental changes# to predict trends


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$rganizations with good public relations

departments are always using two wayssymmetrical systems of communication3nder anasymmetrical communication system organi(ations arestri"ing to con"ince their practitioners that theorgani(ation !nows best and that publics bene#t from

cooperating with the organi(ations decisions. Thus therole of the practitioners to persuade publics to followdecisions made by the organi(ation.


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0n the other hand organi(ations that basing their

communication systems on symmetrical modelsrecogni(e that they cannot isolate themsel"es from theiren"ironment. Ac!nowledging that publics and otherorgani(ations operating in the same e%ternal and5orinternal en"ironment interrelated with the organi(ation

and freely e%changing information with thoseorgani(ations and publics establishing an equilibriumstate that constantly mo"e as the en"ironment changes.7ymmetrical models of communication are con2ictresolution oriented rather than persuasion. $on2icts are

resol"ed through negotiation communication andcompromise and not through force manipulationcoercion or "iolence.


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What Is Public Relations: The four Models of PR

Press Agentry/Publicity

ForPropaganda purpose , one wa co!!unication" co!plete truth is

not essential, #ource " Recei$er as co!. !odel, the initiati$e is alwas

strongl in the hands o% the source&sender. 'he !eans are usuall strait

%orward ad$ertising or other pro!otional acti$ities

Public Information

For disse!ination o% in%or!ation purpose, one wa co!!unication

but truth is i!portant, source recei$er as co!!unication !odel, it is

one wa co!!unication w&out usuall the purpose o% persuasion. little

research usuall readabilit and readership, is used %or Go$ern!ent(

nonpro%it associations, businesses


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The four Models of PR

Two way Asymmetric

For #cienti%ic persuasion purposes, two wa i!balanced e%%ects

co!!unication, source " recei$er " source co!. )odel, research is

%or!ati$e with e$aluation o% attitudes, tpical use in co!petiti$e

business and agencies

Two Way Symmetric

For !utual understanding purposes, two wa balanced e%%ects,

s!!etrical !od., %or!ati$e with e$aluation o% understanding, tpical

used in regulated business and agencies


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PR the *o!!unication )anage!ent+ NA'R- F

*))NI*A'IN/ Need %or a co!!on ground

/ Feedback

/ 'he role o% the senses

/ #ource " !essage encoding " channel " !essage decoding " recei$er

" Noise and Feedback


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TH !"A#S "$ %"MM&'I%ATI"'

/ In%or!

/ Persuade

/ )oti$ate

/ )utual understanding


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A P&(#I% R#ATI"'S PRSP%TI)

/ 0uestions to Focus )aterials Produced

( Is it appropriate1

( Is it !eaning%ul1

( Is it !e!orable1

( Is it understandable1

( Is it belie$able1/ Deter!ine ob2ecti$es

" 3ased on the Awareness Interest Desire Action !odel

" In%or!ational

" !oti$ational


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'he *o!!unication Process+ Fro! 'heor to Practice

/ In *o!!unication we are generall concerned with persuading people

in one wa or another, e$en i% it4s onl persuading the! that we4re5uite nice people.

/ We there%ore will o%ten be concerned with e6a!ining people4s needs,

in order that we can respond to those needs in our co!!unication.

People4s needs !oti$ate the! to act7 i% we can identi% those needs, we

ha$e a chance o% !oti$ating the! to do what we want the! to do,e$en i% onl attend to our co!!unication in the %irst place.

/ ne hu!anist pschologist who is constantl re%erred to in the stud

o% *o!!unication is Abraha! )aslow, who de$eloped the 4hierarch

o% needs4 shown in the graphic.


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/ )aslow e!phasised the hu!an need %or self*actualisation, the

realisation o% one4s %ull potential as a hu!an being. According to)aslow, be%ore one can set about sel%(actualisation, a person has %irst

to sol$e the proble!s associated with the %our lower(le$el needs o% the

hierarch+

/ Physical/sur+i+al needs:ou !ust satis% our phsical wants be%ore

ou can take the ne6t step up the !oti$ational hierarch7/ Safety needs:once ou ha$e satis%ied our basic biological needs, ou

can get on with e6ploring our en$iron!ent. It is well known,

howe$er, that a child will not begin to e6plore unless it %eels secure.

3ut the dri$e %or sa%et is in itsel% a !oti$ator %or e6ploration ( when

ou know 4what4s out there4 in the world, our uncertaint is reduced,the world s !ore predictable and 4sa%e47


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/ Social needs:these are 4belongingness4 needs. )aslow clai!s that we

ha$e an innate need to a%%iliate with others in search o% a%%ection andlo$e. 'hrough e!pathising with others we learn also to see the world

%ro! di%%erent points o% $iew7

/ steem needs:the groups we a%%iliate with help us to set our li%e4s

goals. 'he can pro$ide us with %eedback on how well we are doing in

pursuit o% those goals. 'he closer we get, the !ore estee! we arelikel to recei$e %ro! others and %eel %or oursel$es7

/ Self*actuali,ation needs:when we ha$e ac5uired su%%icient sel%(

estee! we are con%ident enough to go on to realise our %ull potential,

e6pressing oursel$es in our own uni5ue wa.


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/ )aslow4s hierarch has the bene%it o% atte!pting a holistic account o% hu!an !oti$ation,considering a range o% in%luences on hu!an beha$iour. It is 5uestionable whether, in thelight o% conte!porar notions such as the decentred self-humanistic .sychologysconception o% the sel% is still tenable, though it has to be said that !an people who ha$ee6perienced Rogerian counselling will testi% to its e%%icac.

/ )aslow4s hierarch has also been criticised %or being based on )aslow4s stud o%success%ul indi$iduals in Western societ. 'o what e6tent it !ight appl to non(Westernsocieties or to non(!iddle( or upper(class indi$iduals is not clear. Nor is it clear whthere should be %i$e stages rather than si6t(eight and it is certainl not clear wh he

belie$es that we !ust progress through the stages ( one could think o% artists, %ore6a!ple, who ha$e shown scant regard %or their sur$i$al needs, or e$en estee! needs,appearing to 2u!p straight to working on their sel%(actualisation.


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/ *ertainl, it is hard to see how an but totall isolated people could satis% their sur$i$alneeds independentl o%, sa, social needs. Hunter(gatherers li$e together, hunt and %oragetogether, their sur$i$al is entirel dependent on societ. #o is !ine o% course in the sensethat ! abilit to bu things %ro! shops depends on certain in%rastructures in societ, butit4s also the case that I can4t bu things %ro! shops without engaging in an at least arudi!entar %or! o% social intercourse. 'o separate out each o% these needs in the wathat )aslow does see!s highl arti%icial.


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/ Ne$ertheless, there is so!e e!pirical e$idence %ro! Harlow4s

e6peri!ents with !onkes which tends to support )aslow4s ideas./ Whate$er criticis!s !a be !ade o% )aslow, the notion that

so!ething like these needs see!s to !oti$ate people has been taken

on b !arketers. 'hink o% the wa that house insurance co!panies

o%%er %ree s!oke or burglar alar!s as incenti$es 8sa%et needs9

/ all those ad$erts which show the product at the centre o% groups o%happ people 8social needs9

/ !arketing which pushes the high status o% the product 8estee! needs9

/ )icroso%t4s current e!phasis on e6ploration o% ideas and one4s sel%

through !odern technolog, their slogan 4Where do ou want to go

toda14 8sel%(actualisation needs9


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'he *o!!unication Process+ #ource

/ %ommunicator: Source

/ %redibility

/ 'he principal characteristic o% the *o!!unicator a%%ecting his or her

persuasi$eness is his or her credibilit. *redibilit itsel% is !ade up o%

a $ariet o% %actors+

/ Trustworthiness:

/ Is this person honest1

/ *an I belie$e what he4s telling !e1 I% 3ill *linton has had an a%%air

and not told his wi%e, then how do I know he won4t lie to !e as well1


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/ Politicians will also tr to under!ine their opponents4 credibilit b

pointing to sel%(contradictions in their past ( i% 8%or!er :abour Partleader9 Neil ;innock was $ehe!entl opposed to 3ritain4s

!e!bership o% the -uropean nion and in %a$our o% unilateral nuclear

disar!a!ent, how can ou belie$e hi! now that he4s a %er$ent

supporter o% -uropean union and opposed to disar!a!ent1

/ Ad$ertisers will so!eti!es use 4trustworth4 people to endorse theirproduct+ the 2a


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/ In a =>?@ e6peri!ent conducted b ;el!an and Ho$land sub2ects

were plaed a !essage which reco!!ended !ore lenient treat!ent o%2u$enile o%%enders. In the one case, the source o% the !essage was saidto be a 2udge in a 2u$enile court, in the other case an alleged drugdealer. nsurprisingl, when the sub2ects were assessed i!!ediatela%ter hearing the !essages, the %ound the high(credibilit source 8the2udge9 to be !ore persuasi$e9. 'hree weeks later the were again

assessed. 'his ti!e, hal% the sub2ects were re!inded who the sourcewas. It turned out that where there was a re!inder, the sub2ects!aintained their original position, but, where there was none, therewas a signi%icant decrease in the persuasion o% the high(credibilitcondition. 8'here was also a $er !inor, but insigni%icant, increase inthe low(credibilit condition.9 Ho$land argued that o$er the course o%ti!e the conne6ion between the 4cue4 8i.e. the co!!unicator4scredibilit9 and the !essage beca!e dissociated. He ter!ed this the

sleeper effect.


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/ #orokin and 3aldre%% plaed listeners two records o% a classical !usic

piece, each bearing e6actl the sa!e per%or!ance. :isteners were toldin ad$ance that one o% the per%or!ances had been 2udged as

signi%icantl better b !usic critics. >B o% sub2ects considered the

per%or!ances were di%%erent and ?>B agreed with the alleged opinion

o% the e6perts.

/ rson Welles4s War o% the Worldsbroadcast was doubtless alsoe%%ecti$e in part because o% the percei$ed prestige o% those allegedl

co!!enting on the 4in$asion4 ( the %ictitious Pro%. Farrell o% the )ount

Cennings bser$ator, Pro%. )orse o% )c)illan ni$ersit, General

)ontgo!er #!ith, co!!ander o% the 'renton state !ilitia and others


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/ 0.ertise:Does this person know what he4s talking about1 Hence the

tendenc o% politicians to spout statistics at the slightest pro$ocationand the tendenc o% co!puter consultants to use co!puter 2argon to

people the know don4t understand it.

/ 'he percei$ed e6pertise o% the source is likel to be !ore persuasi$e i%

the audience ha$e no particular co!!it!ent to the sub2ect under

discussion. I% people ha$e so!e knowledge o% the sub2ect, then theprobabl ha$e so!e argu!ents or counterargu!ents alread prepared.

I% not, then the4ll probabl use so!e general rule o% thu!b, like 4'his

bloke4s paid to teach *o!!unication #tudies, so I suppose he knows

what he4s talking about.4 89


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/ Attracti+eness:We know %ro! our studies o% NE* that phsical

attracti$eness o%ten works in a person4s %a$our. Cudges gi$e attracti$e

people lighter sentences, college lecturers gi$e the! better !arks and

so on. Presidential and Pri!e )inisterial candidates ha$e the!sel$es

re!odelled b i!age consultants. ne presidential hope%ul is e$en

ru!oured to ha$e had plastic surger.

/ Attracti$eness is not onl a !atter o% phsical attracti$eness, though.

ther %actors such as si!ilarit and %a!iliarit are i!portant+

/ 4Is he ! sort o% person14,

/ 4I4$e ne$er heard o% her be%ore.4

/ 4Does he look like ! sort o% person14

/ 4He sounds like a co!plete idiot4 and so on.


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/ #o, a leader %ro! speci%ic local area !ight use a strong accent when

addressing a rall in this area, though he uses a regular one whenbeing inter$iewed on 'E.

/ 'here are nu!erous %actors which in%luence attracti$eness, %or

e6a!ple the paralinguistic aspects o% speech, which led Pri!e )inister

'hatcher to take lessons in $oice control, so that she appeared less

strident and de$eloped the sound o% !easured, breath sincerit whichbeca!e her hall!ark. Hu!our is another %actor, which e6plains wh

we %ind co!edians being used %or the $oice(o$ers on a $ariet o%

co!!ercials.


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/ 'here is an e6ception to this general rule o% attracti$eness, though. I% a liked

co!!unicator4s reco!!endations are seen as ste!!ing %ro! internal %actors8e.g. her special interests, her bias, her sel%(interest9, but those o% a disliked

co!!unicator are seen as ste!!ing %ro! e6ternal %actors 84that4s the wa

things are49, then the disliked co!!unicator can be !ore persuasi$e

/ I% the source o% a !essage was percei$ed as ha$ing low credibilit, then the

!essage would be interpreted as biased and un%air. 'hat e%%ect could probabl

be e6plained b the need to !aintain cogniti$e consistenc. High credibilitsources were shown b Ho$land and his colleagues to be likel to ha$e a

signi%icant e%%ect on the positi$e reception o% the !essage. Howe$er, the

e%%ects o% high and low credibilit sources were de!onstrated to disappear

a%ter a period o% so!e weeks ( a potential proble! %or the propagandist.

Howe$er, Ho$land4s research does suggest that a rational presentation o% the

argu!ents %or or against a particular. position !ight be less i!portant than

who presents the!. )ore recent in$estigations into cogniti$e response theor

!a also shed so!e light on this.
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/ Power:nder the heading o% 4power4 Ho$land and his colleagues

considered the a!ount o% control the *o!!unicator has o$erRecei$ers. *learl, this will ha$e so!e persuasi$e e%%ect. I% Hitler4s

3rownshirts are likel to beat ou up i% ou don4t do what the tell

ou, then there4s a good chance the4ll do what the tell ou. Further

-ducation colleges up and down the countr are introducing !a2or

changes to their e!ploees4 working conditions. Eer !an e!ploeesconsider these entirel unreasonable, but, since the college !anagers

ha$e the power to den the! a pa increase e$er again unless the

sign the new contracts, !an e!ploees sign up.

/ Forcing people to do what ou want !a bring about compliance, but

does not guarantee internalisation. In other words, people co!pl withour de!ands, but the retain the $alues the had be%ore and continue

to see our beha$iour as wrong and there%ore co!pl grudgingl or

atte!pt to sub$ert our de!ands or e$en re$olt.


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'he *o!!unication Process+ )essage

/ Message

/ Is it im.ortant to argue your case1/ 'o an rational person, it !a see! sel%(e$ident that the best wa to persuade

so!eone o% our point o% $iew is to present the! with a reasoned argu!ent. In%act, it see!s 5uite clear that !uch depends on the audience. I% people areunable, or unwilling, to pa close attention to our !essage and e$aluate it,then there is no point in de$eloping a thought%ul, reasoned argu!ent7 in such a

case its better to tr to use, sa, classical conditioning 8see the section onconditioned re%le69 as a !eans o% persuasion. It does see! to help i% ou gi$e areason in support o% our $iews, but research suggests that it doesn4t necessarilha$e to be a particularl good reason.

/ In an e6peri!ent b Hellen :anger 8un%ortunatel, I4$e lost the re%erence9, shearranged with her college librarian that all o% the photocopiers but one would be4out o% order4. 'his rapidl produced long 5ueues in %ront o% the one re!aining

photocopier. Her con%ederates then approached those in the line 5ith a re5uest to2u!p the 5ueue. Not surprisingl, 4*an I use the photocopier14 was a good dealless success%ul than 4*an I use the photocopier1 I4! late %or ! class.4A!a


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/ Ty.e of A..eal

/ $ear/ An appeal to %ear is o%ten thought o% as being an e%%ecti$e persuasi$e

de$ice. % course, it can be i% ou4re actuall threatening the Recei$er,but that4s not what is !eant here. What is !eant here is that the!essage appeals to %ear, perhaps showing the Recei$er what willhappen to her i% she persists in her current beha$iour. In ad$ertising,direct appeals to %ear o% this sort are strictl li!ited b the A#A,though the do tend to be tolerated !ore in public in%or!ationad$ertising, e.g. an AID# ca!paign.

/ ou !ight e6pect that an appeal based on %ear has to be hard(hitting tobe e%%ecti$e. Howe$er, a stud conducted b Canis and Feschbach in

=>? suggests that a !ini!al appeal is likel to be !ore e%%ecti$e.'he used three di%%erent $ersions o% a lecture on dental hgiene. 'hestrong appeal pro$oked the !ost tension in the audience, but thegreatest change in beha$iour n con%or!it with the !essage wasproduced b the minimal appeal to %ear.


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/ 'his probabl suggests that when people %eel the can do nothing about the threat thenthe are not likel to change their beha$iour. 'he !a well repress their an6iet 8seede%ence !echanis!s9. An appeal to %ear should probabl be counterbalanced b thereassurance that it is possible to do so!ething about it. It4s probabl worth !entioningalso that :e$entahl and others %ound in a =>? stud that a high degree o% %ear didindeed lead to higher attitudinal change, in contrast to what Canis and Feshbach %ound. Intheir case, howe$er, the were dealing with tetanus rather than oral hgiene, whichsuggests that the 5uestion o% %ear arousal cannot be di$orced %ro! the sub2ect !atter o%the !essage.

/ 'he =>> drink(dri$ing ca!paign at *hrist!as was particularl hard(hitting, in %actpro$oking a nu!ber o% co!plaints. It showed a close(up o% a oung wo!an with a$entilator in her !outh, her ees wide open in a glass stare. 'he a!bulance crew couldbe heard busing the!sel$es around her, as the blue lights %lashed constantl across her%ace. In the background we could hear an anguished !otorist asking %or reassurance thatshe would be all right and protesting that he hadn4t intended to do anone an har!.Great things were e6pected o% the ca!paign, but it see!s in %act to ha$e been lesse%%ecti$e than others. A possible e6planation is that the !otor car is seen as an essentialpart o% e$erda li%e, 2ust as essential as walking. *ars kill, as all !otorists know, but

there is nothing the can do about it. *oncei$abl, the ad was percei$ed as statingstrongl that cars kill people, rather than di%%erentiating between the causes o% accidents.
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/ *onse5uentl, dri$ers would see that the could a$oid such

horrendous accidents onl b stopping dri$ing, so!ething the o%course 4can4t4 do.

/ It4s perhaps worth re!arking in passing that a general at!osphere o%

%ear !a also contribute to the success o% a !essage. 'his o% course is

a %actor e6traneous to the !essage and thus does not properl belong

here under 4!essage4, but should rather be under a heading such as4conte6t4. For e6a!ple, rson Welles4s War of the Worldsbroadcast

!a ha$e owed so!e o% its success to the general at!osphere o% %ear

and con%usion which pre$ailed in world a%%airs at the ti!e.


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/ )ocabulary

/ I% we are persuaded b an 4e6pert4 co!!unicator, then the chances arethat so!e technical 2argon will increase the apparent e6pertise. 'he

abilit to use certain kinds o% $ocabular is also associated with the

4elaborated code4 identi%ied b 3ernstein and $alorised b the

education sste!, so that !a also contribute to the apparent e6pertise

o% the co!!unicator./ Accent

/ ou4ll be aware no doubt o% the relationship in 3ritain between accent

and social class, an RP accentbeing suggesti$e o% status and a high

ter!inal le$el o% education. 'he use o% accent has to be balanced

against source attracti$eness 8see the section on the *o!!unicator9,a$oiding , %or e6a!ple, the possibilit o% being seen b certain

audiences as a 4to%%4.
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/ Humour

/ It4s not at all clear whether it works or not. 3ritish ad$ertisers achie$ed aninternational reputation %or their hu!our, but research studies show contradictorresults.

/ S.eed

/ ou !ight think, as I would, that the co!!unicator should decrease speed inorder to be persuasi$e, especiall i% dealing with a co!ple6 topic. Howe$er, the

research shows that an increase in speed is likel to be !ore persuasi$e ( anthingup to ?B %aster, in %act 'his probabl connects with the notion o% 4e6pertise4. I%a co!!unicator can speak %ast about a co!ple6 issue, then the !ust know whatthe4re talking about. It also has the ad$antage o% shutting other people out,dening the! the opportunit to interrupt be%ore ou4$e %inished what ou ha$e tosa. It4s not necessaril as si!ple as that, though, since a range o% $ariables ha$eto be taken into account. I, %or e6a!ple, tend to be put o%% b suits, so so!eone

wearing a suit and talking %ast !ight well be dis!issed b !e as !erel 4slick4rather than 4e6pert4. #peaking %ast can be help%ul i% ou4re argu!ents are weak,because it doesn4t gi$e our audience ti!e %or cogniti$e processing o% ourargu!ents. Howe$er, i% ou ha$e strong argu!ents, it can be use%ul to slow downprecisel in order to allow cogniti$e processing to take place.


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/ Selection

/ I would ha$e thought, as with speed abo$e, that ou would increase our apparente6pertise b packing in as !an argu!ents as possible. In %act, it see!s that ou4re!ore likel to be persuasi$e i% ou li!it oursel% to the !ost i!portant andstrongest argu!ents onl.

/ Fro! the point o% $iew o% cogniti$e response theor, though, this does !ake sense.I% ou present our weaker argu!ents, ou gi$e the recei$er the opportunit to%or!ulate negati$e cogniti$e responses. 3 gi$ing our audience, sa, si6 weak

argu!ents and two strong ones, ou gi$e the! the opportunit to %or! si6 negati$eresponses and onl two positi$e ones. Re!e!ber that it is not the argu!entsthe!sel$es which are nor!all later recalled b recei$ers, but their own reactionsto those argu!ents 8i.e. their cogniti$e responses9, so ou would be best ad$ised toli!it oursel% to the two strong argu!ents.

/ 'o an e6tent, this will depend upon the audience4s sense o% in$ol$e!ent in theissue. As we ha$e seen with the 5uestion o% e6pertise, the will tend to use so!egeneral rule o% thu!b i% their in$ol$e!ent is not high, saing so!ething like, 4she4sgot a lot o% argu!ents, so I suppose she !ust know what she4s talking about. Anunin$ol$ed audience won4t e$en bother to distinguish between weak and strongargu!ents, so, in such a case, our best bet would be to produce all ourargu!ents, whether weak or strong.
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/ "rdering

/ I% ou can4t a$oid gi$ing the bad news, then, according to research, it4sbest to gi$e the good news %irst.

/ 'his !a be connected with the general perception that 4%irsti!pressions count4. Howe$er, it4s not entirel clear that the do. In ane6peri!ent conducted b Tomorrow's Worldon )arch ? =>>?,$iewers were shown a !an being inter$iewed %or an a!bulancedri$er4s 2ob. In %act, without the $iewers4 knowledge, two di%%erent$ersions o% the inter$iew were shown in the east and west o% thecountr. In the east, the inter$iewee began b gi$ing the 4good news4,na!el that he had been in the ar! !edical corps where he had learnt$arious skills and ended with the bad news, na!el that, since lea$ing

the ar! he had ne$er held down a 2ob %or long. In the west e6actl thesa!e in%or!ation was gi$en, but with the 4bad news4 %irst. In the east?B o% $iewers would ha$e gi$en hi! the 2ob7 in the west ?B wouldha$e gi$en hi! the 2ob. 'his strongl suggests that %irst i!pressions donot count %or !uch and that it4s best to end with the 4good news4.


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/ 'his 5uestion o% ordering re$ol$es around what is known asprimacy

and recencye%%ects. 'he adage that 4%irst i!pressions count4 states thatthe pri!ac e%%ect is likel to do!inate, whereas the Tomorrow's

Worlde6peri!ent suggests that the recenc e%%ect is do!inant.


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/ $or and against

/ Whether or not ou should include argu!ents %or and against our casedepends $er !uch on our audience. I% ou know that the alread agreewith ou, a one(sided argu!ent is 5uite acceptable. I% the are opposed to ourpoint o% $iew, then a one(sided !essage will actuall be less e%%ecti$e, beingdis!issed as biased. -$en i% our audience don4t know !uch about the sub2ect,but do know that there are counterargu!ents 8e$en i% the don4t know whatthe are9 will lead the! to re2ect our $iews as biased. Ho$land4sin$estigations into !ass propaganda used to change soldiers4 attitudes alsosuggests that the intelligence o% the recei$ers is an i!portant %actor, a two(sided argu!ent tending to be !ore persuasi$e with the !ore intelligentaudience.

/ It is possible to inoculate audiences against certain $iews. I% ou present the!with a weakened $ersion o% the argu!ents against our case, then the are

likel to be resistant to stronger $ersions o% those argu!ents that the !aco!e across later. Again, this see!s to be e6plained b cogniti$e responsetheor, since, b gi$ing the! a weakened $ersion, ou allow the! to%or!ulate negati$e cogniti$e responses.


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/ %onclusion drawing

/ Ho$land4s research results are unclear here. Ho$land tends to assu!ethat ou should draw the conclusions %or our audience where

co!ple6 issues are in$ol$ed. He also see!s to belie$e that it depends

on our assess!ent o% the audience4s intelligence.

/ Timing

/ 'he ti!e dela between our presentation o% our case and the

audience4s ha$ing to reach a decision on it is o% so!e i!portance.

/ 'he %irst side has the ad$antage when the second side i!!ediatel

%ollows and there is a dela be%ore the recei$ers reach a decision.

/ 'he second side has the ad$antage i% the recei$ers are to reach a

decision i!!ediatel a%ter presentation o% the two cases, i% there is a

gap between presentation o% the %irst and second sides.


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/ Re.etition

/ Research 8%ollowing up Ja2on4s %indings in the s9 has shown again and againthat repeated e6posure to a sti!ulus will increase sub2ects4 liking %or that

sti!ulus. It doesn4t see! to !atter whether the sti!ulus is one which would

nor!all be 2udged positi$el or negati$el, nor e$en whether sub2ects are

aware that the are !ore %a!iliar with the sti!ulus than the are with others.

'he research see!s to suggest that this is !ore likel to be the case with

co!ple6, rather than si!ple, sti!uli./ #o it does see! that, sa, a political part with plent o% !one %or the

ca!paign has a better chance, si!pl because it stands !ore chance o% using

the !edia to increase e6posure to its !essages and its candidates.

/ Repetition, then, will certainl strengthen a !essage, but ou can soon reach

the point o% di!inishing returns and that, o% course, is so!ething thatad$ertisers ha$e to bear in !ind. We all know %ro! seeing the sa!e ad %or

what see!s like the thousandth ti!e that too !uch e6posure can lower our

liking o% a !essage. 'he proble!, naturall, is to be able to gauge where the

point o% di!inishing returns lies.


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'he *o!!unication Process+ *hannel

Mass Medium

/ 'here is no $er clear e$idence as to which !ediu! is likel to be the!ost e%%ecti$e. :eninand Goebbelsboth considered %il! to be the!ost power%ul propaganda !ediu!. 'E toda has !uch the sa!ereputation and radio was considered in its earl das to be particularlpower%ul. 'ele$ision and radio are perhaps considered so e%%ecti$ebecause the are in our own ho!es, but there4s not !uch e$idence to

show that that !akes !uch di%%erence, e$en though it4s one i!portant%actor in the 33F*4s decisions on how to censor $ideos. 'E and %il!!a be considered especiall power%ul because the incorporate bothsound and $ision, but there is so!e e$idence that that !a in %actreduce e%%ecti$eness. 'E is o%ten also considered especiall power%ulbecause it is a !ass !ediu!, deli$ering the sa!e !essage to around !illion people at a ti!e %or the !a2or soaps. Howe$er, that !awork to its disad$antage when co!pared with, sa, newspapers andperiodicals which ha$e highl di%%erentiated !arkets, allowing !uch!ore precise targeting.


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/ Research tends to show relati$el little e%%ect o% an o% the !ass !edia ( the

so(called 4li!ited e%%ects4 paradig!, which e!erges 5uite strongl %ro! thee!pirical research tradition in the #A. Howe$er, it is possible that that is a

de%icienc o% the research rather than o% the !edia. It is o%ten argued that since

the A!erican researchers were looking %or clearl !easurable e%%ects the

tended to concentrate on the short(ter! and thus !a ha$e !issed the longer

ter! and !ore di%%use e%%ects.

/ A $er i!portant piece o% research was conducted b ;at< and :as. 'heir research led the! to

%or!ulate their 'wo(#tep Flow )odelo% !ass !edia co!!unication, which

still underlies !uch co!!unication practice toda.

/ In essence, it e!phasises the i!portance o% the in%luence o% our social contacts

in in%luencing our interpretation o% !edia !essages. #ophisticated political

4spin doctors4 continue to recognise toda that the best %or! o% ad$ertising is

word(o%(!outh ad$ertising. 'he don4t onl need to persuade us as indi$iduals

o% the $alidit o% what the ha$e to sa. 'he !ust also persuade the people

we co!e into contact with, especiall the 4opinion leaders4 in our li$es.


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/ Selecti+e e0.osure

/ 'he :abour Part spin doctors know that *onser$ati$e Part $oterswill switch o%% when the :abour election broadcast is on and $ice(

$ersa. We will tend acti$el to seek out those !essages which support

the $iew we alread ha$e and a$oid those which !a challenge it.

'his applies not onl to the !ass !edia, but also to interpersonal

co!!unication. For e6a!ple, it is well known that those with apositi$e sel%(i!age will tend to re!e!ber positi$e co!!ents !ade

about the!, and those with a negati$e sel%(i!age will tend to

re!e!ber the negati$e ones. 8#ee also the sections on

#electi$e Attentionand *ogniti$e *onsistenc9.

/ Selecti+e attention/ We !abe can4t a$oid being e6posed to !essages we don4t like, but

there is plent o% e$idence that in such a case we won4t pa !uch

attention to the!
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/ Selecti+e inter.retation

/ -$en i% we are e6posed and do attend to !essages which con%lict withour $iews, the chances are that we will interpret the! in such a wa

that the do %it what we alread belie$e. Howe$er good the :abour

Part4s argu!ents !ight be, the chances are that the *onser$ati$e

$oter will dis!iss the! as a load o% nonsense.

/ An e6cellent e6a!ple o% this is pro$ided b ;endall and Wool%4sanalsis o% reactions to anti(racist cartoons. 'he cartoons %eatured )r

3iggott whose absurdl racist ideas were intended to discredit bigotr.

In %act @=B %ailed to recognise that )r 3iggott was raciall pre2udiced

or that the cartoons were intended to be anti(racist 8;endall K Wol%%

8=>>9 in *urran 8=>>99.


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/ Inter.ersonal communication/ )isual channel/ Phsical attracti$eness o% the *o!!unicator is certainl i!portant and there

are other %actors we can be %airl certain o%./ 'he %ollowing see! to under!ine the persuasi$eness o% a !essage+/ narrow pupil dilation/ a closed and symmetrical posture/ self-touching ('self-grooming')/ very high and very low levels of eye contact


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/ In public speaking, we e6pect rather higher le$els o% ee contact than inordinar interpersonal interaction, where we e6pect the speaker4s ee contactto be inter!ittent and the listener4s to be high. In public speaking, we e6pectthe speaker to keep looking at the audience. ur i!pression o% the speaker4se6pertise is increased i% we see the! able to speak without constantl re%erringto their notes. It !a also ha$e so!e i!pact on their apparent sincerit, sincewe know that !an public speakers4 speeches are written %or the!. 'hus, it isnot at all unco!!on nowadas to see public speakers using the 4truth!achine4, also known as the 4idiot bo64, perhaps because President Reagan was

the %irst to use it e6tensi$el. 'he speaker has in %ront o% her an autocue,whose i!age is pro2ected on the two screens to le%t and right, thus allowingthe speaker to read the speech o%% the screens while at the sa!e ti!e appearingto look straight through the! at the audience.


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/ Auditory channel

/ In the auditor channel, a high pitch, lots o% hesitations, er!4s, like4s,sort o%4s and tag 5uestion like 4won4t he14, 4didn4t he14 etc. will tend to

reduce credibilit.


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'he *o!!unication Process+ Recei$er

/ Intra*.ersonal factors

/ 3 de%inition, intra(personal %actors such as the recei$er4s attitude tothe sub2ect !atter and the e6tent o% her personal in$ol$e!ent !a well

be largel unknown to the co!!unicator. #heri% and Ho$land

atte!pted to su!!ari


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/ Age

/ Age is an i!portant $ariable. People reach !a6i!u! persuasabilit aroundthe age o% nine. Hence the Hitler outh, -ast Ger!an4s oung Pioneers and,

%or that !atter, the *ubs and 3rownies.

/ Se0

/ #e6 appears to be o% so!e li!ited signi%icance, wo!en apparentl being !ore

easil persuadable than !en. Howe$er, this research was conducted a long

ti!e ago when wo!en saw the!sel$es and their rLle di%%erentl, so this !a

well ha$e changed.

/ Personality

/ Personalit $ariables such as sel%(estee!, an6iet and depression ha$e an

in%luence on persuadabilit. Canis4s research suggests that people with low sel%(

estee! are likel to be relati$el easil persuaded ( which !a partl e6plainthe success o% Hitler4s propaganda and the success o% right(wing parties toda

in another era o% !ass une!plo!ent. #ee especiall the section on the

authoritarian personalit.
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/ !rou. norms

/ 'he nor!s o% a group apparentl ser$e to protect !e!bers %ro! outsidein%luence. 'he !ore i!portant group !e!bers consider their !e!bership o% thegroup to be, the less likel the are to be persuaded b !essages whichunder!ine the group nor!s.

/ (eliefs 2self*schemata3

/ 'he pattern o% the recei$er4s belie%s will in part deter!ine whether the !essage isgi$en serious attention in the %irst place. 8For %urther in%or!ation, see the sectionson #electi$e attention, *onsistenc theorand Attitudes.9

/ 'he persuasi$e i!pact o% a !essage can be increased i% it is anchored in thesste! o% belie%s and $alues o% the recei$er.

/ 'his see!s to be e$ident in the close parallels between Na


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/ Social grou.s

/ ;at< and :a


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/ Acti+e Partici.ation

/ Canis and ;ing de!onstrated that people who participate acti$el indisse!inating a !essage are !ore likel to be persuaded b it./ Resistance/ 'he notion o% cogniti$e responsessuggests that it should be possible to

inoculate people against a !essage. For e6a!ple, when ou gi$e people ourargu!ents, ou should also gi$e the counterargu!ents to our position and atthe sa!e ti!e pro$ide re%utations o% those counterargu!ents. ou will thus be

pro$iding our audience with cogniti$e responses which can be generatedwhen the hear those counterargu!ents. It doesn4t !atter !uch whether there!e!ber our re%utations or not. 'he i!portant thing is that the shouldre!e!ber their reactions, na!el 4h, es, I re!e!ber that that argu!ent4srubbish.4
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/ Pschologist Willia! )cGuire tested this idea %urther. He selected a nu!bero% generall accepted truths such as 4It4s a good idea to brush our teeth a%tere$er !eal i% possible4 ( the sort o% thing which %ew people would disagreewith. He de!onstrates that attacking such a belie% with strong argu!ents didactuall weaken it ( %or e6a!ple 5uoting e$idence %or! the A!erican DentalAssociation that it was !isguided. Ha$ing con%ir!ed that such belie%s couldbe weakened b strong attacks, he went on to see i% people could beinoculated. He de!onstrated that people who were %irst sub2ected to a mild%or! o% attack and then read or wrote an essa re%uting it were later able to

resist the strong attacks better. 8in Atkinson et al., 8=>>99.


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/ -$en %orewarning an audience that the are about to recei$e a !essage

the will disagree with will tend to 4protect4 the! against it./ Inoculation has been used in a school progra!!e in the #A to help

pupils resist peer pressure to s!oke. High(school students conducted

group sessions in which the taught ounger pupils how to construct

counter(argu!ents. For e6a!ple, i% the were called 4chicken4 %or

re%using a cigarette, the were taught to answer, 4I4d be a real chicken i%I s!oked 2ust to i!press ou.4 'he were taught to respond to ads

suggesting that wo!en s!okers were liberated with 4#he4s not reall

liberated i% she4s hooked on tobacco.4 It see!s si!ple, but it worked.

'hese schoolchildren pro$ed to be hal% as likel as their peers to

s!oke.


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/ (oomerang effect

/ Finall it !a be worth !entioning the boomerang effect, where, despite thebest intentions o% the co!!unicator the !essage is re2ected. I ha$e chosen to

list it under 4recei$er4 since it is clearl the recei$er who re2ects the !essage,

though the boo!erang e%%ect is not solel due to characteristics o% the recei$er

hersel%. )erton 8=>>9 suggested the %ollowing as possible causes o% the

e%%ect+

/ the communicator, in forming the message, makes false assumptions about, orhas misleading data about the audience and therefore misses her target

/ the communicator faces the dilemma of dealing with an audience which is so

heterogeneous that she cannot form a meaningful message for all of them nor

possibly formulate enough messages to reach all the subsidiary target groups

/ to a receiver who is not fully attending various parts of the message seem tocontradict others

/ the eamples the communicator uses to illustrate her message do not

correspond to the receivers' eperiences


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TH IMP"RTA'% "$ TW"*WA4

%"MM&'I%ATI"'/ Feedback obtained in research and e$aluation phases

/ Feedback e5uates with two(wa co!!unication/ 'wo(wa is arguabl 'he ke to e6cellent practice

/ 'wo(wa is usuall lower in the hierarch o% co!!unication channels


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A%TI'! "' TH MSSA!

/ lti!ate purpose o% an !essage

/ 'he %i$e(stage adoption process+ According to Adoption o% Inno$ation)odel

" Awareness

" Interest

" -$aluation

" 'rial

" Adoption


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$A%T"RS A$$%TI'! A5"PTI"'

/ Relati$e ad$antage

/ *o!patibilit/ *o!ple6it

/ 'rialabilit

/ bser$abilit


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ty.es of ado.ters

( 'pes o% adopters

( Inno$ators( -arl adopters

( -arl !a2orit

( :ate !a2orit

( :aggards


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P&(#I% "PI'I"'

/ WHA' I# P3:I* PININ1

" Is a collecti$e e6pression o% opinion o% !an indi$iduals bound into a group b co!!on ai!s,aspirations, needs, and ideals

" People who are interested or ha$e a $ested sel% interest in an issue

" #el%(interest is one o% the co!!on deno!inator, the other is

" 'he -$ent+ pinion is highl sensiti$e to e$ents that ha$e an i!pact on the public at large or a

particular seg!ent o% the public

" 3 an large, P does not anticipate e$ents. It onl reacts to the!

" nless people are aware o% an issue, the are not likel to be concerned or ha$e an opinion

" -$ents o% unusual !agnitude are likel to swing P te!poraril %ro! one e6tre!e to the other.

/ WHA' I# AN PININ :-AD-R1

" Highl interested in the sub2ect or issue, better in%or!ed on the issue than the

a$erage person, a$id consu!ers o% !ass !edia, earl adopters o% new ideas, able to

get other people to act.

/ For!al + elected o%%icials

/ In%or!al

+ those ha$ing clout with peers because so!e special characteristics


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'H- F:W F PININ

/ ( 'wo step %low

#ource " !essage(channel " !essage ( recei$er/ ( )ulti(step !odel

source " !essage " channel " pinion :eader " !essage " recei$er.


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/ The role of mass media

( Agenda(setting theor+ people tend to talk about what the see

on the . oMclock news

( )edia dependenc theor+ people are highl dependent on the

!edia %or in%or!ation

( Fra!ing theor+ 82ournalist oriented9 how 2ournalists select

certain %acts, the!es, treat!ents, and e$en words to %ra!e a stor

( *ulti$ation theor+ the new content o% !ass !edia can becalled as !edia realit since e$ents are repackaged to be !ore

succinct, logical, and interesting to $iewer or reader.


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/ HW ' GAG- P3:I* PININ

( Personal contact( )edia reports

( Field reports

( :etters and telephone calls

( Ad$isor co!!ittee

( #ta%% !eeting

( Polling and sa!pling


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PRS&ASI"'

/ What is persuasion1

Is an acti$it or process in which a co!!unicator atte!pts to induce a changein the belie%, attitude, or beha$ior o% another person or group o% persons

through the trans!ission o% a !essage in a conte6t in which the persuade has

so!e degree o% %ree choice

/ se o% Persuasion

/ ( *hange or neutrali


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/ $actors Influence Persuasions

success

" Audience analsis

" #ource credibilit

" Appeal to sel%(interest

" *larit o% !essage

"'i!ing and conte6t

" Audience participation" #uggestions %or action

" *ontent and structure o%

!essages 8dra!a, statistics,

e!otional&rational appeal, etc9

" Persuasi$e speaking

#IMITATI"' $A%T"RS


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#IMITATI"' $A%T"RS

/ :ack o% penetration

/ *o!peting !essage

/ #el%(selecting

/ #el%(perception


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PR"PA!A'5A

/ What is propaganda1

It is the deliberate and sste!atic atte!pt to shape perceptions,!anipulate cognition, and direct beha$ior to achie$e a response that

%urthers the desired intend o% the propagandist.

/ 'echni5ues

( Plain %olks

( 'esti!onial( *ard(stacking

( 'rans%er

( Glittering generalities

( Na!e(calling


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Propaganda

"The first casualty when war comes is Truth" -- U.S.

Senator Hiram Johnson, 1917 "It is easier to dominate someone if they are unaware

of being dominated. Colonised and colonisers both knowthat domination is not just based on physicalsupremacy. Control of hearts and minds follows military

conquest. hich is why any empire that wants to lastmust capture the souls of its subjects." -- IgnacioRamonet

"In wartime, truth is so precious that she should alwayse attended y a odyguard o! lies." #inston

$hurchill %&ritish 'rime (inister during #orld #ar II)


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Propaganda

/ It !a see! strange to suggest that the stud o% propaganda has

rele$ance to conte!porar politics. A%ter all, when !ost people thinkabout propaganda, the think o% the enor!ous ca!paigns that were

waged b Hitler and #talin in the =>@s. #ince nothing co!parable is

being disse!inated in our societ toda, !an belie$e that propaganda

is no longer an issue.

/ 3ut propaganda can be as blatant as a swastika or as subtle as a 2oke.Its persuasi$e techni5ues are regularl applied b politicians,

ad$ertisers, 2ournalists, radio personalities, and others who are

interested in in%luencing hu!an beha$iour. Propagandistic !essages

can be used to acco!plish positi$e social ends, as in ca!paigns to

reduce drunk dri$ing, but the are also used to win elections and to

sell !alt li5uor.


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Propaganda

/ As Anthon Pratkanis and -lliot Aronson point out, e$er

da we are bo!barded with one persuasi$e co!!unicationa%ter another. 'hese appeals persuade not through the gi$e(

and(take o% argu!ent and debate, but through the

!anipulation o% s!bols and o% our !ost basic hu!an

e!otions. For better or worse, ours is an age o%propaganda.O

/ With the growth o% co!!unication tools like the Internet,

the %low o% persuasi$e !essages has been dra!aticall

accelerated. For the %irst ti!e e$er, citi


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Propaganda

/ 'he in%or!ation re$olution has led to in%or!ation

o$erload, and people are con%ronted with hundreds o%!essages each da. Although %ew studies ha$e looked at

this topic, it see!s %air to suggest that !an people

respond to this pressure b processing !essages !ore

5uickl and, when possible, b taking !ental short(cuts./ Propagandists lo$e short(cuts (( particularl those which

short(circuit rational thought. 'he encourage this b

agitating e!otions, b e6ploiting insecurities, b

capitali


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Propaganda De$ices+ Word Ga!es!ame "alling

/ 3ad na!es ha$e plaed a tre!endousl power%ul role in the histor

o% the world and in our own indi$idual de$elop!ent. 'he ha$e ruinedreputations, stirred !en and wo!en to outstanding acco!plish!ents,

sent others to prison cells, and !ade !en !ad enough to enter battle

and slaughter their %ellow!en. 'he ha$e been and are applied to

other people, groups, gangs, tribes, colleges, political parties,

neighbourhoods, sections o% the countr, nations, and races.

/ 'he na!e(calling techni5ue links a person, or idea, to a negati$e

s!bol. 'he propagandist who uses this techni5ue hopes that the

audience will re2ect the person or the idea on the basis o% the negati$e

s!bol, instead o% looking at the a$ailable e$idence.

/ 'he !ost ob$ious tpe o% na!e calling in$ol$es bad na!es. Fore6a!ple, consider the %ollowing+

*o!!ie Fascist Pig uppie #cu!

3u! 0ueer Fe!ina


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Propaganda De$ices + Word Ga!es!ame "alling

/ A !ore subtle %or! o% na!e(calling in$ol$es words or phrases that areselected because the possess a negati$e e!otional charge. 'hose who opposebudget cuts !a characteri


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Propaganda De$ices + Word Ga!es #littering #eneralities

/ We belie$e in, %ight %or, li$e b $irtue words about which we ha$e deep(setideas. #uch words include ci$ili


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/ 'he Glittering Generalit is, in short, Na!e *alling in re$erse. WhileNa!e *alling seeks to !ake us %or! a 2udg!ent to reject andcondemnwithout e6a!ining the e$idence, the Glittering Generalit

de$ice seeks to !ake us approve and acceptwithout e6a!ining thee$idence. In ac5uainting oursel$es with the Glittering GeneralitDe$ice, there%ore, all that has been said regarding Na!e *alling !ustbe kept in !ind...

/ 'he Institute %or Propaganda Analsis suggested a nu!ber o%5uestions that people should ask the!sel$es when con%ronted with thistechni5ue+

" What does the $irtue word reall !ean1

" Does the idea in 5uestion ha$e a legiti!ate connection with thereal !eaning o% the word+

" Is an idea that does not ser$e ! best interests being sold to !e

!erel through its being gi$en a na!e that I like1" :ea$ing the $irtue word out o% consideration, what are the !erits

o% the idea itsel%1


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Propaganda De$ices + Word Ga!esuphemisms

/ When propagandists use glittering generalities and na!e(calling

s!bols, the are atte!pting to arouse their audience with $i$id,e!otionall suggesti$e words. In certain situations, howe$er, the

propagandist atte!pts to paci% the audience in order to !ake an

unpleasant realit !ore palatable. 'his is acco!plished b using

words that are bland and euphe!istic.

" #ince war is particularl unpleasant, !ilitar discourse is %ull o%euphe!is!s. In the =>4s, A!erica changed the na!e o% the War

Depart!ent to the Depart!ent o% De%ense.

" nder the Reagan Ad!inistration, the )Q()issile was rena!ed

'he Peacekeeper. During war(ti!e, ci$ilian casualties are

re%erred to as collateral da!age, and the word li5uidation isused as a snon! %or !urder.


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Propaganda De$ices + Word Ga!esuphemisms

" 'he co!edian George *arlin notes that, in the wake o%

the %irst world war, trau!ati


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Propaganda De$ices + False *onnections Transfer

/ ou shall not press down upon the brow of labour this

crown of thorn% ou shall not crucify mankind upon a crossof gold(( Willia! Cennings 3ran, =>

/ 'rans%er is a de$ice b which the propagandist carries

o$er the authorit, sanction, and prestige o% so!ething we

respect and re$ere to so!ething he would ha$e us accept.For e6a!ple, !ost o% us respect and re$ere our church and

our nation. I% the propagandist succeeds in getting church

or nation to appro$e a ca!paign in behal% o% so!e

progra!, he thereb trans%ers its authorit, sanction, and

prestige to that progra!. 'hus, we !a accept so!ething

which otherwise we !ight re2ect.



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/ In the 'rans%er de$ice, s!bols are constantl used. 'he cross

represents the *hristian *hurch. 'he %lag represents the nation.

*artoons like ncle #a! represent a consensus o% public opinion.

'hose s!bols stir e!otions . At their $er sight, with the speed o%

light, is aroused the whole co!ple6 o% %eelings we ha$e with respect to

church or nation. A cartoonist, b ha$ing ncle #a! disappro$e a

budget %or une!plo!ent relie%, would ha$e us %eel that the whole

nited #tates disappro$es relie% costs. 3 drawing an ncle #a! who

appro$es the sa!e budget, the cartoonist would ha$e us %eel that theA!erican people appro$e it. 'hus, the 'rans%er de$ice is used both %or

and against causes and ideas.

/ When a political acti$ist closes her speech with a public praer, she is

atte!pting to trans%er religious prestige to the ideas that she is

ad$ocating. As with all propaganda de$ices, the use o% this techni5ue isnot li!ited to one side o% the political spectru!. It can be %ound in the

speeches o% liberation theologists on the le%t, and in the ser!ons o%

religious acti$ists on the right.



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/ In a si!ilar %ashion, propagandists !a atte!pt to trans%er thereputation o% #cience or )edicine to a particular pro2ect or set o%belie%s. A slogan %or a popular cough drop encourages audiences to

Eisit the halls o% !edicine. n 'E co!!ercials, actors in white labcoats tell us that the 3rand Q is the !ost i!portant pain relie$er thatcan be bought without a prescription. In both o% these e6a!ples, thetrans%er techni5ue is at work.

/ 'hese techni5ues can also take a !ore o!inous turn. As Al%red :ee

has argued, e$en the !ost %lagrantl anti(scienti%ic racists are wont todress up their argu!ents at ti!es with ter!s and care%ull selectedillustrations drawn %ro! scienti%ic works and presented out o% allaccurate conte6t. 'he propaganda o% Na


85/245


/ 'he Institute %or Propaganda Analsis has argued that,

when con%ronted with the trans%er de$ice, we should askoursel$es the %ollowing 5uestions+

" In the !ost si!ple and concrete ter!s, what is theproposal o% the speaker1

" What is the !eaning o% the the thing %ro! which thepropagandist is seeking to trans%er authorit, sanction,and prestige1

" Is there an legiti!ate connection between the proposalo% the propagandist and the re$ered thing, person or

institution1" :ea$ing the propagandistic trick out o% the picture,

what are the !erits o% the proposal $iewed alone1

Propaganda De$ices + False *onnections Testimonial


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/ 3ruce Cenner is on the cereal bo6, pro!oting Wheaties as part o% a

balanced break%ast. *her is endorsing a new line o% cos!etics, and :a

'oa Cackson sas that the Pschic Friends Network changed her li%e.

'he lead singer o% R.-.) appears on a public ser$ice announce!ent

and encourages %ans to support the )otor Eoter 3ill.

/ 'his is the classic !isuse o% the 'esti!onial De$ice that co!es to the

!inds o% !ost o% us when we hear the ter!. We recall it indulgentl

and tell oursel$es how !uch !ore sophisticated we are than our

grandparents or e$en our parents.

/ With our ne6t breath, we begin a sentence, 4'he Timessaid,4 4Cohn :.

:ewis said...,4 4Herbert Hoo$er said...4, 4'he President said...4, 4)

doctor said...,4 4ur !inister said...4 #o!e o% these 'esti!onials !a

!erel gi$e greater e!phasis to a legiti!ate and accurate idea, a %air

use o% the de$ice7 others, howe$er, !a represent the sugar(coating o%

a distortion, a %alsehood, a !isunderstood notion, an anti(social

suggestion...



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/ 'here is nothing wrong with citing a 5uali%ied source, and the

testi!onial techni5ue can be used to construct a %air, well(balanced

argu!ent. Howe$er, it is o%ten used in was that are un%air and

!isleading.

/ 'he !ost co!!on !isuse o% the testi!onial in$ol$es citing

indi$iduals who are not 5uali%ied to !ake 2udge!ents about a

particular issue. In =>>, 3arbara #treisand supported 3ill *linton,

and Arnold #chwar


88/245


/ we should ask oursel$es the %ollowing 5uestions when we

encounter this de$ice." Who or what is 5uoted in the testi!onial1

" Wh should we regard this person 8or organi


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Propaganda De$ices + #pecial Appeals*lain-+olks

/ 3 using the plain(%olks techni5ue, speakers atte!pt to con$ince theiraudience that the, and their ideas, are o% the people. 'he de$ice isused b ad$ertisers and politicians alike.

/ A!erica4s recent presidents ha$e all been !illionaires, but the ha$egone to great lengths to present the!sel$es as ordinar citi


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Propaganda De$ices + #pecial Appeals*lain-+olks

/ During the =>s, 3artels and Ca!es appeared on tele$ision in

co!%ortable, %ar!(stle clothing, and, with a %olks drawl, thankedconsu!ers %or their continued support. 'he iron was that these two

regular gus who pushed wine coolers were actuall !ulti(

!illionaires (( hardl like ou or !e. In all o% these e6a!ples, the

plain(%olks de$ice is at work.

/'he Institute %or Propaganda Analsis has argued that, whencon%ronted with this de$ice, we should suspend 2udge!ent and ask

oursel$es the %ollowing 5uestions+

" What are the propagandist4s ideas worth when di$orced %ro! his or

her personalit1

" What could he or she be tring to co$er up with the plain(%olksapproach1

" What are the %acts1

P d D i # i l A l d W


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Propaganda De$ices + #pecial Appealsand Wagon

/ 'he propagandist hires a hall, rents radio stations, %ills a great

stadiu!, !arches a !illion or at least a lot o% !en in a parade./ He e!plos s!bols, colours, !usic, !o$e!ent, all the dra!atic arts.

/ He gets us to write letters, to send telegra!s, to contribute to his cause.

/ He appeals to the desire, co!!on to !ost o% us, to %ollow the crowd.

3ecause he wants us to %ollow the crowd in !asses, he directs his

appeal to groups held together alread b co!!on ties, ties o%nationalit, religion, race, se6, $ocation.

/ 'hus propagandists ca!paigning %or or against a progra! will appeal

to us as *atholics, Protestants, or Cews...as %ar!ers or as school

teachers7 as housewi$es or as !iners.

Propaganda De$ices + #pecial Appealsand Wagon


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/ With the aid o% all the other propaganda de$ices, all o% the arti%ices o%%latter are used to harness the %ears and hatreds, pre2udices andbiases, con$ictions and ideals co!!on to a group. 'hus is e!otion

!ade to push and pull us as !e!bers o% a group onto a 3and Wagon./ 'he basic the!e o% the 3and Wagon appeal is that e$erone else is

doing it, and so should ou. #ince %ew o% us want to be le%t behind,this techni5ue can be 5uite success%ul. Howe$er, as the IPA points out,there is ne$er 5uite as !uch o% a rush to cli!b onto the 3and Wagonas the propagandist tries to !ake us think there is.

/ When con%ronted with this techni5ue, it !a be help%ul to askoursel$es the %ollowing 5uestions+

" What is this propagandist4s progra!1

" What is the e$idence %or and against the progra!1

" Regardless o% the %act that others are supporting this progra!,should I support it1

" Does the progra! ser$e or under!ine ! indi$idual and collecti$einterests1

Propaganda De$ices + #pecial Appeals+ear


93/245

/ The streets of our country are in turmoil% The universities are filledwith students rebelling and rioting% "ommunists are seeking to destroyour country% .ussia is threatening us with her might, and the .epublic

is in danger% es - danger from within and without% We need law andorder Without it our nation cannot survive%( Adol% Hitler, =>@

/ When a propagandist warns !e!bers o% her audience that disaster willensue i% the do not %ollow a particular course o% action, she is usingthe %ear appeal. 3 plaing on the audience4s deep(seated %ears,practitioners o% this techni5ue hope to redirect attention awa %ro! the!erits o% a particular proposal and toward steps that can be taken toreduce the %ear.

/ 'his techni5ue can be highl e%%ecti$e when wielded b a %ascistde!agogue, but it is usuall used in less dra!atic was. *onsider the%ollowing+

/ A tele$ision co!!ercial portras a terrible auto!obile accident 8the%ear appeal9, and re!inds $iewers to wear their seatbelts 8the %ear(reducing beha$iour9.



94/245

/ A pa!phlet %ro! an insurance co!pan includes pictures o% houses

destroed b %loods 8the %ear appeal9, and %ollows up with details

about ho!e(owners4 insurance 8the %ear(reducing beha$iour9.

/ A letter %ro! a pro(gun organi


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/ Fear appeals will not succeed in altering beha$iour i% theaudience %eels powerless to change the situation.

/ Fear appeals are !ore likel to succeed in changingbeha$iour i% the contain speci%ic reco!!endations %orreducing the threat that the audience belie$es are bothe%%ecti$e and doable.

/ In su!!ar, there are %our ele!ents to a success%ul %ear

appeal+ =9 a threat, 9 a speci%ic reco!!endation abouthow the audience should beha$e, @9 audience perceptionthat the reco!!endation will be e%%ecti$e in addressing thethreat, and 9 audience perception that the are capable o%

per%or!ing the reco!!ended beha$iour.

/ When %ear appeals do not include all %our ele!ents, theare likel to %ail.



96/245

/ During the => ca!paign, :ndon Cohnson was said to ha$e swaed!an $oters with a well(known tele$ision co!!ercial that portraed aoung girl being annihilated in a nuclear blast. 'his co!!ercial linked

nuclear war to 3arr Goldwater 8Cohnson4s opponent9, and proposed a$ote %or Cohnson as an e%%ecti$e, doable wa o% a$oiding the threat.

/ In conte!porar politics, the %ear(appeal continues to be widespread.When a politician agitates the public4s %ear o% i!!igration, or cri!e,and proposes that $oting %or hi!&her will reduce the threat, he&she isusing this techni5ue.

/ When con%ronted with persuasi$e !essages that capitali


97/245

ad /ogic or *ropaganda0

/ :ogic is the process o% drawing a conclusion %ro! one or

!ore pre!ises. A state!ent o% %act, b itsel%, is neitherlogical or illogical 8although it can be true or %alse9.

/ As an e6a!ple o% how logic can be abused, consider the

%ollowing argu!ent which has been widel propagated on

the Internet./ Premise 6: 3ill *linton supports gun(control legislation.

/ Premise 7: All %ascist regi!es o% the twentieth centur

ha$e passed gun(control legislation.

/ %onclusion:3ill *linton is a %ascist.

Propaganda De$ices + :ogical Fallacies


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ad /ogic or *ropaganda0

/ ne wa o% testing the logic o% an argu!ent like this is to

translate the basic ter!s and see i% the conclusion still!akes sense. As ou can see, the pre!ises !a be correct,but the conclusion does not necessaril %ollow.

/ Premise 6: All *atholics belie$e in God.

/ Premise 7:All )usli!s belie$e in God.

/ %onclusion:All *atholics are )usli!s.

/ 'his is a rather e6tre!e e6a!ple o% how logic can beabused. 'he %ollowing pages describe others.

/ It should be noted that a !essage can be illogical without

being propagandistic (( we all !ake logical !istakes. 'hedi%%erence is that propagandists deliberately!anipulatelogic in order to pro!ote their cause.

Propaganda De$ices + :ogical Fallacies


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1nwarranted trapolation

/ 'he tendenc to !ake huge predictions about the %uture on the basis o%

a %ew s!all %acts is a co!!on logical %allac. As #tuart *hase pointsout, it is eas to see the persuasi$eness in this tpe o% argu!ent. 3

pushing one4s case to the li!it... one %orces the opposition into a

weaker position. 'he whole %uture is lined up against hi!. Dri$en to

the de%ensi$e, he %inds it hard to dispro$e so!ething which has not et

happened.

/ -6trapolation is what scientists call such predictions, with the warning

that the !ust be used with caution. A ho!el illustration is the dri$er

who %ound three gas stations per !ile along a stretch o% the )ontreal

highwa in Eer!ont, and concluded that there !ust be plent o% gas

all the wa to the North Pole. ou chart two or three points, draw a

cur$e through the!, and e6tend it inde%initel.

Propaganda De$ices + :ogical Fallacies 1nwarranted trapolation

/ 'hi l i l l i ht % h d %t id th b i % %% ti %


100/245

/ 'his logical sleight o% hand o%ten pro$ides the basis %or an e%%ecti$e %ear(

appeal. *onsider the %ollowing conte!porar e6a!ples+

/ &f "ongress passes legislation limiting the availability of automatic weapons,

2merica will slide down a slippery slope which will ultimately result in thebanning of all guns, the destruction of the "onstitution, and a totalitarian

police state%

/ &f the 1nited 3tates approves !2+T2, the giant sucking sound that we hear

will be the sound of thousands of jobs and factories disappearing to 4eico%

/ The introduction of communication tools such as the &nternet will lead to a

radical decentrali5ation of government, greater political participation, and a

rebirth of community%

/ When a co!!unicator atte!pts to con$ince ou that a particular action will

lead to disaster or to utopia, it !a be help%ul to ask the %ollowing 5uestions+

" Is there enough data to support the speaker4s predictions about the %uture1

" *an I think o% other was that things !ight turn out1

" I% there are !an di%%erent was that things could turn out, wh is the

speaker painting such an e6tre!e picture1

PRS&ASI"' THI%S


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PRS&ASI"' THI%S

/ *ode o% ethics to be used b PR practitioners+

/ Do not use %alse e$idence/ Do not use specious reasoning

/ Do not %alsel represent oursel%

/ Do not use irrele$ant appeals as di$ersions

/ Do not !ake %alse links to %a$orable $alues, !oti$es, or goals

/ Do not conceal our purpose or interest

/ Do not co$er up conse5uences

/ Do not use baseless e!otional appeals

/ Do not o$ersi!pli% co!ple6 situations

/ Do not %eign certaint

/ Do not ad$ocate what ou don4t belie$e oursel%

TH A&5I'% $"R P&(#I% R#ATI"'S


102/245

TH A&5I'% $"R P&(#I% R#ATI"'S

/ *haracteristics o% audience that need to taken into consideration

" Di$erse" Eisual orientation+ 'E is beco!ing the !ost credible in%o. source

" #ingle issues support

" -!phasis on personalit and Ocelebrit

" Distrust o% authorit and suspicious o% conspirac

" Internationali


103/245

)atching Audience and )ass )edia

/ )atching audience and !edia

" Print %or detail and conte!plation" 'ele$ision %or e!otional i!pact

" Radio %or %le6ibilit and speci%ic targets

" nline !edia %or custo!i


104/245

/ 3uilding )edia relationship

" )edia are bus

" -ditors are proud o% independence

" 'rust is earned and easil destroed

" In%or!ing !edia and public is i!portant work

" Assu!e stories 2udged on !erits as seen b the editors

" *ontinue ser$ing a%ter stor idea is accepted. ou cannot control the tone

o% the stor but ou can in%luence it b pro$iding %a$orable angles and

additional in%or!ation.

H"W T" %"MM&'I%AT 5&RI'! A %RISIS


105/245

H"W T" %"MM&'I%AT 5&RI'! A %RISIS

/ Put the public %irst

/ 'ake responsibilit/ 3e honest

/ Ne$er sa ONo co!!ent

/ Designate a single spokesperson

/ #et up a central in%or!ation center


106/245

/ Pro$ide a constant %low o% in%or!ation

/ 3e %a!iliar with !edia needs and deadlines/ 3e accessible

/ )onitor news co$erage and telephone in5uiries

/ *o!!unicate with ke publics

Crisis Communication Strategies


107/245

Crisis Communication Strategies

Attack the accuser

Denial

Excuse

Justification

Ingratiation

Corrective action Full apology

PR Planning and 0ecuting the .ublic relations8 %am.aign9


108/245

g g . . g

/ 3ecause planning is such an i!portant part o% public relations, it is use%ul to

understand the di%%erent re5uire!ents o% an e$ent, a ca!paign, and a progra!.

/ An e$ent is a one(shot occurrence. It happens in one ti!e %ra!e(an hour, a

da, or perhaps as long as a week(and it ser$es one pri!e purpose with one or

!ore selected publics.

/ A ca!paign has at least one thing in co!!on with an e$ent+ a speci%ic

beginning and ending point. 3ut because those two points are separated b

weeks or e$en !onths, and because se$eral di%%erent e$ents will be part o% theprocess, we call it a ca!paign.

/ A progra! is like a ca!paign in that it consists o% se$eral e$ents. 3ut it di%%ers

%ro! a ca!paign in that it has no pre(set and point.

/ A progra! is put in place because o% an anticipated need %or continued

disse!ination o% in%or!ation.

/ 'he progra! is re$iewed periodicall to deter!ine whether its ob2ecti$es are

being !et. All or parts o% it will be continued as long as there is a need %or

!ore co!!unication with target publics.



109/245

g g . . g

/ Drug education, dri$ing sa%et, blood donation, adoption, nutrition are

all social situations that call %or a continuing progra! since co!plete

resolution is out o% 5uestion.

/ In de%ining the situation and beginning the planning process,

te!porar chaos can result i% no one de%ines whether an e$ent, a

ca!paign or a progra! is in order. 'he deciding %actor !a be the

tpes o% ob2ecti$es desired b the client+

" *o!!unication,

" accurac,

" understanding,

" agree!ent, and

" co!ple!entar ob2ecti$es.


* i ti b2 ti % t i l d


110/245

/ *o!!unication b2ecti$es %or an e$ent include+

" Attendance b a certain nu!ber o% people.

" ne(ti!e disse!ination o% in%or!ation to a target public." Putting so!ething Oon the record %or an organi


111/245

/ b2ecti$es %or a progra! could include+

" *reating and !aintaining a le$el o% support %or an ongoingprogra! 8understanding9

" pening and !aintaining contact with other organi


112/245

g g . . g

/ #uccess%ul organi


113/245

/ nl when a !ission state!ent and goals are in place can the

!anage!ent o% an organi


114/245

/ nce goals and ob2ecti$es are in place, the can be drawn upon to plan

ca!paigns and progra!s.

" .esearchon the proble! or opportunit

" 2ctionthat includes e$aluation and planning

" "ommunicationo% the !essage %ro! organi


115/245

Research Methodology

/ Research can be e6tensi$e and e6pensi$e 8pri!ar9, or i% the situationwarrants, it can in$ol$e si!pl poring o$er e6isting in%or!ation alread

gathered %or another purpose and anal


116/245

/ Focus group inter$iews are a !arketing research techni5ue that has been

success%ul adopted b the needs o% public relations practitioners. 'he do not

ield the strictl 5uantitati$e data that can be gotten %ro! a sur$e.

/ 'he ha$e the ad$antage o% being open(ended and per!itting !e!bers o%

target groups to speak in their own ter! o% understanding, pro$ide their own

e!phasis, and response to the $iews e6pressed b other !e!bers o% the sa!e

group.

/ 'he %ocus group inter$iew re5uires trained !oderators and e5uip!ents %orrecording the session. Audio and&or $ideo tapes ha$e to be put in transcript

%or!, and then the transcript !ust be su!!ari


117/245

/ Identi%ing our ke publics(those groups that are !ore likel to seek and

process in%or!ation and to beha$e in a wa conse5uences on our

organi


118/245

/ We ha$e learned to identi% ke publics and !ake sure that their in%or!ationneeds are ser$ed be%ore we concern oursel$es with the so(called Ogeneral

public./ 'he ca!paign or progra! ai!ed at the !ost i!portant publics needs to be

%ull %unded be%ore additional !one is spent on progra!s ai!ed onsecondar publics(a concept e6plored.

/ I% ke public ha$e not been identi%ied in the planning stage, there is alikelihood that Oa little !one will be spent on this, and a little on that( an

ad$ertise!ent here, '(shirts there, and probabl an all(purpose brochure 2ustbecause so!ebod sas Owe ought to ha$e a brochure.

/ 3udgeting !ust %ollow the setting o% goals and ob2ecti$es, and it also !ust%ollow the identi%ication o% ke publics. It precedes !edia selection and!essage design.

/ I% budgeting is done at the wrong point in the process, it is di%%icult %or public

relations people to e6plain their %inancial needs to !anage!ent. I% on the otherhand, the Oho!ework has been done, !anage!ent can better understand there5uest %or the -uros needed to acco!plish the ob2ecti$es set %or the kepublics.

PR Planning and 0ecuting the .ublic relations8 %am.aign: Selecting

channels and media


119/245

/ During the planning o% a ca!paign or a progra!, part o% the analsis o%each ke public should include such 5uestions as+

" Where do !e!bers o% our ke publics get their in%or!ation1

" Which !edia do the rel upon to !ake decisions about what isi!portant and how to beha$e1

" Which channels pro$ide the two(wa co!!unication that enableske publics to pro$ide in%or!ation to our organi


120/245

/ 'he %irst public o% an organi


121/245

It is eas, and perhaps all too co!!on, to $iew e!ploees as a cost in a

line(ite! budget deter!ining the price o% a product or ser$ice. 'his attitude

%osters the idea that the less an organi


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/ 'he public relations %unction, pro$iding the co!!unications channelbetween e!ploers and e!ploee groups, is i!portant on both sides o% therelationship. Practitioners are called on to participate !ore or lesscontinuousl in %our phases o% an e!ploee4s work e6perience+

/ 'he start. For e6a!ple, recruiting progra!s or help wanted ad$ertising,orientation sessions, tours, or kits o% in%or!ation.

/ n(the(2ob working conditions. For e6a!ple, e!ploee publications,bulletin boards, suggestion sste!s, training !eetings, !orale boosters,

sur$es o% attitudes, co!plaint sessions, %eedback !echanis!s,telecon%erencing.

/ Rewards and recognitions. For e6a!ple, award progra!s, i!ple!entationo% e!ploee participation in ci$ic a%%airs, staging o% political science orecono!ic education e$ents, old(ti!ers4 parties, open houses, wageincreases or bonuses, pro!otions, annual reports to e!ploees, and so on.

/ 'he work stoppage or ter!ination. For e6a!ple, co!!unications in astrike, lao%%, or bocott proble!, news about bene%its %or retirees, a retireepublication, pro2ects to help laid(o%% e!ploees relocate, or e6it inter$iews.

RULE5 OF EFFECTIVE RELATION5


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/ Although there are a $ariet o% tools a$ailable to acco!plish e!ploee(e!ploerco!!unications, three basic principles pre$ail as guidelines %or the practitioner.

/ 69m.loyees must be told first. -!ploees should be the %irst to be told in%or!ationa%%ecting the! and their 2obs7 the should be told directl b the e!ploer. 'herelationship is ad$ersel a%%ected when e!ploees learn %ro! outside sources about!atters that a%%ect the!. 'wo(wa trust is 2eopardi


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/ rgani


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/ &se the media that em.loyees trust9

" =. I!!ediate super$isor

" . #!all group !eetings

" @. [Yp e6ecuti$es

" . :arge group !eetings

" ?. -!ploee handbook or other booklets

" . rientation progra!

" \. Regular local e!ploee publication . 3ulletin boards" >. Annual report to e!ploees

" =. Regular general e!ploee publication

" ==. pward co!!unication progra!s

" =. Audio$isual progra!s

" =@. union" =. )ass !edia

" =?. Grape$ine 8Word o% )outh9

5SI!'I'! A' >?@#B>> R#ATI"'S8 P#A'


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/ Research, ob2ecti$es, progra!!ing, and e$aluation are use%ul proble! sol$ingtools in e!ploee relations.

/ RSAR%H/ Research %or e!ploee relations help to understand the reason %or

co!!unication, and identi%ing the e!ploee audiences to be targeted %orco!!unication.

/ em.loyee Research/ *lient research %or e!ploee relations %ocuses on information about the

organi


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/ "..ortunity or Problem Research

/S second %ocal point %or research is the reason for conducting ane!ploee relations progra!.

" Is a new progra! reall necessar1

" 'his 5uestion should be answered with care because it 2usti%ies the

necessar e6penditure %or a progra!. Would the progra! be

reacti$e ( in response to a proble! that has arisen in e!ploeerelations ( or would it be proacti$e(taking ad$antage o% an

opportunit to i!pro$e e6isting e!ploee relations1

/ S sur$e o% e!ploee attitudes !a re$eal a $ariet o% issues,

including+ low le$els o% satis%action and !orale, dislike o% the phsical

surroundings, and&or %rustration with internal policies.


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/ Audience Research

/ 'he %inal area o% research in$ol$es precisel de%ining the employee audiences

to be targeted %or co!!unication. 'hese audiences can be identi%ied using the%ollowing ter!s+

/ )anage!ent

" pper(le$el ad!inistrators )idle$el ad!inistrators :ower(le$elad!inistrators

/ Non(!anage!ent 8sta%%9+ #pecialists, *lerical personnel, #ecretarial personnel

" ni%or!ed personnel+ -5uip!ent operators Dri$ers, #ecurit personnel

/ nion representati$es

/ ther blue collar workers

/ -%%ecti$e research on e!ploee relations is %or

" understanding o% the client4s personnel,

" the opportunit or proble! that ser$es as a reason %or co!!unication withthe work%orce, and

" the speci%ic identi%ication o% the e!ploee audiences to be targeted %orco!!unication.

/ b2ecti$es %or e!ploee relations include the two !a2or categories o%

i!pact and output.


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p p

/ Im.act "b=ecti+es

/ I!pact ob2ecti$es %or e!ploee relations include in%or!ing e!ploees or!odi%ing their attit

public realtion

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