9678

An Assessmentof the UNDP-World Bank

Water and Sanitation Program

r~~~~~~

Report of an Independent Team C

May 1991

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

UNDP-World Bank

Water and Sanitation Program

A Forward-Looking Assessment

May 1991

© The World Bank1818 H Street, NWWashington, DC 20433 USA

All rights reservedManufactured in the United States of America

This document has been prepared by an independent, external Assessment Team appointed by the United NationsDevelopment Programme and the World Bank. Copies of the document may be obtained from the UNDP-World BankWater and Sanitation Program through the World Bank. Material may be quoted with proper attribution. The findings,interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the Assessment Team and should not beattributed in any manner to the UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, the United Nations Development Pro-gramme, the World Bank, or any affiliated organizations.

Assessment Team Members: Personal Profiles

Assessment Team Leader West Africa Team

John Olver (U.S.A.), Dobbs Ferry, New York. Jean-Claude Andreini (France), BURGEAP, Paris,Mr. Olver is a Special Representative of the France.Administrator of UNDP, most recently super- Mr. Andreini is a hydrogeologist and ruralvising the Program of Assistance to the Pales- watersupplyspecialistpresentlyemployedastinian People. He joined UNDP in 1968 as anassistantdirectoratBURGEAPinParis. HeDirector of Finance, after 22 years of employ- has been with BURGEAP since 1976 and hasment in the UN family of organizations. When worked extensively in 10 countries, primarilyheretired from full-time service in 1980,he was in West Africa. Most recently he has hadtheAssistantAdministratorforAdministration responsibility for overseeing a rural waterand Finance. He holds an advanced degree in supply project in the central region of Ghana.Public Administration from Syracuse University. He received his engineering degree in Nancy.

James Berna (U.S.A.). Olufemi Nzegwu (U.K), Reading, Berkshire, UnitedMr. Berna, an experienced evaluator of World Kingdom.Bank and UNDP projects, assisted the Assess- Dr. Nzegwu isa specialistin managementandment Team Leader as a research and analysis planning of health systems and training ofconsultant. He holds a Ph.D. in development community workers. She has held variouseconomics from Columbia University. managerial and technical positions in health

programs in Nigeria (African HealthAfrica Consultancy Services, UNICEF, Ministry of

Health) and the United States. She holds aDesmond McNeill (U.K.), Team Leader, Norwegian master's degree in public health from theAgency for Development Cooperation, Oslo, Norway. Universityof Califomia and has recently com-

Dr. McNeill is a development economist, spe- pleted her doctorate in social policy at thecializing in project appraisal and evaluation. London School of Economics.He has 20 years' experience in 15 countries,primarily in Africa and Asia, and is now em- East Africa Teamployed as an adviser in the water supply sectorof NORAD. He holds degrees from University l. Martin Jackson (U.K.), Edinburgh, Scotland.of Cambridge and London University. Prior to his retirement in 1988, Mr. Jackson

worked as a sanitary engineer in WHO's Di-vision of Environmental Health in Geneva.During this time, he oversaw the preparation

iii

of 20 national waterand sanitation sector stud- joining the Asian Development Bank in 1984,ies done through the WHO/World Bank Pro- for six years he was associate partner, based ingram and organized many Decade consulta- Singapore, of the British firm of consultantstive meetings. Prior to joining WHO in 1973, Watson-Hawksley. Mr. Wirasinha is a profes-Mr. Jackson held various positions in the UK sionally qualified sanitary engineer with adomestic and overseas civil service. degree in civil engineering.

David Nyamwaya (Kenya), African Medical and Latin America TeamResearch Foundation (AMREF), Neirobi, Kenya.

Dr. Nyamwaya currently is the director of the Orlando Olcese (Peru), Team Leader, Scarsdale, NewHealth Behavior and Education Departmentat York.AMREF. Prior to joining AMREF in 1986, he From 1971 through 1989, Mr. Olcese was em-worked with UNICEF in the Eastern and ployed in various management positions inSouthern Africa Regional Office in Nairobi the United Nations system, beginning withand attheInstituteforAfricaStudiesinNairobi. FAO in Rome, with UNDP in Guatemala, inDr. Nyamwaya holds degrees in medical and NewYorkasExecutiveSecretaryoftheUnitedsocial anthropology from Cmbridge University. Nations Capital DevelopmentFund (UNCDF),

and with UNDP in Haiti and Nicaragua. PriorAsia Team to 1971, he served as Minister of Agriculture in

Peru and in various faculty positions in Peru.Yoon Yul Kim (Republic of Korea), Team Leader, Seoul, He holds degrees in agriculture and biochem-Korea. istry and nutrition.

Mr. Kim worked with UNDP from 1961 untilhis retirement in October 1988. His final po- Caroline Pezzullo (U.S.A.), New York, New York.sitions atUNDP were as UNDP Regional Rep- Ms. Pezzullo is a specialist in human resourceresentative in Thailand (1985-88) and in Ma- development, concentrating in particular onlaysia (1983-85), and as Resident Representa- women and development, with an emphasistive in Sri Lanka (1977-83). Mr. Kim holds a on housing and the environment. Since 1975,degree in economics and political science. she has operated her own firm (Caroline

Pezzullo Associates) and carried out a wideCecilia Cabafiero-Verzosa (Philippines), Academy for range of consulting assignments for interna-Educational Development, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. tional and U.S. organizations, in Africa, Latin

Ms. Verzosa has had 15 years' experience in America,and Asia. Hereducationisinhumanpublic health programs in a dozen developing resources development.countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.Prior to joining the Academy for Educational International Training NetworkDevelopment in 1986, where she is a seniorprogram officer, she directed a Philippine Denis Robert (France), CEFIGRE, Sophia Antipolis,foundation engaged in social marketing/re- France.searchand field testingoflow-costtechnologies Mr. Robert has had extensive experience infor primary health care, and worked with the water supply and sanitation. He has held twoProgramforAppropriateTechnologyinHealth positions with CEFIGRE as the director-gen-inAsia. Sheholdsamaster'sdegreeingovern- eral since early 1990 and, from 1984-86, as themental management head of the water supply and sanitation de-

partment. From 1988-89, he worked on waterRanjith Wirasinha (Sri Lanka), Infrastructure supply and sanitation projects in West AfricaDepartment, Water Supply, Asian Development Bank, for the World Bank and, from 1986-88, wasManila, Philippines. posted in Abidjan with the UNDP-World Bank

Mr. Wirasinha presently is a senior project Water and Sanitation Program. Prior to that,engineer with the Asian Development Bank, he worked for several French consulting firmswhere he is responsible, as task manager, for and was stationed in C6te d'Ivoire and Mo-the appraisal and implementation of water rocco. He has degrees in physical science andsupply and sanitation projects. Prior to his engineering.

iv

Acronyms

AFTIN Africa Region Technical Department, Infrastructure DivisionAIT Asian Institute of Technology (Bangkok)AMREF African Medical and Research FoundatiornASTIN Asia Region Technical Department, Infrastructure DivisionCAPRE Central American Association of Water AuthoritiesCEPIS Pan American Center for Sanitary Engineering and Environmental SciencesCESI country external support informationCIDA Canadian International Development AgencyCIEH Comite Interafricain d'Etudes HydrauliquesCREPA Centre regional pour l'eau potable et l'assainissement A faible coatDANIDA Danish Intemational Development AgencyDGIP Division for Global and Interregional Programmes, United Nations Development

ProgrammeDGIS Directorate General for International Cooperation (Netherlands)EDI Economic Development InstituteEEC European Economic CommunityEMENA Europe, Middle East, and North AfricaEPFL Ecole Polytechnique Federale de LausanneERIS Regional School for Sanitary Engineering and Water ResourcesESA extemal support agencyFAO United Nations Food and Agriculture OrganizationHABITAT United Nations Centre for Human SettlementsHRD human resources developmentIBRD Intemational Bank for Reconstruction and DevelopmentIDB Inter-American Development BankIDWSSD Intemational Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation DecadeIHE Intemational Institute for Hydraulic and Environmental EngineeringILO Intemational Labour OrganisationINFOM Institute for Municipal Development in GuatemalaINURD Infrastructure and Urban Development Department, Urban Development DivisionINUWS Infrastructure and Urban Development Department, Water and Sanitation DivisionEPF indicative planning figuresIRC Intemational Reference Centre for Community Water Supply and SanitationITB Institute of Technology BandungITN Intemational Training Network

v

IWSA International Water Supply AssociationLAC Latin America and the CaribbeanLDC least developed countriesLWUA Local Water Utilities Administration (Manila)NCO national country officerNGO nongovernmental organizationODA Overseas Development Administration (United Kingdom)OSB operational support to the BankPAHO Pan American Health OrganizationPPU Project Preparation UnitPRE Policy, Research, and External RelationsPROWWESS Promotion of the Role of Women in Water and Environmental Sanitation ServicesRAF Regional Africa (UNDP)RAS Regional Asia (UNDP)RBA Regional Bureau for Africa, (UNDP)RBAP Regional Bureau for Asia and the Pacific (UNDP)RBLAC Regional Bureau for Latin America and the Caribbean (UNDP)RWSG Regional Water and Sanitation GroupRWSS rural water supply and sanitationSDC Swiss Development CorporationSDT sector development teamsSOD sector operating divisionsTAG Technical Advisory GroupUEST Urban Environmental Services TeamUNIDTCD United Nations Department of Technical Cooperation for DevelopmentUNCDF United Nations Capital Development FundUJNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUNICEF United Nations Children's FundUNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for WomenUSAID United States Agency for International DevelopmentVIP ventilated improved pit latrineVLOM village-level operation and maintenanceWASH Water and Sanitation for Health ProjectWHO World Health OrganizationWSS water supply and sanitation

vi

Table of Contents

Preface ix

Part I Summary of Principal Findings and Recommendations 3

Part II : Comprehensive Report of the Assessment Team 11

Chapter I Origin and Evolution 13

Chapter II An Emerging Identity 17

Chapter m The Financial Base 20

Chapter IV Interchange with Sponsors 23

Chapter V The World Bank Linkages 25

Chapter VI Management and Staffing 29

Chapter VII Field Structure 32

Chapter VIm Strategy and Effectiveness 39

Chapter IX International Training Network (ITN) 50

Chapter X Program Priorities in the 1990s 59

Annexes: 691: Regional and In-Country Staff2: Externally Financed Investment Projects in which the Program Is Involved3: Distribution of Program Services by Country: 1988-19914: UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program Costs

vii

Preface

The UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation designed as a traditional in-depth evaluation ofProgram has been active in varying degrees in 40 the Program's impact on sector development incountries, employs a field and headquarters staff the countries where operations have taken place.numbering some 70 higher-level staff positions, There are two main reasons for this: (a) the rela-and is funded by UNDP and 10 bilateral donors at tively short elapsed time since the Program as-about US$10 million per year. Present percep- sumed its present form in 1988; and (b) the level oftions of the Program's approach and achieve- resources that would have been required for aments have appeared to its managers to be gen- comprehensivein-depthevaluationinproportionerally positive, on the part of both supporting to the benefits to be expected.agencies and participating governments. Initial terms of reference were compre-

The Program has evolved from a one- hensive and ambitious, covering numerous ele-project beginning in 1978 and assumed its present ments, but because of time and financial limita-form largely in response to the priorities and goals tions the Team Leader decided to focus the As-of the International Drinking Water Supply and sessmentonthemostcritical questionsand issues:Sanitation Decade (IDWSSD) during the 1980s. (a) The roles of UNDP as a major supportingMany of those goalsremain valid, and while some agency and of the World Bank as executingneeds have now been largely met, new ones have agency and manager of the Program;emerged that must be addressed during the cur- (b) The financing of the Program;rent decade, particularly in Asia and Latin (c) The identity of the Program, its relationsAmerica. Many lessons, both technical and insti- with other ESAs and its future governance;tutional, have been learned and now need to be (d) Management, staffing, and organizationalapplied on a broad scale. arrangements;

The two major partners, UNDP and the (e) Program strategy and impact, with particu-World Bank, have therefore considered it appro- lar reference to effectiveness in influencingpriate to sponsor a forward-looking assessment of government and donor sector policies and inthe Program to determine what changes, if any, in capacity building;program orientation, structure, and operations (f) The structure and effectiveness of the Inter-may increase its effectiveness and impact in the national Training Network; andyears ahead. (g) The challenges of the 1990s and their impli-

Accordingly, the main focus of the As- cations for the Program.sessment is on the future orientation of the Pro- The Assessment was carried out duringgram rather than on its past record. While it is the last quarter of 1990 under the direction of aobviously necessary to examine this record in Team Leader, with field teams for Africa, Asia,certain critical areas, this exercise has not been and Latin America, and a special examiner for the

ix

Intemational Training Network. The Team also Concurrently, theTeam Leaderconductedtook into account the findings of a mission com- extensive interviews with all supporting bilateralmissioned separately by UNDP, which visited donors; the various World Bank departments in-Jordan, Egypt, and Tunisia in latter November. A volved in the Program; UNDPs Division for Glo-consultant familiar with the Program since its bal and Interregional Projects (DGIP) as well asinception assisted with research and analysis. the Regional Bureaux and PROWWESS; and

Fieldwork was preceded by a three-day UNICEF, WHO, UN/DTCD, and ILO.briefingworkshopfortheTeamLeadersand some ThisreporthasbeenpreparedbytheTeamTeam members, held at World Bank heacdquar- Leader on the basis of the findings and recom-ters, to analyze sector issues and Program ap- mendations emerging from these investigationsproaches. Following this workshop, the Field and discussions. The report contains specificTeams carried out in-country investigations in recommendations that represent a consensus ofChina, Indonesia, Bangladesh, and India in Asia; the Team members. These are summed up in Partin Ghana, Nigeria, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, and I of the report.Kenya in Africa; and in Bolivia, Peru, Costa Rica, TheTeamLeaderandhiscolleagueswishand Guatemala in Latin America. Comments from to express their appreciation to the many govern-countries not visited, but where the Program has ment and agency officials who provided theirbeen active, were also invited through UNDP views and advice, as well as to the entire staff ofResident Representatives. Replies were received the Program - in the field and at headquarters -from eight countries: Kenya, Rwanda, and Zim- for their indispensable insights, support, andbabwe in Africa; and Nepal, Pakistan, the Plhilip- cooperation.pines, Sri Lanka, and Thailand in Asia.

x

Part ISummary of Principal Findings

and Recommendations

Summary of Principal Findings andRecommendations

1. Thegeneral findingof theTeamis that the ommends that the Program be placed on a moreProgram is basically sound and deserves contin- secure financial basis through a series of sug-ued support, and that its field structure is broadly gested measures.appropriate. It has only recently been established 3. The Program should continue to focus itsin its present form and has therefore not yet had a activities on expansion of coverage for the poor insubstantial impact on sector development as mea- both rural and urban areas through the applica-sured by the expansion of service coverage or by tion of low-cost technologies and community-increased investment. It has made a promising based approaches to sector development. Con-start, however, and is now well placed to make currently, the Team suggests that the present Asiause of the lessons learned during the International Sector Development Team (SDT) be broadenedDrinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade into an Interregional Urban Environmental Ser-(The Decade) and to assist governments to de- vices Team (UEST), possibly under the manage-velop effective policies and strategies for expand- ment of the Urban Development Division of theing services to low-income communities. A foun- Bank's Infrastructure Department, to facilitatedationhasalso beenlaid forclosercollaboration in collaboration of the two programs in rapidly ex-this effort on the part of external support agencies. panding urban centers.2. While the results have been generallypositive there are a number of areas in which Chapter II: An Emerging IdentityProgram strategy and management can be im-proved. The principal institutional issue is where Findingsthe direction and management of the Programshould be located. The Team's recommendation 1. The Program at present does not have ais that it should remain linked to the World Bank sharp image and completely clear identity; thereas executing agency, but should establish its own is confusion on the part of governments as toidentity, through a name change and other mea- whether staff represent the World Bank, UNDP,sures, and maintain a higher degree of autonomy/ or a separate program. The present name contrib-To contribute to this it is proposed that a Review utes to this.Board, comprised of representatives of support- 2. ThemandateoftheProgramisnotentirelying donors, be established. It is recommended cleartoparticipatinganddonorgovernmentsandthat within the Bank, Program management con- some other assistance agencies, but theProgramistinue to be exercised by the Water and Sanitation recognized as a catalyst for serving unmet needs.Division of the Infrastructure Department 3. Other UN agencies with substantial in-(INUWS) of the Bank's Policy, Research, and Ex- terest in the sector would like to be more activelyternal Relations complex. Finally, the Team rec- involved: specifically, WHO, PAHO, UNICEF,

3

ILO, and UN/DTCD. 4. In addition, funding sources will need to4. Contacts between the Program and re- be increased if the Program is to expand in Latingional development banks have been marginal: America and the Arab states.practically nonexistent with the African Develop-ment Bank; some contacts with the Asia Develop- Recommendationsment Bank in a few countries. No meaningfulcontact has been established with the UNCDF, a (a) UNDP should continue to provide core sup-potential source of funding for field projects. port for the Program at not less than the5. Collaboration with NGOs has special existing level and the World Bank shouldimportance and is encouraged. PROWWESS assume significant financial responsibilityshould be involved. towards the core costs.

(b) A Joint Task Force should be set upby UNDPRecommendations and the Bank to negotiate an appropriate

division of core cost support.(a) Change the title of the Program to Joint Pro- (c) UNDPs Regional Bureaux should continue

gram for Water and Sanitation. and expand their support, including the(b) Issue abrochure, asa successor to the present broadening of operations in Latin America

"strategy document," announcing the and the Arab states.changes and defining the mandate of the (d) UNDP should consider consolidating all itsProgram more clearly. support into an overall indicative planning

(c) Link the Program more closely with the subvention for core support (at both head-monitoring program currently being devel- quarters and field level) on a rolling basisoped by UNICEFincollaborationwithWHO, over a five-year period, allocated under thewith CESI, and with ILO's network of train- minimum possible documents.ing programs.

(d) Establish closer links with other UN agency Chapter IV: Interchange with Sponsorssector staff already working in participatingcountries, and draw upon the agencies for Findingsshort-term consultant services.

(e) Increase the participation of PROWWESS in 1. A missing feature of vital importance is aProgram activities as a means of expanding mechanism for providing regular opportunitieslinks with NGOs (as well as enhancing for interchanges on Program policy and progresswomen's participation at various levels). between the Program management and financial

(f) Expand contacts with regional development supporters.banks (following policy discussions in the 2. The result has been lack of informationCollaborative Council). regarding Program goals and achievements; and

no authoritative and fully grounded mandate forChapter III: The Financial Base Program activities in relation to sector goals of the

international community.Findings

Recommendations1. UNDP accounts for about two-thirds ofthe core funding, and there is uncertainty as to 3. Asmall,informal ReviewBoard compris-whether this level of funding can be maintained. ing representatives of supporting donors should2. The short-term and uncertain nature of be established with the following functions:the funds available from year to year results in (a) Provideforcandidandunrestrictedexchangesevere management problems. of views;3. The financial contribution of the World (b) Sanction important policy statements;Bank is far too little in proportion to the existing (c) Verify the need for significant changes inand potential services and operational support managerial and programming arrangements;available from the Program. It is not consistent (d) Consider new initiatives, taking account ofwith the "partnership concept" proposed for the the need for coordination with Board mem-future. bers' own programs; and,

4

(e) Help mobilize continuing support for the Chapter VL Management and StaffingProgram.

FindingsChapter V: The World Bank Linkages

1. Generally speaking, the Program is wellFindings managed, althoughthenatureof itstasksrequires

the application of retail methods to wholesale1. The Program is well known throughout problems. Considerable responsibility has beenthe Bank and is generally well regarded; its po- delegated to RWSGs for implementation of thetential is increasingly recognized by the regional agreed work programs. This is appropriate andoperations and technical departments. should be continued.2. Working relationships between these 2. It would appear that the size of thedepartments and the Program have been gener- headquarters staff could be reduced somewhat,ally satisfactory. Operational support provided particularlyiffundingandaccountingproceduresby the Program to the Bank hasbeen growing, but could be streamlined as suggested.contraryto somenoutsideperceptions, theProgram 3. The most serious management problemhas not become unduly subordinated to normal concerns thediversityin conditions of service andBank activities. salary levels among different categories of staff3. If the Program is to scale up its activities both at headquarters and in the field. The presentsignificantly in the next phase, closer cooperation situation is very damaging to staff morale, andwith the Bank's regional offices will be required makes it difficult for the Program to attract andas regards both policy guidance to govemments hold highly qualified people.and preinvestment work. 4. Other areas also require some improve-4. However, there would be no significant ment: field to headquarters reporting (to placeadvantages in shifting the management of field greater emphasis on the impact of activities andoperations to the Bank's regional offices, and the outputs rather than merely on delivery of inputs);Team considers that this would entail a number of better reporting to govemments and supportingrisks and disadvantages. donors; Program monitoring and evaluation.

5. A reorganization plan under preparationRecommendations should be given time to show its effects.

(a) The World Bank should continue to serve as Recommendationsexecuting agency for the Program, with day-to-day management located in INUWS, as at (a) Consideration should be given to carryingpresent. out a more comprehensive organization and

(b) Cooperation between the Program and the management study of the headquartersBank's technical and operating departments structure than the team was able to conduct,in the areas of work programming, sector to identify possible economies and ways ofwork, project preparation, and policy guid- improving management efficiency.ance to governments should be continued (b) The problems relating to conditions of ser-and expanded. vice should be addressed as a matter of ur-

(c) The future development of Program/Bank gency. The Team proposes that the Bank'scooperation should be monitored to ensure Vice President for Personnel and Adminis-that it remains in appropriate balance with tration be requested to undertake a review ofthe Program'sbroader goals, sector priorities the present situation for the purpose of de-of participating governments, and relations velopinga system that would reduce existingwith other donors and assistance programs. anomalies to the absolute minimum consis-Such monitoring is an appropriate function tent with the legal requirements governingfor the Review Board. World Bank administration.

(c) As a minimum, all staff members, beforesigning their contracts, should be informedvery clearly of the terms on which they arebeing engaged. In addition, field staff should

5

be told the terms of employment of other the Program can most effectively assist countriesmembers of the RWSGs. of the region. The issue needs further study.

Chapter VII: Field Structure Recommendations

Findings (a) Although the composition of the variousRWSGs will necessarily vary in accordance

1. TheRWSGconceptisbasicallysoundand with the regional situation and Program pri-has produced useful results. The RWSGs are orities, membership night typically include:considered to be a cost-effective mechanism for * engineer (rural water supply)providing needed assistance to particilpating * economist/financial analystgovernments. * community development specialist2. The appropriate size of a fully opera- * human resources development specialisttional RWSG is about seven to ten professional * engineer (sanitation and waste manage-members. A group smaller than this would be ment)unable to produce a significant impact, consider- * one person-year of consultancy (various)ing the large number of countries to be served. A * a public health specialist in West Africagroup much larger than this would run the risk of (b) The human resource specialist would be re-becoming a "mini-bureaucracy" with escalating sponsible for expanding activities aimed atoverhead and administrative costs. capacity building and for relations between3. Present composition of the African the RWSGs and the ITN Centers.RWSGs is weighted too heavily towards engi- (c) InWestAfrica,half themembersof theRWSGneers, as well as towards expatriate experts. should be French speaking.4. The Francophone countries have not yet (d) More nationals from the respective regionreceived sufficient support from the should be included in the RWSGs, and in-Program,whichhasuptonowconcentratedmainly country staff should, to the extent possible,on Anglophone countries of the region. The West be nationals of the country concerned.Africa RWSG is now addressing this situation. (e) Budgetary resources should be increased to5. The RWSGs enjoyconsiderable autonomy provide for additional countryProgram staff,and flexibility in implementing the agreed upon some of whom could assist a cluster of neigh-work programs. Following the establishment of boring countries.the Program, the Bank's sector operating divi- (f) In Latin America two modest offices -sions deal directly with the RWSGs with regard to RWSGs in embryo - should be established:the agreed cooperative arrangements, largely by- * one forCentral America and theCaribbeanpassing Program headquarters in the interest of region based in Guatemala City; andspeed. This does not appear to cause any problems a one for South America, based in Bolivia.6. RWSGs have been most effective whenthey have had strong in-country linkages with Chapter VIII: Strategy and Effectivenessparticipating countries. There is a need tostrengthen these linkages, either through the Findings: Program Strategymultiplication of national country officers orthrough other means. 1. The activities of the Program are in close7. The absence of any RWSG in Latin conformitywiththestatedobjectivesandstrategy:America has resulted in very little Program im- (a) There is a strong poverty orientation. Al-pact in that region. The point has been reached though activities are not concentrated on thewhen governments and external supportagencies poorest countries of the various regions, theywould welcome the Programe on a regularized are focused on increasing service coveragebasis. PAHOandUNICEFhaveexpressedinter- for the poorer localities and communities,est in cooperating with the Program. both rural and urban.8. An independent consultant reports that (b) In line with this orientation, emphasis isin the Arab states the main common problems to placed on the development and applicationbe resolved relate to water resource conservation, of affordable low-cost technologies versusplanning,andmanagement. Itisnotyetclearhow expensive conventional systems.

6

(c) Sector policy advice to governments empha- cost in relation to population covered, resulting insizes these themes as well as community uncertainty about the potential for replicability;involvement, including involvement of insufficient emphasis on the involvement ofwomen. women; and inadequate integration into the

2. The Program favors an integrated ap- country's institutional setup. Results of theseproach, covering both economic and health as- demonstration projects have not yet been used aspects, but in practice there is often more narrow the basis for drawing up schemes for large-scaleaction, particularly in regard to demonstration expansion of water and sanitation services.projects. 9. Program participation in World Bank3. The Program has no clear criteria for se- project preparation and Program influence on thelecting countries for participation. Primary con- Bank's lending policies have been more extensivesiderations have been receptiveness of the gov- than generally realized.emment and chances for success. Similarly, in 10. Several govemments have affirmed toconnection with monitoring and evaluation, there the Team that Program activities have begun tois a lack of progress on developing criteria for influence their sector policies and strategies. Thesuccess. applied research work and associated publica-4. Country work programs appear to be tions (most of which are attributable to earliergenerally in line with sector needs and govem- projects now incorporated into the Program) havement priorities. broadened the technological options available to5. In Africa, country work programs have govemrnments. The Program has also made a startlargely been determined by Program staff in on broadening institutional and financial optionsconsultation with the Bank's operating depart- and on helping govermments to develop support-ments. Also, in Africa, consultations with the ive policy frameworks. So far the Program ap-participating governments have been generally pears to have had relatively little influence onmarginal to the process. In Asia, governments donor policies.have considerably more influence on the country 11. Little success has been achieved as yet inwork programs. the area of capacity building when defined as the6. Despite some defects in implementation, preparation of nationals to take over the functionsthe Team concludes that the Program strategy is of the RWSGs as well as the capacity of govern-sound, and that the Program can rightly claim to ments to shift away from the role of provider ofhavemade an importantcontribution towards the services to facilitators of affordable self-reliantpromotion of affordable and sustainable services community-based systems.for low-income communities in numerous coun- 12. Work with the private sector has beentries where it is operational. confined largely to assistance to handpump and

latrine materials manufacturers, whereas the pri-Findings: Effectiveness and Impact vate sector has the potential for getting involved

in many other ways.7. The most important area of activity, as 13. The main strengths or comparative ad-measured by the volume of staff time, has been vantagesof the Program vis-a-visother assistancesector policy and planning work, including sector programs lie in the areas of sector analysis work,advisory support to governments, implementa- policy advice, applied research, information dis-tion of sector studies, and project preparation semination, networking, and, at least potentially,work, often in collaboration with the Bank. It is in better donor coordination. It has not beentoo early to assess the eventual impact of these shown that the Program has a clear comparativeactivities as many of the studies and strategic advantage in the implementationof rural demon-plans have been completed only recently or are stration projects, nor, as presently set up, in thestill in progress. area of capacity building.8. High priority has been given to the orga-nizationof demonstration projects and other work Recommendationswithlow-costtechnologies.Severalprojectsappeartobedevelopinginapromisingway. Manyothers (a) The Program should concentrate its majorhave had mixed results and suffer from some of activities on a relatively small number ofthe following weaknesses: small scale and high countries, relying on others to continue ac-

7

tivities elsewhere with lesser support from -2. The ITN general concept and develop-the Program - that is, provide a catalytic ment objectives are sound and clearly oriented torather than a long-term support function. capacity building; but the Network Centers lack

(b) Organized consultations should beheld with short-term and tangible objectives and their insti-all governments with regard to the proposed tutional long-term impact is questionable.country work program for their countries 3. Country or regional ITN activities areprior to its finalization. supported by bilateral aid and UNDP country

(c) Futureeemphasisshouldbeplacedonanalyz- offices. Expansion of the ITN is closelydependenting the lessons learned from Program-spon- on ITN management capacity to promote the ITNsored demonstration work as well as from among the donor community.theexperienceaccumulatedbyotheragencies 4. Global collaboration among ITN Centersand programs, and on disseminating the in- recently started but is hampered by the weaknessformation thus gathered as a step towards of ITN management from the coordination unit atscaling-up to major investment projects. World Bank headquarters.Organization of rural water supply demon-stration projects should be de-emphasized Recommendationsunless there is a compelling reason to orga-nize one, in collaboration with government, (a) Govemments should demonstrate a strongwhere none exists. interest in the ITN concept and objectives

(d) Work in low-income, congested urban areas before a Network Center is established.both on the, urban fringe and within cities (b) The assessment process for establishing ashould be expanded along with intensified Network Center should be oriented to theresearch and development aimed atbuilding objectives, and the selection of host institu-a wider range of low-cost intermediate tech- tions, key staff, and preparation of work pro-nologies, with high priority on sanitation. grams should follow accordingly.

(e) Sustainability should be a high priority goal (c) The short-term objectives of any Networkfor all projects, rural or urban. Center - namely, to stimulate shifts from

(f) The Program should define more clearly its conventional high-cost technologies and ap-approach to capacity building and to the proachestononconventionalorless-conven-priorities it should focus on in this important tional ones, should be achieved in a specifiedarea. and agreed time frame of three to five years.

(g) The relationship between capacity building (d) Existing national or regional Network Cen-and the involvement of nationals of the re- ters should define or refine their short-termgion in the RWSGs and country activities objectives and relevant strategies and activi-needs more emphasis. ties to achieve these objectives.

(h) Strong emphasis should be placed on devel- (e) Global collaboration, as well as ITN expan-opingdecentralizedinstitutionalframeworks sion, should be the responsibility of a smalland increasing the capacity of local entities and nonbureaucratic coordination unit atand communities to take more initiative. World Bank headquarters. But for collabora-

(i) There should be increasing emphasis on the tion activities, such as training, exchange,participation of women, and closer coordina- research, documentation, information, andtion with PROWWESS is important. so forth, this unit should cooperate with ap-

propriate international institutions, thus es-Chapter 1 International Tainig Network ION) tablishing a link with the entire water and

sanitation international community.Findings

Chapter X: Program Priorities in the 1990s1. Nine ITN Centers have been established,orareabouttobeestablished,sincetheITN project 1. The sector development agenda for thebegan in the early 1980s. Those Centers are at nextdecadewasdebatedextensivelyattheGlobalvarious stages of development and at present it is Consultation on Safe Water and Sanitation for theverydifficulttoassessthoroughlytheirindividual 1990s, held in New Delhi in September 1990 andachievements. attended by some 600 participants from 115 coun-

8

tries. The consensus is summed up in "The New Program's activities requires a careful evaluationDelhi Statement," subsequently endorsed by the of past efforts and future prospects. Where coun-General Assembly of the United Nations at its tries have dropped from a formerly active in-45th session. volvement with the Program, or the focus of ac-2. The basic challenge that faces govern- tivities has changed, the reasons for this should bements and the international community now is determined, and the implications for the futurehow to provide some basic services for all people examined (not least, to discover possible prob-by the end of the next decade, despite the context lemsinsecuringgovernmententhusiasmforreac-of steady population growth, rapid urbanization, tivating activities).growing environmental degradation, and rising 8. In urban areas, a scattered, micro-levelcosts of water supplies. "neighborhood-by-neighborhood"approachisnot

likely to have a significant impact in growingImplications for the Program cities, Program efforts need to be integrated more

closely with governments' overall urban policy3. If the Programis to remain relevant and to and citywide strategies.contribute significantly to sector development inthe 1990s, it must place high priority on "scaling- Recomnmendationsup" its activities. At the country level this meansmovingasrapidlyaspossiblefromdemonstration (a) Expand efforts in the area of sector policywork to full-scale investment projects. For the advice to governments, in close institutionalProgram as a whole this calls for the expansion of cooperation with the Bank to enhance theactivities to additional countries and regions. impact, always avoiding any tendency to4. Successful scaling-up, however, will re- impose policies from outside.quire much more than an increased flow of in- (b) As a priority policy goal, help governmentsvestment funds. If new systems are to be sustain- to shift their role from providing servicesable, major institutions and capacity-building towards enabling users to develop, finance,activities are required. and maintain their own systems.5. Successful scaling-up also requires confi- (c) Revitalize the ITN along the lines describeddence on the part of decisionmakers in the claims in Chapter IX as a critical component of fu-made for the potential benefits of low-cost, com- ture strategic planning and as an instrumentmunity-based solutions. This implies indepen- to support locallygenerated initiatives baseddent technical evaluations,carefullydesigned cost on Program principles and approaches.comparisons between conventional and alterna- (d) Accelerate publication of Program findings.tive solutions, and assessmentsof the institutional These publications fall into two categories:feasibility. (i) materials needed as soon as possible by6. To increase its impact, the Program needs operational staff and the 1TN (guidelines,the support of others outside its own staff. This case studies, designs, samplequestionnaires,implies more emphasis on "software" activities: etc.); and (ii) basic research findings. Thetraining, institution strengthening, participatory long process of research and peer reviewapproaches, the involvement of women, sector needed for the latter should notbe allowed topolicy advice to governments, and information jeopardizeoperationsbydelayingtheformer.dissemination. Preparation and publication of the former7. The Program cannot expect to have the might be entrusted to the ITN Centers.resources to deal with all aspects of the water (e) Prioritize the research and development ef-supply and sanitation sectors. Judgments have to fort to support the agreed strategy. Morebe made about balance between urban and rural, systematicandoperationallyfocusedresearchand between water supply and sanitation. Coun- onbothhardwareand softwareisvital. Muchtry service deficits must also be assessed in com- of this should be undertaken through theparison to capacity and commitment to undertake rejuvenated ITN, which will be in most directprograms; and the interest and willingness to contact with field needs.collaborate of various ESAs supporting the sector (f) Develop and disseminate models for institu-must be determined. Similarly, broadening the tional systems that ensure sustainable ser-number of countries to be included in the vice. These models should draw on a range

9

of institutions (public sector agencies,NGOs, of service for an entire community.private sector, and user communities), and (k) Thenextdecadewillseeincreasingproblemsshould emphasize involving the communi- in the urban infrastructure in developingties themselves. countries, especially in the "mega-cities." As

(g) Make greater use of "social marketing" ap- a complement to the urban component of theproaches and techniques to ensure that scal- Program, consider broadening the scope ofing-up activities are truly user-demand the present Asia Sector Development Teamdriven. Effective demand approaches should into an Urban Environmental Services Teambe based on the customer selection of service (UEST), and expand itsactivitiesbeyond Asialevel and willingness to pay. to Latin America and selected major cities in

(h) Expand activities in low-income urban areas Africa and the Arab states, with core fundingnot adequately served by existing conven- from UNDPs DGIP and Regional Bureaux.tional systems and established utilities; and (1) It is not recommended that the Program andsupport this effort with expanded inmova- the proposed UEST, if established,bemergedtional research on appropriate urban tech- and brought under a single management.nologies, institutional arrangements, and Each program has its own specific identitylinkages with conventional urban systems. and focus, as well as diverse staffing and

(i) Establish closer coordination with the tUrban management requirements.Development Division(INURD)of theBank's (m) If broadened in the manner suggested, con-Infrastructure and Urban Development De- sider locating the management of UEST inpartment PRE complex to link Program ac- the Urban Development Division of thetivities with overall urban policy and planning. Bank's PRE complex to facilitate coordina-

(j) Take a fresh and critical look at the prevailing tion with the Program and with urban policyapproach to sector planning and its tradi- research.tional emphasis on one system and standard

10

Part IIComprehensive Reportof the Assessment Team

I I I

l~~~Origin and Evolution

1. The UNDP-World Bank Water and Sani- 3. In 1981, following an in-depth evalua-tation Program assumed its present form offi- tion, two expanded successor projects were ap-cially only in 1988, when a number of UNDP- proved - namely, INT/81/047, "Developmentsupported, World Bank-managed projects were and Implementation of Low-Cost Sanitation In-consolidated into a single program. This section vestment Projects," and INT/81/026, "Labora-briefly reviews the origin and history of the Pro- tory and Field Testing and Technological Devel-gram during the International Drinking Water opment of Rural Water Supply Handpumps."Supply and Sanitation Decade as background for Both of these have been extended through severalthe issues discussed in this report. successive phases and are still operating as core

components of the present UNDP-World BankEvolution of the Program Program. By 1986, some 2700 handpumps of dif-

ferent typeshadbeenfield tested in l7countriesof2. The origin of the Program can be traced to Africa, Asia, and Latin America.1978, when a decision was made by UNDP's Di- 4. In 1982, UNDP and the Bank agreed tovisionforGlobalandInterregionalProjects(DGIP) cooperate in the establishment of several Invest-and the World Bank's Water and Wastes Unit to ment Project Preparation Units (PPU) - two incooperate in the promotion of low-cost sanitation Africa located in Abidjan and Nairobi and fundedand water supply technologies as alternatives to by UNDPs Regional Bureau for Africa; and one incostly conventional sewerage and piped water Asia, initially located in Colombo, Sri Lanka (nowsystems. Basic research on the development of located in Bangkok) and funded by the Regionalsuch technologies had been initiated by the Bank Bureau forAsia and thePacific. Thetheorybehinda few years earlier in collaboration with a number the PPUs (not completely bome out by subse-of other institutions. Bythelate 1970s, field testing quent events) was that the main obstacle to in-and demonstration work were called for. This creased external investment in the sector was thework was initiated under the UNDP/World Bank lack of a well-prepared pipeline of investmentproject GLO/78/006, entitled, "Low Cost Water projects, stemming in turn from countries' lack ofSupply and Sanitation Techniques," approved in expertise in project preparation. The PPUs wereAugust1978. Over thethree-yearlifeof the project, intended to remedy this situation by providingactivities were extended to some 20 countries of expert assistance in the identification and prepa-Africa and Asia. The primary focus was on dem- rationof projects forconsiderationbyinternationalonstration and promotion of low-cost on-site donor and lending agencies, including the Worldsanitation, specifically, improved ventilated pit Bank.latrines and pour-flush toilets. Work was also 5. Also in 1982, an interregional "Infonma-done on low-cost piped water systems. tion and Training Program in Low-Cost Water

13

Supply and Sanitation" was set up with support more unified management of the collection offrom CIDA. This program initially focused on the projects in an effort to achieve better coordinationpreparationof audiovisual training materials,and and impact. Milestones in these developmentslaid the groundwork for the subsequent estab- were: the Technical Advisory Group (TAG) Low-lishment of the International Training Network Cost Sanitation staff meeting held in Nairobi incurrently supported by a number of bilateral do- 1984 and the Fourth Meeting of the Handpumpsnors and reviewed in Chapter IX of this report. Advisory Panel held in China in August 1984,6. In addition, UNDP and the Bank have both of which accelerated the shift away fromcollaborated since 1980 on Research and Develop- technology research and development towardsment in Integrated Resource Recovery and Waste greater emphasis on "software" issues; and theRecycling - a subject that transcends the water evaluation of the Africa PPUs in 1985, whichand sanitation sector in the narrow sense, but that recommended that they be replaced by interdisci-clearly has a bearing on the sector as well as on plinary Sector Development Teams (SDT) thatemerging environmental concerns. As the Inter- wouldbringtogetherunderasinglenmanagementnational Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation the expertise then scattered among the variousDecade progressed, all of the above regional and individual projects. The SDT concept was ac-interregional umbrella projects were comple- cepted and subsequently developed into the net-mented by a large number of related country work of broader-based Regional Water and Sani-projects funded either from UNDP country in- tation Groups (RWSG) that now constitute thedicative planning figures (IPF) or from bilateral principalfieldmechanismfortheimplementationassistance agencies. of Program activities.7. To summarize, by 1987, UNDP and the 9. A third trend that emerged as the DecadeBank, with growing support from other donors, progressed was a growing realization that to bewere cooperating in implementing a group of really effective, project preparation and otherseparate interregional and regional Decade-re- micro-level activities needed to be carried outlated projects. Eachof these was separately funded withinanoverall supportive national sectorpolicyand had its own specific objectives laid out in a and planning framework. The several evalua-project document. Originally, the projects were tions of the PPUs carried out in Africa and Asiamanaged by the senior advisor, water and wastes, confirmed this and led to increased emphasis onand later a division chief, who headed the World broader sector work, including sector studies andBank's water and wastes unit and was responsible policy advice, as a major component of Programfor research, policy development, cooperative activities.projects, and other purely World Bank functions 10. These trends culminated in 1987 in a de-in the water supply and wastes sector. The vari- cision by the Bank to merge the separate projectsous projects were grouped by technical content (with the exception of the Asia Sector Develop-into subunits and each was headed by managers ment Team) into a single program under the man-at division chief (2) or senior technical officer (1) agement of the Water and Sanitation Divisionrank. One manager was responsible for urban (INUWS) of the Bank's central Policy, Research,water supply and urban and rural sanitation, an- and External Relations (PRE) complex, whichother for handpump development and resource would operate on the basis of an integrated strat-recovery, and a third for the International Train- egy that would endeavor to encompass all impor-ing Network (ITN). World Bank functions were tant aspects of sector development work. Theassigned to a World Bank-staffed subunit. main elements of the strategy are summarized8. In the meantime, two important trends below. Management of the Asia Sector Develop-had emerged in the orientation of the several ment Team was transferred in 1985 to the Bank'sprojects, as a result of periodic evaluations carried Asia Region Technical Department, Infrastructureout during the first half of the Decade. The first Division (ASTIN), where it remains now.was a progressive shift away from the heavy 11. The reorganization of the Program into aemphasis on technology research that had ini- single entity has, without doubt, had a positivetially predominated, towards greater attention to effect in that it has improved the Program's over-institutional issuesand the development of service all cohesion and direction. It also involved adelivery mechanisms based on community par- certain amount of disruption, which only now isticipation. The second major trend was towards beingovercome.Thishasincludedavirtualcessa-

14

tion of research and publications activities; the is that a piecemeal approach to sector develop-disbanding of the former Technical Advisory ment cannot be effective, and a coordinated ap-Groupforlow-costsanitation,whichhadinitiated proach involving action over several years in allsuccessful activities in some 20 countries; and a the above areas is needed.weakening of Program headquarters promotion 14. These services are provided to participat-and guidance of the International Training Net- ing countries by the Regional Water and Sanita-work (ITN). The present Program structure tion Groups, which are interdisciplinary teamscomprisesananomaly. TheProgramisanorganic posted invarioussubregionsto studysectorissuesand integrated entity in the operational sense, yet at firsthand and to respond quickly to govern-funding by UNDP is still tied to the original in- ments'requestsforassistance. Thefourestablisheddividual regional and interregional project com- RWSGs are located in Abidjan and Nairobi inponents described above while bilateral support Africa, and in New Delhi and Singapore in Asia. Ais governed by a multiplicity of individual project summary of the composition and expertise of theagreements. This has greatly complicated finan- various groups is contained in Annex 1, page 71.cial management and accounting. 15. The Program's field activities are comple-

mented and supported by a set of global activitiesProgram Objectives and Strategy that, in principle, include:

(a) Applied research focused on major unre-12. The current objectives of the Program, solved sector issues both technical and insti-and the strategy for achieving them are described tutional, related to the expansion of servicein a Program document entitled, Water and Sani- coverage to low-income communities;tation: Toward Equitable and Sustainable Develop- (b) Program analysis for the purpose of assess-ment. A Strategyfor the Remainder of the Decade and ing effectiveness and refining the strategy;Beyond, published in July 1988. The overall devel- and,opment objective of the Program is to assist par- (c) Dissemination and exchange of informationticipating countries to build up their capacity to and experience among participating coun-deliver safe water supply and sanitation services tries and regions through various types ofto low-income communities, both rural and ur- publications and the organization of work-ban, primarily through the use of low-cost tech- shops.nologies and community-based approaches. This 16. Activities in those areas have in fact beenpoverty-oriented focus has steadily gained in very limited during the past two or three years,prominence as the major theme as the Program but are presently being revived and expanded inhas evolved. collaboration with the Policy and Research Unit13. The Program provides assistance to par- recently established in INUWS as a joint ventureticipating countries in five principal areas: of the Program and the World Bank.(a) Sector advisory support aimed at the devel- 17. For programming purposes, countries

opment and implementation of sound sector participating in the Program have been dividedpolicies and strategies; into two categories:

(b) Organization of pilot and demonstration (a) Countries of primary focus, considered to bewater and sanitation projects that can subse- ready for more extensive, integrated sectorquently be replicated on a national scale; supportencompassingactivitiesinallormost

(c) Sectorcapacitybuildingthroughtrainingand of the strategy areas listed above; and,institutional development; (b) Other countries where the Program under-

(d) Identification and preparation of investment takes to provide specific targeted and time-projects that include components targeting limited activities upon request by a govern-low-income unserved communities and as- ment or donor. Countries of primary focussisting governments in mobilizing the exter- currently number about 15, with ad hoc sup-nal resources to implement them; and, port of different kinds being provided to

(e) Support to local industrial enterprises for the some 20-25 others.manufacture of low-costpumps, latrines, andotherneededequipment, materials, and spare Regional Differencesparts.

A basic premise underlying the Program strategy 18. There are marked differences among the

15

regions in which the Program operates, as well as urban areas and usually on the more affluentamong the individual participating countries in sections. Atthecurrentrapidpaceof urbangrowth,the various regions. Among others, these differ- it is estimated that by the year 2000 the region willences include the number and size of countries be 80% urbanized, creating a need for much higherthat the RWSGs are attempting to serve; travel priority and increased coverage in urban, con-distances and communications facilities; rural/ gested low-income areas that are multiplyingurban population distribution and rates of urban rapidly. Many of the poorer countries of thegrowth; status of sector institutions and availabil- region continue to have large unserved rurality of trained manpower; and dependence on populations also. Large external debt burdensextemal assistance for sector development. hamper govenmments' ability to allocate large re-19. In Africa, the RWSGs must serve a large sources to the sector.number of countries, many of them relatively 22. This brief, overgeneralized picture issmall inoverall population. Sectorinstitutionsare meant to convey some ideas of the diverse re-generally weak and trained manpower scarce. gional and country context within which theWater supply and sanitation have a rather low Program operates presently and which it mustpriority, and sector development is heavily de- deal with in the future.pendent on external assistance and consequentlyis largely donor driven. Urban growth is a rela- Program and Field Project Coststively low priority but increasing, and rural sectordevelopment remains a high priority. 23. The annual cost of the Program, includ-20. In Asia, the countries participating in the ing both core program costs and field projectProgram are fewer, but most contain very large costs, is currently running at close to US$11 mil-populations. Some of them have large-scale do- lion per year, with costs for 1990 estimated atmestically financed rural and urban water and US$6.7 million for program costs, and US$4 mil-sanitation programs. Sector institutions are gen- lion for project costs. More details on the break-erally better developed than in Africa, but many down of the two categories are presented in An-still suffer from serious financial and technical nex 4 (see pages 88-89). The program costs areweaknesses. Urbanization in many countries is funded by UNDP and 10 cooperating donors.proceeding at a rapid rate, multiplying the num- Project costs are funded from UNDP country in-berof mega-cities, and shifting governments' con- dicative planning figures (IPF), and in some cases,cern increasingly towards the service needs of the by bilateral donors through cost-sharing arrange-urban poor. ments with UNDP. Counterpart contributions21. Latin America has the highest rate of from participating countries in the form of cashservice coverage of any region, but sector devel- payments, office space, equipment, and otheropment has been relatively concentrated on the supplies are an important factor.

16

IIAn Emerging Identity

A New Approach periurban and urban sanitation, and resource re-covery/ solid waste management. This coverage

1. As a multilateral program (World Bank has by now come to require a particularly broadexecution, predominantly UNDP funding), the range of activities, incorporating aspects such asProgram has a mandate that bilateral agencies do sector advisory support, demonstration projects,not have. The message (community-based, low- project preparation and supervision, industrialcost) is not new in the rural water supply sector, and private sector support, and capacitybuilding.although it is still rare to achieve it successfully. In such a widespread mix, the establishment of aThemedium(UNDP-WorldBankcombination)is clear identity is not easy. Most important in thenew in the sector. The merging of the message efforts toclarify the roleand potential worthof thewith the medium is also new. Programaretheparticipatingcountriesforwhose2. Another novelty in the sector is the exten- benefit the complex work is undertaken. Theysiveinterplaywithdonorgovenmments. Aspointed maybe readily forgiven for their difficulties up toout by representatives of the govemments them- now in identifying with precision the definitionselves in a series of interviews conducted by the and place of the Program in a sector that has anTeam Leader in visits to national capitals, the unusual number of players in the governmentProgram is the only full-focus, multilateral effort itself, not to speak of the dozens of organizationspositioned (if not yet always successfully so) to and donor govemments also involved. To com-search out gaps in service coverage in easily over- pound the problem, the Program has a uniquelooked areas and to attack the causes of such gaps: persona that one day showsa World Bank face, theweak sector policies and institutional structures, next day a UNDP one. And somehow it alsolimited mastery of community development tech- reflects more than casual connections with a num-niques (including social marketing and participa- ber of donor govemments as well as many mul-tion of women), and inability to finance experi- tilateral organizations and NGOs.ments in low-cost, easily maintained facilities. 4. The Program's broad and central role inMore than once the view was expressed that the the sector calls for an array of consultative andProgram has become increasingly a wide-ranging operational relationships with these other assis-center for fusing the fragmented, sometimes even tance programs. The pattem has been uneven,conflictingandrepetitiveeffortsofanintemational and the Team considers that enhanced efforts tocommunity, which hasbeen awakened only in the coordinate with other programs will be requiredpast decade to the massive nature of unmet needs in the future. A positive and useful step in thisinthesectorandthedireconditionsfacingmillions. direction would be for the Program to arrange3. The major areas of concentration have with other agencies for the provision of short-beendefined asruralwatersupplyand sanitation, term consultant services as required.

17

5. The newly reconstituted Water and Sanita- (UNICEF) has also signified interest in larger col-tion Collaborative Council, in which multilateral laborative efforts, particularly in informationand bilateral agencies as well as representatives of gatheringand exchange, and the Field Assessmentdeveloping countries are represented, should fur- Teams have found evidence of considerable col-ther contribute to the process. The other principal laboration, although on an uneven basis. Thecoordinatingentities,including,todate,theSteering report of the Africa Team has these remarks onCommittee for Cooperative Action for the Interna- UNICEF: "Attitudes ranged from noncommittaltional Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation De- to positive, although UNICEF, like others, is notcade, as well as the Intersecretariat Group for Water always clear as to the role and mandate of theResources of the Administrative Committee for Program. ExamplesofcollaborationmaybefoundCoordination, should also be taken into account, in Kenya (where UNICEF and the Program do thealthough their direct relevance to the specific work groundwork for quarterly sector coordinationof the Program is more distant. meetings), and in Ethiopia, where there is a valu-6. At their headquarters and in the field, the able exchange of information. In Nigeria, whereTeam consulted with all agencies prominently UNICEF has been involved on a very large scale,and regularly concerned with the activities of the collaboration was less close."Program, and found them generally anxious to 11. The UnitedNations Departmentof Technicalachieve maximum coordination. Cooperationfor Development (UN/DTCD) has sig-7. The World Health Organization (WHC)) is a nificant interest in much closer association withsignificant potential partner of the Program be- the Program, an interest that has not yet achievedcause of its constitutional status as a major par- much response. DTCD has valuable assets in theticipant in international health and environmen- form of technical advisers at headquarters andtal initiatives. A variety of reasons have made it regional and national levels of planning and man-difficult for WHO to reach its full potential in agement in groundwater resources. The Teamwater and sanitation services over past years, and recommends that closer connections be established.its managers see greater collaboration with the 12. ThelnternationalLabourOrganisation(ILO)Program as an avenue for breakthrough. As an also would like to open up opportunities for mu-example of mutual help, WHO points to a WHO tual efforts, little connection having been estab-engineer post (financed by a bilateral program) in lished up to now. The Team considers that thethe East Africa RWSG at Nairobi. However, the management training facilities of ILO could beAssessmentTeamreviewing Africa found no other brought into play to good effect ("training ofclose links at present. trainers," for example), and ILO's expertise in the8. A particular facet of WHO that is relevant social aspects of human resources developmentto the Program is the CESI-profile system. The could offer good balance to the more technicalTeam considers that continuous consultation with orientation of the Program.WHO on the progress of this system can only be 13. As for the regional development banks,beneficial. the field Assessment Teams found that, while9. The Pan American Health Organization these banks are major investors in the sector, their(PAHO) has for some time been in close contact connections with the Program and other waterwith the Program in an effort to assure collabora- supply and sanitation operational agencies aretion in water supply and sanitation work through- remote. In fact, the Africa Assessment Teamout Latin America. In the words of the Latin wrote, "Both [East and West African] ProgramAmerica Assessment Team: "In discussions with staffsreported that therehasbeenno contactat all,PAHOinWashington,thatorganizationexpressed although the African Development Bank judgedinterest in the possibility of becoming an active the Abidjan workshop and conference in Mayparticipant in the UNDP-World Bank Water and 1990 to have been a success." Itseems to the TeamSanitation Program in the region. As PAHO is a that progress in achieving closer collaborationvery active organization in the American conti- between the regional development banks and thenent, with a network of offices and installations in operational agencies, including the Program, canall countries of the region, we believe that this only come at first through consultations in theoffer is a good opportunity for some type of asso- Collaborative Council. Once broad understand-ciation with the Program at the field level." ings are reached at that level, it should be possible10. The United Nations Children's Fund to formulate specific modes of cooperation be-

18

tween the banks and operational agencies. relationships with NGOs prominent in the sector14. The United Nations Capital Development at national and local levels. The Africa Assess-Fund (UNCDF), which operates under the aegis of ment Team offers this view: "The Program mayUNDP, developed a large program in water and have a comparafive advantage (relative to Worldsanitation for the poorest groups in the least de- Bank operational divisions, for example) in estab-veloped countries (LDC) during the Decade of the lishing and maintaining links with NGOs and1980s. In addition, a number of housing projects more could usefully be done in this respect.for the poor were developed with water and sani- PROWWESS should also be a means to maintaintation components. Although in many cases cer- and increase links with NGOs. Many NGOs worktain consultations took place with PROWWESS with local rather than central government."(also under the UNDP banner), these projectscould have profited from a closer association with Sharpening the Imagethe UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Pro-gram. The UNCDF projects normally have a 19. Thus, the Program begins the 1990s withtechnical assistance component financed by UNDP a unique (and mysterious, to some) combinedand an investment component financed by management, a significant but not well-definedUNCDF. The offices of UNCDF in the field are place among themanyorganizationsoperatinginlocated in the UNDP office under the authority of the sector, and a far-reaching, notentirelyspecificthe UNDP Resident Representative. mandate (again confusing to some). The image is15. The Program should develop a strategy not entirely sharp, the mandate yet to be clarified.to deal with UNCDF, which could include an 20. In succeeding chapters, the Assessmentagreement with UNCDF to be informed at the Team offers a number of recommendations thatvery beginning, when project identification takes will, if accepted, sharpen the image and clarify theplace, in order to be an active participant in the mandate. As a first step, though, the awkwarddevelopment of water and sanitation projects. and not very enlightening name of the Program16. The United Nations Centre for Human should be changed. It is clear to the Team thatSettlements (HABITAT) can be counted as another those who come into contact with the Program,untapped reservoir for cooperative action with and even those who work within it, are confusedthe Program. Based in Nairobi and still active in as to its identity. Innumerable concrete examplesestablishing its own role in the sector, HABITAT could be cited of how the staff present themselveshas indicated interest in developing close links - as World Bank, World Bank-UNDP, UNDP-with the Program. World Bank, and so forth. The range of different17. Promotion of the Roleof Women in Waterand written forms on name cards, letterheads, projectEnvironmental Sanitation Services (PROWWESS) is cars, and the like, is remarkably wide. And nonea special program of UNDP that has valuable ofthedesignationscapturesthetrueessenceof thepotential for helping develop processes and infor- activity: a combination of two major partners,mational materials for community involvement, working in growing harmony with a cluster ofparticularly with regard to a key segment of the other partners, including bilaterals, multilaterals,population - women. In its work with the Pro- developing countries, NGOs, and others.gram and in its assignments of expert staff to the 21. The Team therefore proposes as a firstProgram both in Washington and in the field, recommendation that a name change take place,PROWWESS has already shown itself poised to and that the Program henceforth be known as thelend considerable assistance in facing the chal- Joint Program for Water and Sanitation.lenges ahead (as described in Chapter X), often 22. The second recommendation is that athrough the use of new approaches. brochure should beissued to announce thischange18. Nongovernmental organizations have spe- and to define a clearer image. This would essen-cialimportanceforactivitieswithstronggrassroots tially be a successor to the publication entitled,links, like the Program. The intensity and fre- Waterand Sanitation: Toward EquitableandSustain-quency of contact depends on the nature of the able Development. A Strategyfor theRemainderof thework at any given time, but the Team recom- Decade and Beyond.mends that the RWSGs be encouraged to nurture

19

IIIThe Financial Base

UNDP Projects would be fully justified in seeking tocontinue average annual support at the existing

1. Although based at the Washington levelsasaminimum.headquarters of the World Bank and managed 3. As for the other funding services withinunder Bank auspices, the Program continues, as UNDP, including the Regional Bureaux, the situ-from its commencement, to depend heavily on ation is more complex and even more uncertain.UNDP for its financial underpinning. This is Regional funds at the disposal of these Bureauxappropriate enough (provided that substantial are limited and have been subject to diminutionfunding from other sources continues to grow in recently. EachBureaureachesdecisionsindepen-size and variety), since UNDP is positioned as the dently on Program funding for each cycle, andworld's largest multilateral center for competition from other potential sectors is heavypreinvestment development assistance and pos- and extensive and heavily influenced by govern-sesses a global network designed to facilitate ments. Nevertheless, the Team found in discus-planning and implementation of the gap-filling, sions with the Bureaux that there is substantialpoverty-oriented type of technical assistance that agreement that participation in core financing forfeatures predominantly in the Program's output. Regional Water and Sanitation Groups, as well as2. The dominance of UNDP as a source of forenhancedfinancingthroughIPFallocationsorexternal funding (about two-thirds of which de- bilateral arrangements involving in-countryrives from UNDP) causes some disquietude be- projects can be fully justified. The Regional Bu-cause of uncertainties about that organization's reaux for Africa and for Asia and the Pacific havecommitment to maintaining thepresentsolid level been heavily involved for several years, while theof support. Nevertheless, the Team considers that other two - Latin America and the Caribbean;heavy UNDP involvement is logical and essential Arab States and European programs - are pres-for the foreseeable future. Many aspects of the entlycooperating in reviewsof potential extensionProgram are keyed to global and interregional of the Program into their areas of interest.activities, including a large proportion of the re- 4. In the view of theTeam,theUNDPcontri-search, policy planning, training, and general- bution towards the emergence and increasinginterest publishing carried out at the Program's impact of the Program deserves highest commen-headquarters. Furthermore, the amount of dation, since the Team is convinced that withoutcrossfertilization of ideas and new initiatives and this support (often achieved in the face of severetechniques, which takes place across regional bor- procedural and organizational problems) thereders and around the world, is impressive and would be little prospect of reaching the presentcontinuing. The Team therefore suggests that level of achievement. The downside is that up toUNDP's Division for Global and Interregional the present time, in spite of universal appreciation

20

of itsground-breakingrole,UNDPhasbeenforced to assist the Program in attracting further supportto continue its support in somewhat hand-to- and in rapidly expanding its coverage to unservedmouth fashion, and in a fragmented manner at areas. Inturn,theBank wouldreceiveevengreaterthat. Thismeansthatsolidplanningfigures(inthe benefits than are now realized in the supportivesame sense as UNDPs indicative planning fig- work of the Program relating to Bank operationsures for regions and countries) have not been that target the poor, an area where the Bank hasavailable to the Program's managers as they at- not had a meaningful track record. But beyondtempt to forecast available resources for future thenarrowquestionofcost-benefitliesthebroaderyears. The respective inputs from DGIP and the issue of full commitment to goals and approachesRegional Bureaux for support of core expenses, freshly endorsed by the Bank for new and urgentincluding particularly those of the RWSGs, are not global attention: poverty alleviation, serving theplanned and administered as a package over a unserved, community development, rural andlong period of time, but instead appear as a series local coverage, women in development, safe wa-of "projects" with varied arrangements as to ter for all - all these are bywords for the 1990s,funding, timing, purpose, and authorization. and all are at the heart of everyday operations of5. TheTeamthereforeproposes that the Ad- the Program.ministrator of UNDP consider the possibilities of 8. There is also the very practical problemconsolidating estimated support figures from that UNDP, as one of the two "managing part-DGIPandRegionalBureauxintoanoverallUNDP ners" of the Program, can hardly be expected toindicative planning subvention to the core ex- maintain its heavily weighted support for corepenses of the Program (including both headquar- costs in the complete absence of a substantial, andters and field expenses) on a rolling basis over a pr'ferably equivalent, annual financial commit-five-year period. This estimate would beadjusted ment from the other "managing partner," theeach year, taking into account developments and World Bank. More than a simple question ofexpenditures for the year just past and adding the equity, this point becomes a matter of marshalingplanning subvention for the fifth year ahead. The comparativelymodestresourcesinthemosteffec-Team believes that a concomitant improvement tive and extensive way to achieve a great purposecould be achieved by consolidating planned sup- that both organizations have accepted as a chal-port figures into the minimum possible number of lenge, along with other participants in a combinedproject documents, ideally one. intemational effort.

9. Accordingly, the Team recommends thatThe World Bank the President of the World Bank and the Admin-

istrator of UNDP agree to the formation of a Joint6. Central as the World Bank may be to the Task Force to negotiate an appropriate division ofmanagement of this innovative and highly visible core support costs between the two sponsoringProgram (see Chapters II and V), the Team found institutions.little evidence of direct financial support by theBankonasignificantandcontinuingbasis. Indeed, Extemal Support Agenciessuch supporting services as derive from the Bankin the form of office accommodations and other 10. Although not heavily involved in corecentral housekeeping facilities appear to be offset costs of the Program (there are a few disparateby UNDP payments to the Bank for overhead examples of sponsorship of particular core postscosts generated by project implementation. The by individual govemments), the major donorentire funding picture in this regard is obscure governments, numbering about 10, play a mostand deserves early clarification, but the Team has important role, and their contributions to the costshad to conclude that the Bank has yet to make any of projects administered by the Program are sig-meaningful contribution to the financial under- nificant. Often working extensively in the sectorpinning of the Program. through their own bilateral organizations and7. In the Team's view, this is highly unfortu- participating in intergovernmental consultativenate from all standpoints. A significant measure processes, they see the Program as a useful andof financial support from the Bank for the sometimes indispensable medium for augment-Program's core expenses would be a recognition ingtheirnecessarilylimitedapproaches,forpullingof partnership and relevance and would be bound together the strands of varying efforts in given

21

regions and countries, and for helping focus sec- (a) By far the greatest preoccupation among do-torpoliciesinfavorofuncoveredpopulationsand nor governments is the overriding need forhelping to build the capacity of govemments to feedback, on an authoritative and thoroughrespond to these policies (see Chapter II). basis, from the Program's management on11. For these reasons, the last few years have the utilization of contributors' inputs and onseen significant inputs by 10 donor governments, the general progress and evolution of theand there are indications that these may become Program. Recent steps by the Manager tomore substantial as and when the Program starts concentrate more thoroughly on donor rela-to realize its full potential. The reference here to tions are sure to be welcomed, and in the"donorgovernments"canbenmisleading. Thereis view of the Team, frequent visits to donorof course no single executive segment of any do- headquarterswillbemorethancompensatednor government where all policies and financing by enhanced flows of support. Beyond this,activities for the water and sanitation sector are written progress reports sent on a regulardetermined and administered. The familiar dif- basis to supporting governments will have afusions of responsibility and control among gov- beneficial effect. Chapter IV on "Interchangeernment ministries and departments are to be with Sponsors" contains a recommendationfound among donors. Health, agriculture, urban for a Review Board that, in the view of allaffairs, rural development, natural resources - donors interviewed by the Team Leader,the list of particular interests goes on and on, would be the single most effective vehicle forwhile the situation is further complicated in some the enhancement of true dialogue and for thecases by complex arrangements among the devel- ventilation on a regular but informal basis ofopment assistance components dealing with mul- the important concerns of donors.tilateral affairs and those dealing with bilateral (b) A program responsive to donors' concernsprograms. will need to assure increasingly that its activi-12. It is not for the Team to advise how donor ties are demand driven - that is, that projectgovernments should meet these problems -and and support efforts can be seen to reflectin a number of cases satisfactory coordination national needs and thus to emerge from localdoes appear to exist - but it is essential for the dynamics rather than from top-down plan-Program to be able to count on a single channel of ning. Chapter VIII, "Strategy and Effective-contact that can quickly and authoritatively re- ness," deals with this issue.solve financing questions and provide the Pro- (c) Donors want to receive continual and con-gram with fully reliable information about future vincing information proving that the diverseparticipation. It is also most necessary to em- global, interregional, regional, and countryphasize the value of an unfragmented approach activities of the Program all have an eventualbydonors-that is, an effort to establish a planned outcome that produces measurable benefitsscheme of inputs over a period of time, preferably at the level of local communities, whether ofon a multi-year basis. Some donors are already a large urban or small rural character.making conscious and conscientiousefforts in this (d) A growing tendency is for the Program toregard, but others have yet to consider the mutual employ nationals of developing countries forvalue of scheduling financial contributions, core service in their own countries, either instaffing support, and project inputs in a consoli- projects or in national offices, and to a lesserdated and long-term manner. but growing extent in RWSGs. This practice13. What are the major concerns and preoc- is one of the most appealing aspects of thecupations of donors that, if satisfactorily resolved Program (see ChapterVII, "Field Structure").orameliorated, might result in greater support for (e) The concept of the International Trainingthe Program and enable its expansion as proposed Network (ITN) is appealing in theory to most,in this report? In discussions with donor govern- but there are doubts and lack of hard infor-ment representatives both at the headquarter of- mation on its effectiveness in practice, Chap-fices and in the field, the Team found a fairly solid ter IX, "International Training Network,"consensus pointing towards the following areas deals with this subject.for concentration:

22

IVInterchange with Sponsors

1. Chapter I underlines the Program's emer- found widespread interest in the establishment ofgence as an organizationally defined entity with a means to bring about such dialogue without thethe usual attributes of financial underpinning, constructionofelaboratenewmachineryandbur-staff support, and linkages with its sponsoring densome procedures. In turn, the management ofinstitution and other interested parties. Some of the Program has expressed satisfaction with suchthese attributes have unusual features and even a concept, provided that it is carefully tailored tounique aspects, but they nevertheless generally encourage real dialogue and to discourage anycover the areas of management normally found in tendencies to bureaucratize the arrangements.public administration, both nationally and inter- 4. Theadvantagesof suchaninitiative wouldnationally. not be limited to free flows of information and2. A missing feature, and one that in the enhanced understandings of goals and concerns.opinion of the Team has high importance, is a In addition, there would be the possibility for themechanism for providing policy guidance, re- Program to proceed in a more authoritative andview of past operations and future plans, and fully grounded way as it embarks on new coursesinterchange of opinions and information between of action,modifiesitsmajormanagementfeatures,the Program's management and its financial sup- and wrestles with perplexing and often unprec-porters. Both of the managing partners have their edented issues that invariably arise in interna-own legislative bodies, but neither the UNDP tional activitiesbreakingnewground. At present,Governing Council nor the Bank's Board of Gov- theProgramislargelydependentforgeneralpolicyernors are directly enough concerned with the guidance on ad hoc consultations and seminarsProgram's specific activities to offer the necessary dealing with broad strategies and issues and de-interchange. This interchange should respond to signed to provide guidance to the entire worldthe Program management's need for guidance by community or to regional groupings. Thus, thethe sponsoring governments while providing the deliberations in the recent Global Consultation onsame governments with the complete coverage of Safe Water and Sanitation for the 1990s, whichprogress and performance thatonlyinformed and produced "The New Delhi Statement" of Sep-unrestrained dialogue can produce. Such advice tember 14,1990, provided valuable information-and guidance is automatically available on a con- sharing opportunities on strategies and targetssistent basis from participating countries, where and benefited the Program along with all otherprogramming and implementation consultations major players in the sector; but the meeting was inoffer constant opportunities for valuable inter- no way intended as a supervisory or consultativechange on all matters. entity for reviewing specific plans, projects, and3. In interviews with virtually all govern- management processes.ments now offering financial support, the Team 5. Similarly, intergovernmental and

23

interagency machinery exists in abundance, if not a Board be accepted, one of its initial tasks wouldoverabundance, to seek general agreement on be to review this report and to reach understand-goals and to work towards coordination and joint ings on its major proposals.planning, but - as the examples of the United 9. As for the composition of the Board, theNations Steering Committee and the Water and Team strongly suggests that it be confined toSanitation Collaborative Councl demonstrate - representatives of those governments andthis machinery is not designed, in its orientation intergovernmental organizations that are sup-and composition, to meet the Program's need for porting the Program through direct cash contri-a sounding board and for authoritative reviews of butions or indirect means, such as project inputsthe specifics of its operations. or staff resources,plus the World Bankand UNDP6. The Team has concluded that in these as managing partners. It will be important tocircumstances a flexible, unencumbered Review assure meaningful dialogue by restricting the sizeBoard of limited membership could make a sub- and orientation of the Board to those sponsorsstantial contribution to the work of the Program. whose financial support makes the very existenceIn addition to providing the setting for candid and of the Program possible. Arrangements could, ofunstructured exchange of views, for consider- course, be made for attendance at any givenation of new initiatives, and for free flows of meeting by any government or organization withinformation, the Board would furnish the Pro- particularly pertinent interest in matters to begram with a collective and authoritative voice, reviewed, and the Board may wish to provide forable to sanction important policy statements and continuing attendance in some cases. The Boardto assist in verifying the need for significant should establish its own procedures (simplified tochanges in managerial and programming ar- the greatest possible degree) and should chooserangements. Undoubtedly, there would be a by consensus its chairman and rapporteur. Secre-significant added benefit in the form of attracting tariat services, including advance circulation ofcontinuing and additional financial support for documents for review by the Board, should bethe Program. provided underarrangementsagreedtobyUNDP7. In regard to policy statements, the Team and the World Bank, in consultation with thehas in mind the Program's publication ofJuly 1988 Program Manager. A Board session of two orentitled, Waterand Sanitation: Toward Equitableand three days in the early part of each year should beSustainableDevelopment. AStrategyfortheRemainder sufficient. Such timing would enable pertinentof the Decade and Beyond. This centerpiece among issues to be brought to the attention of the annualthe basic documents giving the Program its solid June session of the UNDP Governing Council, iffoundation continues to serve as the Program's necessary and appropriate. Since nine of the tencharter, but it is essentially an internal document currently sponsoring governments are in Europe,of the Program, without broader sanction other theGenevaofficeofUNDPwouldappeartobethethan that afforded by the parent World 'Bank most convenient venue.department. In the view of the Team, documents 10. The introduction of a Review Board asofthiskindwouldbenefitsignificantlyfromreview part of the total management process will call forand approval by a Review Board. an even closer consultative arrangement between8. It also occurs to the Team that many of the UNDP and the Bank than now prevails. The Teamvery problems it has dealt with extensively itself understands that consideration is already beingin the presentreport couldbe discussed with great given to strengthening the liaison between theadvantage in the Board, as they assuredly will be two institutions in regard to shared programs inwith participating govemments. Indeed, the general. This strengthened liaison can be particu-Team would hope that if the recommendation for larly helpful for water and sanitation activities.

24

The World Bank Linkages

1. The World Bank interfaces institutionally shifts its policy increasingly towards poverty-with the Program in a dual manner. As executing oriented projects, as it is in the process of doing.agency for the Program, the Bank is responsible There is, however, a certain amount of tensionfor Program management and is legally and fi- builtintotheBank-Programrelationship.TheBanknancially accountable to the Program's financiers is a lending institution and staff are under con-for the effective execution of theProgram in accor- stant pressure to expand loans and credits.dance with the termsof the projectdocumentsand However, in the area of the Program's majorother project agreements with supportingdonors. concentration, additional funding, while obvi-The Program's relations with various levels of ously needed, is not the main probleim the pri-Bank management thus have a bearing on Pro- mary need is to expand coverage through systemsgram performance and donor relationships. that will in the long run be sustainable, and to2. Through its operational departmentsand ensure use of simple technologies and dose in-divisions, the Bank also relates to the Program in volvement of communities in the operation andanother way. A major objective of the Program, maintenance of systems.though not the only one, is to generate additional 4. Building such systems requires time andinvestment in rural and periurban water supply intensive fieldwork by specialized personnel. Ex-and sanitation for the purpose of extending cover- perience during the Water and Sanitation Decadeage to unserved, lower-income communities. The shows that efforts to implement rural projects insingle largest potential source of such investment haste with large-scale injectionsof external capitalfunds is the World Bank Group. The Program often prove counterproductive. The role of theaccordingly has a strong interest in working with Program vis-&-vis the Bank should therefore notthe Bank's operational divisions to identify and be merely to help generate additional investmenthelp prepare suitable water and sanitation projects in the sector but to assist the Bank plan and imple-for inclusion in the Bank's lending programs. On ment its loans and credits prudently and at a paceits side, the Bank is not fully equipped through its consistent with community-based approaches andmainstream departments and divisions to deal with long-term sustainability. This would meanwith low-technology, community-oriented water expanding investment selectively and - in mostand sanitation programs, and it needs the assis- countries, particularly in Africa - slowly.tance of the RWSGs to expand its operations sig-nificantly in this area. Relations with the Bank's Regional3. Close collaboration between the Program Departmentsand the Bank's operations and technical depart-ments is therefore mutually beneficial, and will S. Cooperation between the Program andbecome more necessary in the future, as the Bank the Bank's Africa and Asia regions (technical and

25

country departments) is generally good and ex- Annex 3 shows how operational support has de-panding. There has been little collaboration with veloped in 1988-1991 in terms of numbers of stafftheLatinAmericaandEurope/MiddleEast/North weeks programmed. As in the case of countryAfrica Regions, largely because the Program has activities discussed above, actual delivery mayhad no field presence and only a few ad hoc diverge from the programmed inputs.activities in these regions. With the recent expan- 8. IscollaborationbetweentheProgramandsion of Program activities in Latin America, closer the operating divisions of the Bank perhaps toocooperation with the Bank's Latin America Region close? One major donor interviewed by the Teamis beginning to develop, notably in Bolivia. In Leader expressed the view that the Program isearlier years, the Program was not particularly seen by some governments and donors as basi-well regarded by the Bank's operation divisions. cally an instrument of the Bank to generate bank-Its activities were considered to be (and in large able projects. On the basis of its own appraisal ofpart were) marginal to the Bank's lending activi- Program-Bank relationships, the considered viewties, which in the water and sanitation sectors of the Team is that the present cooperative ar-were concentrated heavily on urban areas and on rangements are appropriate and beneficial tocapital-intensive conventional water and sewer- participating governments.age systems. This situation has changed mark- 9. As mentioned above, the collaboration isedly over the past few years as Bank sector policy focused on two main areas - namely, identifica-has shifted towards moreemphasis on rural water tion and preparation of low-cost rural andsupply and poverty-oriented activities and as the periurban water and sanitation projects; andachievements of the Program have become better broader sector work. As for the first category,known throughout the Bank. The Team found all preparation of investment projects for possibleregional departmentsquite well informed regard- Bank/IDA support is a government responsibil-ing the activities of the Program; and while as- ity for which the Bank does not provide technicalsessments of the Program's tangible impact on assistance on a grant basis. Participation of Pro-sector development vary, the potential of the ap- gram staff in the identification and preparation ofproaches developed is increasingly recognized. such projects should therefore beregarded prima-6. Collaboration between the Program and rily as a service to the concerned government andBank operating divisions takes place in two main is, in fact, welcomed by participating countries asareas: such. With regard to broader sector work, the(a) Participation of Program staff in the identifi- objective is to assist governments to develop the

cation and appraisal of rural water supply sector policies, strategic plans, and investmentand low-cost sanitation projects, or compo- programs needed to identify priorities and tonents of projects proposed for Bank funding; attract external investment - both multilateraland, and bilateral. In this activity the Program needs

(b) Cooperation with the operating divisions in the support of the country and technical depart-broader sector work, including sector studies ments of the Bank, which are major sources ofand strategic planning. These activities are sector information and are already working withidentified in the Program's annual and governments on policy and institutional issues inprogress reports as "operational support to many countries. Conversely, the participation ofthe Bank" (code OSB). The controlling in- Program staff in sector work helps to ensure thatstrument for Program-Bank cooperation in poverty-oriented and low-cost approaches arethese areas is the annual country work plan, adequately addressed and built into final projectwhich is formulated by the Program staff in designs.consultation with the operating divisions at 10. On the basis of the above findings, thethe beginning of each year. After the work Team concludes as follows:plan has been agreed upon, the respective (a) The collaboration between the Program andcountry departments deal directly with the the Bank's operational divisions is appropri-RWSGs for implementation. ate and consistent with Program objectives

7. While Program operational support to and has been beneficial to both, and mostthe Bank has been increasing, these activities pres- importantly, to the countries participating inently absorb only a moderate share of Program the Program.resources as measured in staff weeks. The table in (b) It follows, in the Team's view, that the World

26

Bank should continue to serve as executing to maintain the proper balance and closeagency for the Program. Transfer of mana- linkage between field operations, appliedgerial responsibilities to another agency research, and program analysis. Transfer ofwould make it very difficult to maintain the operational management to the Bank's sev-proper coordination of Program activities eralregionswouldriskdestroyingthepresentwith the Bank's mainstream sector develop- integration of the Program's country andment and lending activities. global work programs and could affect the

11. The Team accordingly recommends that: Program's impetus adversely.(a) The World Bank should continue to manage (c) Present management arrangements ensure

the Program. an appropriate balance between operational(b) Existing cooperative arrangements between support to the Bank and Program services to

the Program and the Bank's operating divi- other donors. Transfer of management to thesions should notonlybecontinuedbut should Bank's regions might lead over time to thebe strengthened in the interest of accelerating subordination of Program activities and re-sector development, carefully observing, sources to the Bank's lending operations, tohowever, the respective roles of the Program the detriment of future donor support.and the Bank in this joint enterprise, in line 14. The Bank's regional technical depart-with the considerations advanced above. ments,particularlyin the Africa Region, see things

differently. The Africa Region TechnicalLocation of Program Management within the Department's Infrastructure Division (AFTIN),Bank which has the responsibility of supporting the

sector operating divisions, strongly believes that12. Headquarters management of the Pro- AFTIN management of Program field operationsgram is presently the responsibility of the Water would greatly increase the impact of the Programand Sanitation Division (INUWS) of the Infra- in Africa without endangering its goals or integ-structure Department of the Bank's central Policy, rity. The following arguments are advanced inResearch, and External Relations complex. The support of this view:question has been raised several times over the (a) While the operational support that the Pro-past years as to whether cooperation with the gram presently provides to the Africa SODsBank's operating divisions could be enhanced has been growing, it is much too little toand the impact of the Program correspondingly support the large-scale poverty-oriented ru-increased, if the management of Program field ral water and sanitation program to whichoperations were decentralized to the Bank's re- the Bank's Africa Region is committed; agional offices, specifically the regional technical program with a target of creating five or sixdepartments. On this important issue the Team large-scale rural water supply projects infound thatnotonlydoesnoconsensusexistwithin African countries over the next three to fourthe Bank, but there is in fact a wide divergence of years. Planning and development of thoseviews on the subject. (This question is distinct projects, for which RWSG assistance isfrom but related to the issue as to whether the needed,willrequirelong-termandexpandedRWSGs in Asia and the Asia Sector Development commitments of Program support to theTeam should be brought under single manage- SODs, which can best be assured by AFTINment, and if so where in the Bank. This issue is managementof ProgramoperationsinAfrica.dealt with in Chapter X.) (b) Broadpolicyreformandinstitutionalchanges13. The Program's management strongly are needed in Africa to move beyond thebelieves that the present arrangements should be kinds of demonstration projects presentlymaintained. The following reasons are advanced promoted by the Program and to scale up toin support of this position: countrywide replication. The influence and(a) Cooperation with the Bank's operating divi- direct involvement of the Bank as an institu-

sions is basically satisfactory at the present tion are needed in many countries to bringtime and continues to expand. about the necessary policy and institutional

(b) Location of the Program within INUWS reforms. "Stand-alone" projects cannot ac-permits close cooperation with the division's celerate sector development at the ratePolicy and Research Unit, which is essential needed and will become increasingly rare in

27

the 1990s. Close integration of policy work consistency between the Program's andand the Program's activities can most effec- Bank's approaches to sector development intively be achieved by shifting the manage- Africa.ment of operations in Africa to AFrIN. 15. Within the Bank's Asia Region, the AsiaWithout the necessary integration, the Pro- Region Technical Departrnent'sInfrastructure Di-gram runs the risk of becomning increasingly vision(ASTI),whichpresently managestheAsiamarginal in Africa as the 1990s progress. Sector Development Team, also leaned towards

(c) Location of an operational Program of this regional management of the Program's field op-type in the Bank's central Policy, Research, erations in Asia but attached less importance toand External Affairs complex is inconsistent the issue.with the Bank's basic regional structure. 16. In both the Africa and the Asia Regions,Shifting the management of Program field the country operations departments (as distin-operations to the regional technical depart- guished from the regional technical departments)ments, while leaving research and technol- expressed the view that present management ar-ogy development activities with PRE, would rangements meet their operational requirementsremove the anomaly. satisfactorily.

(d) AFrIN notes, finally, that it has established a 17. The issue is clearly a sensitive and contro-new position funded by the Bank to oversee versial one, raising strong differences of opinionits future poverty-oriented water and sanita- within the Bank. Having heard the different po-tion development activities in the Africa re- sitions and weighed the pros and cons of thegion. The person recruited has been a senior various altematives, the Team finds no compel-manager of the UNDP-World Bank Program, ling reasons to recommend a change in the man-and that background will help to ensure agement location of the Program at this time.

28

VIManagement and Staffing

1. As the report of the Africa Assessment 4. The Team, through group consultationsTeam states: "To the outsider, the Program seems and individual interviews, has examined all ma-anadministrativenightmare." Itcanneverescape jor functions carried out at headquarters and hasthe complications imposed by its complex system reviewed with the Program Manager his currentof multiple sponsors (UNDP, World Bank, bilat- plans for regrouping these functions under a planeral),butthisinterplayof supportersisatthesame developed since his appointment in mid-1990. Atime one of its greatest strengths. It accepts finan- useful tool for the Team in its review has been thecial and other inputs in specifically tailored ways aggregation of self-prepared job descriptionsto suit the requirements of donors, and it budgets prepared by Program headquarters personnel atand accounts for each item in a handcrafted man- the Team's request.ner; unecononiically to be sure, but the only way 5. The Team was neither required norto capture and retain specific kinds of support. It equipped to engage in a structured organizationdelivers its products either in the form of scarce and management review, a process that mightand expensive individual expertise; specifically advantageously be undertaken by outside con-*molded projects, often requiring labor-intensive sultants at a later stage, once the current reorga-inputs; or training programs that usually reach nization process has had time to show its effects.out to hitherto unreachable areas. Meanwhile, there are important points that the2. In short, the Program in its particular Team underlines for attention.circumstances and with its special challenges has 6. The Program isnota satellitecirclingin itsnooptionbuttoutilizeretailtypesofmachineryin own orbit, but is an integral part of the Bank'sattacking the wholesale problems that confront it Infrastructure and Urban Development Depart-and that would otherwise be largely ignored or ment, Water and Sanitation Division, reporting toavoided by the world community. the chief of thatdivision. This relationshipismore3. The field machinery required to move the than a line on the chart of organizational structure.Program at the point-of-contact level (regional, As the Program Manager has stated to the Team:country, local community) isdescribed in Chapter "The intellectual leadership of the divisional andVII. Tempting as it may be to speculate on de- departmental supervisors is essential for us."centralizing such a Program to an unprecedented 7. This point is underlined in the relation-degree in order to maximize direct services to ships with the Water and Sanitation Policy Unit, abeneficiaries, the references in the preceding companionelementinthedivisionwhosestaffingparagraphs illustrate why an actively functioning is partially supported by the Program and whosemanagementandplanningcenterisindispensable, work is supportive of and participated in by theand whya fairly extensive headquarters operation Program.in Washington continues to be required. 8. As for the intemal organization of the

29

Program'sheadquartersstaff,currentstaffingand ent countries and with a range of different skills.the contemplated reorganization build on the But to a very large extent they are attributablenatural element of programmatic backstopping merelytouncertaintyastothetermsbeingoffered.for regional operations: Asia, Africa, LAC, and The situation is complicated by the fact that theEMENA. Commendably, each officer is not lim- localWorldBankoffice(asforexample,inNairobi)ited to regional backstopping but is also required deals with many of theadministrative issues con-

ted of r b t b acerning staff, but may not be fully aware of theto take part in the study and programming complex and vaned terms on wluch they areactivities in specialist fields, such as women's role hired.in development, waste management, or rural TheTeamrecommendsthat,asaminimum,communities. all staff members-before signing their contracts9. A second grouping of staff is related to -shouldbeinformedveryclearlyofthetermsonadministration,a most complex and costly process which they are being engaged; not merely in thefor the reasons already outlined. Central to the sense that they are given the "book of rules," butcomplexities is the budgeting process, which re- more explicitly, setting out what they can or can-quires the involvement of up to seven staff not expect in terms of leave, housing allowances,members. It is in this area that management and so forth.review could eventually produce some savings. Going beyond this, the Team also proposesreview could eventuall pdem .se savi angs that each prospective staff member should be told10. Tne third basic element is research and the terms of service of others in the RWSGs. Thispublications, dealt with in Chapter X. mayseemradical,butitisclearthatstaff members11. Management of the Program is aware obtain this information soon after arriving in Af-that delegation of authority and responsibility to rica and are often dissatisfied as a result. There isRWSGs has many potential benefits, including a variety of different terms of service, and thespeedier operations; economies in staffing, travel, reasons for this are valid and can be explained.and communications; and more effective delivery Butagreaterdegree of openness in discussing thisof services. The Team found that the devolution issue in advance would be an advantage.process is taking place in a deliberate but deter- As to salaries, the issue is not so simple. Itmined manner. It should continue. may be sufficient to make it clear that there are12. The most significant problem at head- several different scales, and that these differ con-12.rters, where mt is significansta prlie ,a ha siderably. (rhe list, possibly not exhaustive, is:quarters, where it is seen in stark relief because of World Bank regular staff, World Bank-secondedthe Program's location in Bank headquarters, is staff, local World Bank staff, UN-seconded staff,also felt in seriously damaging ways in the field. bilateral-seconded staff, local-seconded staff, andThis is the question of conditions of service for consultants).Program staff,aperplexingand largely unresolvedissue that is sapping staff morale and endangering 14. This unflinching description of problemsthe successful continuation of the Program. relating to conditions of service is not overstated.13. The Africa Team has reported on this The Team Leader encountered a high degree ofproblem with specific references to the situation distress over inequities in staff treatment during ain that region, but the Team as a whole finds the conference with program officers and research stafffollowingcommentary relevantand indicative for in Washington. Apartial answer is tobefoundinthelarge numbers of Program staff at headquarters AfricaTeam'ssuggestionforassuringthatthetermsand in all regions: of employment are fully understood in complete

detail whenever a new staff member is added (andDespitethe highlevel of interestand dedicationof this should include a forthright explanation of thethe staff, itis clear that morale is seriously affected divergences in pay, allowances, and benefits, andbyproblems relating to terms of service and career the reasons for them). But more than explanation isprospects. These are attributable partly (but not required;the tangled web of thepresentnonsystem,fully) to the special nature of the Program: The wherebycomparablestaff membersworkatcompa-involvement of different donor agencies and the rable tasks for varying salaries and benefits, is alack of continuity of the financial base.

Many examples were given by individual prescription for permanent trouble. The Programstaff members of the frustrations and uncertain- management, and Bank officials to whom they re-ties that have arisen. In part these are the inevi- port,areunfairlyexposedtocriticismsinthisregard,table problems that arise when comparisons are fortheunsatisfactorysituationisbeyondtheirpowermade between colleagues from a range of differ- to correct.

30

15. TheTeamthereforeproposesthattheVice and emoluments of the Program's staff for thePresident for Personnel and Administration of the purpose of developing a system that would bringWorld Bank (themanagingpartner of the Program the present anomalies and disparities to the abso-responsible for its administration) be requested to lute minimum consistent with the legal require-undertake a review of the existing entitlements ments governing World Bank administration.

31

_ VIIField Structure

The RWSG Concept cated intheregion, relativelyclose to the countriesthey serve, each RWSG would become famniliar

1. The Regional Water and Sanitation withregional and national sectorissuesandcouldGroups that have been established in Africa and respond quickly to countries' requests for assis-Asia represent the principal mechanism through tance. In a position to make frequent visits towhichtheProgramprovidesadviceandassistance neighboring countries and supported in sometoparticipatingcountries. AsindicatedinChapter countries by national program officers or countryI, the RWSG concept has evolved gradually over a teams, RWSGs would be able to maintain continu-period of several years, during which UNDP and ity of contact with sector officials and thus tothe World Bank experimented with different ap- developgoodworkingrelationships. Finally,theyproaches to sector development support. The would serve as a single source of expertise thatrationale for the selected approach is based on countriescouldapproachforassistanceindealingseveral factors: with a variety of sector issues, a source of help(a) Countries need external advice and support withoutwhichcountrieswouldhavetoseekassis-

services that often do not require country- tance from a variety of donors on an ad hoc,based advisors, either because short-term, project-by-projectbasis, with the attendantdelaysperiodic services suffice or because the mul- and complications. The features of the RWSG,tiplication of numerous country teams is not taken together, give the Program, in the view of itsfeasible for financial reasons; management, a unique comparative advantage

(b) It is difficult to find enough suitably qualified not possessed by any other single existing interna-long-term experts required to staff many tional sector support program.country teams; and, 3. The present field structure consists of

(c) At the other end of the spectrum, to attempt four RWSGs: two in Africa, located in Abidjanto provide assistance to a large number of and Nairobi; and two in Asia, located in NewcountriesfromProgramheadquarterswould Delhi and Singapore. Annex 1, page 71, containsinvolve a number of financial and technical the assignments and specialties of all field staff.drawbacks.

2. The RWSG approach was accordingly Findings of the Assessment Teamconsidered to be the most cost-effective method ofdelivering Program assistance to participating 4. On the basis of its field investigations andcountries. Asmultidisciplinaryteams,theRWSGs discussions with government officials in thewould be in a position to help countries develop countries visited, the Team concludes that thelonger-term sector policies and strategies as well RWSG concept and the field structure of the Pro-as to provide advice on particular problems. Lo- gram are a basically sound and cost-effective way

32

of delivering the planned assistance to govern- 9. In the view of the Assessment Team, thements. The decision made in 1988 to decentralize present composition of professional staff, both inoperationsfromheadquartersinfavorof theRWSG the RWSGs and in individual countries, is toostructure was therefore a correct one. The Team heavily weighted towards engineering skills,presents findings later in this chapter on the spe- particularly if the Program is to move in the di-cial situation in Latin America. rectionsrecommendedbelow-namely,towards5. There have been some transitional prob- less emphasis on demonstration work and morelems in headquarters-RWSG relationships but emphasis on the analysis of experience, sectorgenerally these have been resolved. Communica- policy development, participatory techniques,tions have been improved technically (electronic social marketing, and capacity building. Withinmail) and administratively (requests from the field this context, the appropriate minimum composi-are more promptly dealt with than previously). tion of an RWSG would appear to consist of the6. The RWSGs benefit from being able to following personnel:share support services with theWorld Bankoffices. * an engineer (rural water supply)(They pay full cost, but probably obtain better * an engineer (sanitation and waste manage-service at lower cost than if they were wholly ment)separate). The expenses of being decentralized a a sector economist/financial analystare not easy to assess. The only obvious example * a specialist in community development andof additional cost encountered in the field is the participatory techniquesexcessive administrative burden on the profes- * a social-marketing specialistsional staff in Ghana, which accounted for more * a human resources development specialistthan 50% of the country coordinator's time. This The core group should be complemented by atis, however, a rather atypical case since the coun- least one person-year of consultancy in varioustry coordinator (who isnot responsible forspecific specialized disciplines as needed. In West Africa,projects) does not have a secretary. a public health specialist would be extremely7. The appropriate size of an RWSG would useful. Every effort should be made in all regionsappear to be about seven to ten professionals, that to recruit more qualified nationals from the regionis, the typical present size, (with the exception of for the teams. In West Africa, half the RWSGthe East Asia RWSG). A group smaller than this should be French speaking, to facilitate the ex-would have great difficulty in producing a sig- pansion of Program activities in the Francophonenificant impact considering the large number of countries.countries to be served in each subregion and taking 10. While there is general agreement that theinto account travel distances and communications services provided by the RWSGs are generallyproblems. A group much larger would run the appreciatedbygovernmentsanddonors,theTeamrisk of becoming a "mini-bureaucracy" with es- alsofoundabroadconsensusthatthegroupsneedcalating overhead and administrative costs and to develop more sustained contacts with theburdens, diverting the group manager from pro- countries they are meant to serve by building upfessional activities. a stronger in-country presence than now exists in8. The composition of the RWSGs and the most participating countries. Every regional orappropriate mix of professional skills are com- subregional entity attempting to serve a relativelyplicated questions that must be seen in relation to large number of client countries through periodicthe Program's work priorities and goals in the short missions suffers from several inherentsubregion and countries in which each group limitations: actions initiated during the visits areworks. The aim in Africa has been to put together often not followed up vigorously; it can be diffi-teams whose members have both generalist and cult through intermittent visits to develop thespecialist skills, since each team member usually degree of understanding and mutual confidencehas a dual responsibility: to act as a "country needed for successful cooperation with local sec-officer" for two or three countries with responsi- tor officials; and, client countries not visited fre-bility for all aspects of the country program; and to quently can come to believe they are not receivingact as a specialist to contribute to program de- their fair share of services. These factors, overvelopment generally. This principle appears to time, can erode an RWSG's credibility with somethe Team to be basically sound, given the limited governments.resources available. 11. The findings of the Field Assessment

33

Teams, supported by other available information, New Approaches to Latin Americaindicate that the RWSGs have in fact been mosteffective and appreciated in those countries where 13. At present no Regional Water and Sanita-they are closely linked up with some kind of in- tion Group exists in Latin America. During thecountry support mechanism. In Nigeria, the pastdecade,theLatinAmericancountriesfeltthatAbidjan-based RWSG works with a national team they were in a more advanced stage of develop-that has been built up. In Ethiopia, two advisors ment than the Africa and Asia regionsand felt thathave been established in the Water Supply and there was no need for an active role or presence ofSewerage Authority (WSSA) under a UNDP- the Program. The same attitude seems to havefunded project. In India, a full-scale country team been reflected in some of the multilateral andhas recently been formed. And in Pakistan, bilateral development organizations, in that theyBangladesh, and China, national country officers accepted the estimates that Latin America was in(NCO) have been posted. The Assessment Team its own stage of development, that a programwas impressed with the performance and attitude oriented towards the poorest groups was notof these NCOs. Where major operations have necessary, and that solutions developed in Africabeen launched without adequate in-country sup- and Asia to provide water for rural communitiesport, as in Indonesia, serious problems have been werenotapplicabletoLatinAmerica. Thisattitudeexperienced. In numerous African countries where of the Latin Americans did not mean that they didthere are no NCOs, results have been generally not care for the poor; rather, it reflected the per-limited. ception that economic development in the region12. The Team concludes that measures need would take care of the needs of the poor.to be taken during the Program's next phase to 14. Unfortunately, the l980sbroughtwithitastrengthen its links with the individual partici- decline in development in Latin America, to suchpating countries. Several possible approaches for an extent that many countries were much worseachieving this have been brought to the Team's off at the end of the decade. The problem ofattention. One would be to increase the number of external debt in the region and of deficient gov-national country officers. It is suggested that the ernment policies in many countries resulted in aProgram management review the situation to decline of production and productivity, an infla-determine in what countries this would be desir- tion that in many countries was out of control, aable. Necessary budgetary resources should be lack of savings, fleeing capital, and a great declinemade available for this increased coverage. It may in investments. The governments, facing a tre-be noted, parenthetically, that increased use of mendous problem of recession combined withnationals as in-country extensions of the RWSGs inflation, did not have the resources to implementrepresents a contribution to national capacity thesocialprogramscontainedinthenationalplans.building. A second way to strengthen RWSG As a result in Latin America, water and sanitationlinks with individual countries would be for the in the rural areas and in the large and ever-ex-groups to establish closer contact with project panding periurban areas did not receive the pri-personnel of other agencies - notably UNICEF, ority or the attention that they justly deserved. AtWHO, and UN/DTCD-already stationed in the the same time, the international developmentcountry. Such persons could provide valuable banks became much more cautious in their in-liaison with sector authorities, in addition to vestments, which, in the case of water and sani-bringing the Program into closer relationships tation, wereoriented towardstheimprovementofwith other assistance programs, alleviating the watersupplyandsewagesystemsinthetraditionalfairly widespread perception that the Program urban areas, where recovery of the loans wasworks too much in isolation from others. A third more likely to occur.approach, appropriate in countries where activity 15. As the 1980s progressed, however, it be-is concentrated, is to establish country teams to came evident that a great deal more attention hadmanageactivities,permittingtheRWSGstodevote to be provided to the poor. The internationalmore attention to countries where Program ac- community, in many fora, expressed its dissatis-tivities are less developed. This is, in fact, taking faction with the state of affairs and insisted on theplace now in some countries, notably Ghana, Ni- need to provide more such attention. This wasgeria, Zimbabwe, India, and China. The Team reflected in Latin Americabya renewed interest inendorses this approach. thepoorestgroups. Todayitisadmittedthatsome

34

urgent measures are required to take care of the in attitude in the Latin American and Caribbeanwater and sanitation needs of an increasing and region, the time has come to increase the activitiesmigratory population in the periurban sectors of of the Program there. In order to achieve this, themost cities, as well as to find a solution to provide Team considers that modest offices - RWSGs inthese services in the rural areas. embryo - should be organized at two key loca-16. Deprived of the active presence of an tions, dependentin size and coverage onavailableRWSG in Latin America, the Program's activities financing.in the region during the Water and Sanitation 22. TheTeamsuggeststhatapre-RWSGcouldDecade were reduced to some few interventions be located in Guatemala because of a number ofhandled directly from Washington. advantages there. International transport and17. An RWSG could have been helpful, espe- communications are excellent in Guatemala City.cially at the end of the Decade, to identify regional The Secretary for the Economic Integration ofinvestment possibilities offering pragmatic ap- Central America is located in this city and so areproaches to serve the poor, as in the periurban area the regional offices of UNICEF. This office couldof Tegucigalpa,Honduras,whichhasbenefitedfrom eventually cover all the Central American coun-the support of UNICEF. An RWSG could also have tries and Mexico, Cuba, Haiti, and the Dominicanhelped governments in formulating sector policies Republic, as well as the English-speaking Carib-and strategies and in promoting the restructuringof bean, including Guyana and Suriname.water and sanitation institutions. 23. The other office should be for South18. In the Team's discussions with PAHO/ America, eventually covering all the countries ofWHOinWashington,thatorganizationexpressed this subregion, to be located in Bolivia. La Pazinterest in the possibility of becoming an active appears to haveanumberof advantages. Demandparticipant in the Program. As PAHO/WHO is for the RWSG is high in Bolivia, and La Paz is wellvery active in the Americas, with a network of linked in transportation and communication withoffices and installations in all countries of the all the other South American countries. Further-region, the Team believes that this offer is a good more, the Program has already had some experi-opportunity for an association with the Program ence in Bolivia.at the field level. 24. Conceming structure, both PAHO and19. In discussions with many agencies of the UNICEF have expressed interest in an activeGuatemalan government, the Team leamed of participation in the Program, the nature of whichtheir interest and strong support for the possibil- will have to be negotiated with them. A draftity of establishing an RWSG for Central America/ proposal from UNICEF in June 1990 offered toCaribbean in that country. In the Team's contact house the Central American-Caribbean RWSG inwith the UNICEF office in Guatemala, which is its office in Guatemala. UNICEF is also ready topresently active in the field of water and sanitation provide office services. In both cases, the agenciesin Central America and in collaboration with the have expressed an interest in becoming partnerslimited UNDP-World Bank Program activities in of the Program in Latin America in a fashion thatGuatemala, interest was also expressed in the would be much more active than in other regions.possibility of becoming a partner in whatever Furthermore, in Bolivia and Guatemala, wheregroup or structure the Program would establish in many government institutions and agencies workthe region. Likewise, the office of the Inter- in the water and sanitation sector-not always inAmerican Development Bank in Guatemala has close coordination - some government organi-reactedpositivelyto the idea ofagroupthatcould zations have expressed interest in participatingcoordinate and assist in the numerous activities actively in the Program. INFOM, the Institute forrelated to water and sanitation. Municipal Development in Guatemala, went so20. In Bolivia, government representatives in far as to say that they would be willing to host suchthe sectorhavealso expressed total support forthe a group. The Bolivian government has alreadypossibility of establishing an RWSG for South approved a social investment fund, and it is ex-America in La Paz. This possibility was also pected that the Guatemalan legislature will alsoendorsed by the local representatives of PAHO/ pass laws for a social investment fund. AgenciesWHO, UNICEF, the Dutch government, USAID, of these governments will need to increase specialand the Inter-American Development Bank. technical support and supervision to implement21. TheTeambelievesthatwiththesechanges the new investment funds.

35

25. But, the great need and high interest in Water Supply and SanitationBolivia and Guatemala threaten to absorb theProgram's assistance there. As the new offices The role of an RWSG in the Arab states could begrow, a priority task should be to develop in- quite important. As indicated in the report, thecountry national counterpart teams. Launching a institutional constraints in the Arab states relate"high impact,/visibility" project where possible in to social-cultural, religious, and technical issues.the short term in each country, with a national Other constraints to water use are mainly posedteam, would contribute greatly to the expansion bythescarcityand/orgeographicconfinementofof the Program throughout the countries and re- the resource in relation to thedemographicdistri-gion, and influence the acceptability of recom- bution pattern. In many countries, the growthmended policies and institutional changes. The rate of water use equals or exceeds populationproject design should build upon action-oriented growth. Sectoral demands, for example in agri-research (community profiles) in the area served culture, are predicted to surpass the availableand should include a monitoring and evaluation exploitable resources. In both Jordan and Egypt,(impact assessment) plan. the available water resources are hardly sufficient26. The following agencies should be invited to meet the needs, and at the current rate of useto contribute to the launching of the activities in severe water shortages will occur by the yearthe early stages: 2000.

* PAHO and UNICEF The main common issues in need of resolu-* Inter-American Development Bank, to support tion in the Arab States Region relate to water

the long-range vision of the Program and to resources conservation, planning, and manage-helplaunchshort-termdemonstrationprojects ment; often the allocation of water is biased to-in Guatemala and Bolivia wards the agriculture sector. To allow for scien-

* USAID in concert with its WASH program tific exploitation, scarce water resources manage-* GTZ for environment and sanitation compo- ment, whether of domestic water supply, irriga-

nents tion, or industry, should be introduced and* the Netherlands and Nordic countries' agen- practiced. Master plans for water resources exist

cies in most Arab countries, however, action plans to* counterpart support from collaborating agen- implement them are either nonexistent or lack

cies and host countries financing.The UNDP regional program is playing a

Prospects for a Regional Water and Sanitation highly appreciated role in the water resourcesGroup in the Arab States Region sectors of the Arab countries, and it has been

instrumental in providing the right institutional27. The Program has not been operative in support through human resources developmentthe Arab states, except for one project -- the and training (RAB/86/008), water resourcesUNDP-funded project, Improvement of Water management (RAB/80/011, RAB/89/003, RAB/Supply, Sanitation,and Waste Management in the 82/013, RAB/90/005, RAB/89/020, and the lat-Arab States Region, RAB/88/009. No RWSG has est project, RAB/88/009). During the mid-termbeen set up in the region, nor does the Program review of the regional program, it was recom-have country coordinators in any country. mended that the Regional Bureau pursue its ef-28. For those reasons, the Arab States Region forts in the water sector with two new projectswas not included formally in the Program Assess- dealing with efficient water utilization in indus-ment. An independent consultant mission was try and reduction of unaccounted-for water inundertaken, however, as a companion exercise to municipal water supplyoperations. Inouropinionthe main Assessment, and has reached some con- theseareprojectsofutmostimportanceand shouldclusions that bear on the possible extension of be realized as soon as possible.Program activities to the region. The words fromthe consultants' report follow. On-Site Sanitation and Alternatives to Public

Sewerage Systems

In the Arab region, several methods areused to evacuate wastewater. The present ten-

36

dency is to develop collective public systems that come that are worth considering for the Arabinclude a wastewater treatment plant and to re- region.cycle the treated water for irrigation or other In Egypt, there exists a traditional solidpurpose. However, these public sewerage sys- waste management and resource recovery sys-tems are only efficient in areas of high water tem that is well organized, quite efficient, and thatconsumption. It is thus evident that alternative considers waste as resource material. In thissystems should be envisaged for low water con- system, individuals known as #Zabbaleen orsumption areas. garbage collectors, separate the waste into recy-

In most low-consumption countries, the ru- clable and nonrecyclable categories, whereby theral population constructs traditional latrines and former is sold to other groups of the communitycesspits that do not usually follow any specific who use it as raw material for small industries.standard, except the builder's. Assistance is re- This resource recovery operation sustains 30,000quired in providing dry pit latrines, water closets, people in Cairo. In an attempt to modernize theflushlatrines,septictanks,communitysanitation, garbage collection operation, the government ofandotherfacilities. Moreover,assistanceisneeded Cairointroduced aparallelalternativeof privatelyfor simple natural treatment of wastewater, using contracting garbage collection through a labor-methods such as the construction of filtering beds intensive operation. The Zabbaleen, feelingand small lagoons and controlled runoff. pressure from the government's plans, managed

to organize themselves in private companies andReuse of Wastewater to modernize their operation through replacing

their donkey carts with six flatbed trucks. AtAssistance will be required by the Arab present 42 companies compete in six solid waste

countries in the following fields: management/resource recovery businesses.(a) Institutional aspects of reuse of treated waste- Project RAB/88/009 is in the process of initi-

water, to improve the Arab countries' capac- ating contacts for the production of training mate-ity in administration and distribution of the rials on the aspects of community participation intreated wastewater as well as the supervision refuse collection and recycling, based on the lessonof its use; learned from the Zabbaleen. This model could be

(b) Cost recovery of treated wastewater-that is, replicated in other countries of the region.to establish guidelines for pricing water; and, In Tunisia, the composting of selected solid

(c) Artificial recharge of groundwater using waste has been successfully practiced on a pilottreated wastewater. Tunisia conducted tests basis. This alternative was decided upon afterin three locations but the results were incon- extensive studies and research. The pilot plant inclusive. Tunis has a capacity of eight tons and has been

operational for eight months. As a result of thisWaste Management pilotproject,Tunisiaplanstoconstructcomposting

plants in Tunis and Sousse and is defining theWaste management in the Arab region is needs for the city of Sfax and cities situated in the

still developing, and the degree of efficiency var- Sidi Salem basin.iesfromonecountrytoanother. Inmostcountries, The future regional efforts of the UNDP-waste management is a municipal responsibility WorldBankWaterandSanitationProgramshouldwhile in some it is a combined responsibility of concentrate on water supply and sanitation in theprivate enterprise and the municipality or the frameworkof water management. Toaccomplishlocal authority. such a role, it is recommended to pool the United

UNDP Project RAB/88/009 investigated Nations specialized resources into one group.waste management practices in Arab countries Such a group would provide advisory services toand preliminary project findings indicate the ex- the region and establish links with existing Arabistence of a number of models in the Arab region regional organizations to maximize its database.that can be further developed and popularized. Recruitment of Arab experts from the regionIn Syria, for example, the apparent success of should also be encouraged. The group wouldsmall-scale, low-cost models of anaerobic diges- assist the sectoral institutions in developing ap-tion of waste calls for further investigating. From propriate technologies adapted to the needs andJordan, sanitary landfills and composting plants constraints of the region. It would also be in a

37

position to discuss and analyze the ideas pre- sanitation supply technologies. Given the factsented here with the concerned countries. The that the Regional Bureau for Arab States is foster-groupcouldalsoreview,document,anddissemi- ing the establishment of regional networks innate the work accomplished under ongoing or water resources (RAB/89/003), the group couldcompleted projects of the UNDP and other do- also establish links with these networks and ex-nors in the field of water resources and water and change and/or provide them with expertise.

38

VIIIStrategy and Effectiveness

1. The ultimate development objective of 4. For the most part, the Program operatesthe Program is to increase the delivery of safe in poor countries (although not always the poor-water and sanitation to low-income communities, est). In all these countries the rural population is,both rural and urban, primarily through the ap- on average, notably poorer than the urban. To theplicationoflow-costtechnologiesandcommunity- extent that the Program is active in urban areasbased approaches to project organization and (the Kumasi demonstration project, for example),maintenance. In support of this goel,the Program its focus on periurban areas is dearly consistentconcentrates its activities in the five interrelated with a poverty orientation.areas described in Chapter I, paragraph 13. A 5. What is not yet very apparent (and couldprimary objective is to shift the sector policies of be usefully developed) in the Program, especiallyparticipating governments and external support in its sector work, isan emphasis on measures thatagencies towards higher priority for poverty-fo- would directly favor the poor: for example, incused programs, while concurrently building up urban areas, increasing the provision of commu-governments' capacity to formulate and imple- nal standpipes and introducing progressive (or atment such programs. least equal) tariffs.2. Through themediumof theregional Teamreports, this chapter examines the validity of the Low-Cost, Community-Based ApproachesProgram's basic strategy and effectiveness. Sub-sequently, this report draws conclusions regard- 6. Experience over the last decade in Africaing the Program's "comparative advantage" in its makes it abundantly clear that "sustainability"areas of activity as compared with other alterna- remains a problem for rural water supply. For thistives and makes recommendations for the future. reason, low-cost, community-based approaches

have been advocated for several years in thisReview of Program Strategy (Africa Team) sector, as numerous publications show. But

practicehaslagged behind theory. In verygeneralPoverty Orientation terms, it can be said that in many countries in

Africa there are now a number of promising3. The Program lays stress on its poverty models. This general approach is certainly theorientation in many of its publications. Evidence right one (although the manner of communityof its poverty orientation might be found in the involvement and the type of appropriate technol-selection of countries of concentration, in the ogy will vary). The Program can justifiably claimgeographical location of activities within the to have made a contribution here, and to havecountry and the design of projects, as well as in the begun testing in the field; but it cannot claim to becontents of sector and other reports. unique in this respect.

39

7. Low-CosrTEcHNoLoGYCHoICE. Before the Africa, since in Francophone countries the healthProgram was formally set up, the development of aspects of rural water supply have often not beenlow-cost technologies was perhaps the major ac- greatly stressed. The Program certainly stressestivity; indeed this work has not completely ended. this in its writings and cooperates in equal measureUndoubtedly this has had a substantial impact, with the ministry of health in several countries, asbut this Assessment is concerned with the subse- for instance in Kenya. But the evidence from thequent phase: moving on from this research and demornstration projects is mixed. An integrateddevelopment work. approach is not yet being achieved in practice in8. The Program lays strong emphasis on Awassa, Ethiopia, and Kumasi, Ghana. The caseslow-cost technologies and continues to exert in- of Bolgatanga, Ghana, and RUSAFIYA in Nigeriafluence both in policy making and through dem- are more successful.onstration projects and the promotion of 12. This raises a very general point of somehandpump manufacture. There is, however, a significance. The economic case for improvedproblem. The Program is, in someeyes, associated rural water supply canbe based mainlyon benefitsnot simply with low-cost technology in general, of time savings and improved health. The formerbut with the AFRIDEV pump and the VIP latrine are relatively easy to quantify (and even, perhaps,in particular. It is important that the Program to value monetarily). The latter is both difficult toshould lay emphasis on the low-cost approach quantify and difficult to value in money terms.rather than on these specific technical solutions. Willingness to pay for improved supplies is likelyPumps other than the AFRIDEV can satisfy the to reflect time savings benefits, but not healthneed for village-level operation and maintenance benefits (except where knowledge of hygiene is(VLOM), and there may be circumstances where quite sophisticated). There is now empirical evi-an alternative (such as piped gravity supply) may dence (albeit specific to a few locations and subjectbebetter. AndtheVIPlatrineis,inmanyinstances, to statistical criticism) that willingness to pay forstill not sufficiently low-cost and should not be rural water may be sufficient to make the case onpromoted on a countrywide basis. economic grounds for investment in improved9. COMMUNITY-BASED APPROACHES AND IN- supplies, provided that these inputs will be sub-VOLVEMENT OF WoMEN. The project undertaken sequently maintained and used. In some casesearlier in Kwale, Kenya, is a good example of a (particularly in periurban locations) the empiricalcommunity-based approach and the involvement evidence is stronger, and it is clear that waterof women. The Program certainly emphasizes supply provision can be a profitable venture.similar community-based approaches. Comrmu- Although theeconomic justification for investmentnity involvement can mean a range of different in rural water supplies may be very welcome, thethings, from the provision of cheap labor to the logicofthisapproachshouldbetofavorinvestmentorganization of the community itself into an effec- only where potential time savings are great (and/tive decision-making and implementing body. or income levels are high). Areas that account forRUSAFIYA, a water and sanitation project in Ni- a large proportion of the African population, andgeria, is a successful example of the latter. where polluted water sources are close at hand for10. By contrast, the involvement of women is part or all of the year, would not qualify fornot strongly emphasized in most of the Program's support.activities. The association with PROWWESSshould be increasingly beneficial for the Program, Selection of Countriesand the prospects for this should be given specialattention in the future strategy. 13. As mentioned, the Program is currently

active in varyingdegrees in some40 countries thatIntegrated-Comprehensive Approach to Sector have indicated a desire to participate. Recogniz-Development ing that resources do not permit equal assistance

to all countries, the Program has divided countries11. Perhaps the most important integration is into two categories:between water, sanitation, and health education, * countries of primary focus receiving morewhich, in institutional terms, often means the comprehensive, integrated assistanceinvolvement of both the ministries of water and * countries where the Program undertakes tohealth. This is of particular relevance in West provideselectedassistanceinaparticulararea

40

14. The criteria for the selection of participat- bias; yet Francophone countries, although mak-ing countries, including countries of primary fo- inguplessthanhalf thepopulationof WestAfrica,cus, have not been spelled out formally or explic- number more by far. Ghana and Nigeria togetheritly in any of the Program documents made account for a substantial part of Abidjan staff timeavailable to the Assessment Team. The findings of and also have in-country staff. This is well rec-the Field Teams on country participation follow. ognized by the RWSG, which has identified four

Francophone countries - Guinea, Mali, Benin,Asia and Burkina Faso - on which to concentrate in

the future. Receptivity of the government is the15. The Asia Field Team reports that the se- major criterion for selection in West Africa.lection of participating countries in the past was 17. The extent of counterpart support varies.made on the basis of pragmatic considerations - Where the activities are financed from UNDP/that is, receptiveness of the host countries, mag- IPF, these are stated in the relevant project docu-nitude of the unserved population, presence of ment. ThegeneralprincipleholdsthatthereshouldUNDP projects, chances of success, donor interests, be some counterpart contribution. Many recentabsorptive capacity of the country, and other examplesofthiscouldbecited,suchasZimbabwesimilar factors. The Asia Team is of the view that, and Madagascar. In the case of Benin, assistanceto theextentpracticable, the nextphaseofoperation was recently provided, but for which finance hadshould havea more pronounced focus on needs as not been earmarked. The RWSG manager wasdeterminedcollectivelybyinterestedgovernments able to ensure that Benin provided some coun-(including both donors and participants) and in- terpart resources (in this case, from other donorternational agencies, with priority consideration funds).given to the least developed countries. Such needs 18. Given the present extent of staff and fi-can be determined by a number of indicators, nancial resources, it is appropriate to concentrateincluding low per capita income (say, less than activity on a small number of countries. The basisUS$500); high proportion of unserved; and, on which countries of concentration are selected isgovernment's firm commitment to serve the low- discussed above, but the principle should also beincome groups. Indochina and possibly the South adopted that the countries of concentration arePacific would be candidate subregions deserving varied over time. Thus, the Program should planthe Program's close attention. A good mix of to phase out existing countries of concentrationprojects, say, in demonstration, technology ap- over a period of years and phase in others, leavingplication, water supply, and sanitation in both activities that can be continued by others withrural and urban poor sections would increase the littleorno support fromtheProgram(asmaynowProgram's impact there. be happening in Nigeria in regard to the

RUSAFIYA project).Africa

Work Programming16. The Africa Team had the following com-ments: The Program inherited activities in a num- 19. Since 1988, the Program's activities at theber of countries and had links with others. In East country and regional level have been based on aAfrica, size is the first criterion for the selection of detailed work program formulated at the begin-countries of concentration, followed by the likeli- ning of each year. The draft programs are pre-hood of success as judged primarily by the RWSG pared in the field by the RWSG managers andmanager. This means not only the receptiveness finalized at headquarters in consultations withof the government (and possibly other donor the Bank's regional and operating departments.agencies) but also the prospects of achieving Since 1990, a global work program has been pre-something in the sector. The reasons why condi- pared on a biennial basis, which specifies thetions are positive for working in Ethiopia, Uganda, research, publication, and other activities for whichand Zimbabwe (the three countries of concentra- Program headquarters is responsible. The coun-tion) are varied and relate largely to recent politi- try work programs provide considerable flexibil-cal events in these countries, which have created a ity to enable RWSGs to meet ad hoc requests ofclimate favorable for Program involvement. In governments not foreseen when the programsWest Africa, there has been a strong Anglophone were formulated. The comments of the Assess-

41

ment Field Teams on the work programming best be done through a work group. Other col-process are detailed below. laboratingagencies, suchasNGOs, should also be

given the opportunity to make requests for assis-Africa tance. But the distribution of staff time bycountry

and activity is as important as the setting of clear20. The Africa Team has reported that in objectives and performance targets.principle the RWSGs, World Bank headquarters, 23. All UNDP-funded activities are subject todonors, and the governments themselves are all normal UNDP monitoring and evaluation proce-involved in the preparation of the work program. dures. Other donors contributing to the ProgramIn practice, the RWSG manager together with his do not regularly carry out formal evaluation instaff takes the major role in proposing a program. most instances. It is not yet clear how, or even(In East Africa, the collaborating ITN institution, whether, the actual work is monitored against theAMREF, was invited to participate in these dis- work program. Although the subject has beencussions in 1990). At World Bank headquarters, discussed among RWSG staff on various occa-Program staff have an influence, and all the op- sions, no progress has been made on the design oferational divisions have the chance to comment criteria for success.and to specify their recommendations to the Pro-gram staff. It appears that donors and participating Asiagovernments do not play a substantial role atpresent in the preparation of the work programs. 24. The Assessment' Asia Team finds thatThey do, however, contribute on an ad hoc basis. theworkprogrammingmethodologyisgenerallyFor example, Program staff had informal discus- satisfactory. SeveralAsiangovernmentsthatweresions with those government agencies with which not visited by the Team sent written replies to thethey have links in Zimbabwe and Ethiopia. Team Leader confirming this satisfaction. In the21. In West Africa, largely because of the formulation of the Asian work programs, consul-Program'sintenttobecomemoreactivelyinvolved tations take place between the RWSG managersin Francophone Africa, there is great willingness and the managers of the Asia Sector Developmentto respond to requests from these countries. The Team.time so far devoted to these is still relatively small.In East Africa, there is active involvement in a Monitoring and Evaluation: Influence ongreater range of countries, and the need for strict Sector Policy (Africa Team)adherence to a clear policy is also greater. As aresult, some requests outside the work program Government Sector Policiesare resisted, although this is not usually becausetheProgramcouldnotobtainfunding(orevenuse 25. In the earlier part of the Water and Sani-its own staff resources) to assist. tation Decade, the work of the sector development22. The work programming exercise is im- teams in Africa was the subject of an in-depthportant, and the most recent one in 1990 seems to evaluation. Sector action plans have been pro-have been more successful than earlier ones. It duced, or are in various stages of production, in awas found to be very time consuming, although number of countries, among them Ghana, Nige-this may be less of a problem now that the model ria, Ethiopia, and Uganda. The real measure ofhas been established. RWSG managers interpret achievement in this respect, however, is whetherthe work program with a good deal of flexibility, the stated policies are regarded by the govern-and thefinal realitydoesnotnecessarilymatchthe ment as their own and are subsequently put intooriginal plan. In the future, all collaborating gov- practice. Inthisrespectthemostpromisingcountryernments should be involved in the work pro- is probably Ethiopia.gramming exercise. Rather than sending officialrequests, however, the more appropriate method, Donor Policieswhich seems to have been used in some cases, isfor Program staff to discuss programming with 26. The Program may influence donor poli-the collaborating departments so that they receive cies and projects in various ways.a sense that they have a say in the use of resources. (a) By influencing government. Ideally, donorsIn some cases the in-country programming might are guided by the stated policies of the gov-

42

ernments they assist; and the Program would gram staff have had increasing contacts with thetherefore influence donors to the extent that Bank's operational divisions and have contributedit influences governments. But the majority to a number of their activities, such as projectof countries in Africa, at least in this sector, preparation,appraisal, and implementation. (Thisare "donor-dominated." includes, to a limited extent, agriculture sector

(b) By assisting in donor coordination by gov- staff, since rural water supply may form only oneemnment. The UNDP has been designated as component of a more wide-ranging project, as inthe lead agency for donor coordination under agriculture/rural development or in infrastruc-theWater and Sanitation Decade,but this has ture.) The fruitfulnessof such collaborationvariesnot been effective in many countries. The to some extent according to the personalities in-World Bank has, for example through con- volved,butexperiencehasgenerallybeenpositivesultative group meetings and sometimes and more extensive than generally realized. (Seethrough more regular in-country meetings, Annex2,page74fordataonWorldBank-financedtaken on a donor coordination role, which is projects in which the Program is involved.)much broader and not specifically focused 30. Recent Bank policy statements now em-on this sector. The Program has notattempted phasize theneed fora poverty focus (in earlieryears,to assert a role as proxy for either organiza- the Program argued for a focus on the links to thetion. However, in Ethiopia (possibly) it will environment as much as on poverty). But Bankbe given a formal mandate to assist govern- policy with regard to a community-ased approachment in this task. is not so clear. The officials of the Bank's Africa and

(c) By informal links. In somecountries there are Asia regional technical departments who were in-informal meetings of donors, with or without terviewed by the Team Leader agreed that the Pro-government presence. For example, in Kenya gram has had a tangible impact in influencing BankProgram staff participate in the Intersectoral sector policies towards a greater focus on povertyMeeting on Water Suppy and Sanitation and low-cost, although it cannot claim to have beenwhere they contribute to the Secretariat. Pro- the only influence in this direction.gram staff, especially in East Africa, havecollaborated with several donors in various Assisting Countries to Build Capacitystages of projects, including identification, (Africa Team)appraisal, monitoring, and review. This pro-vides a very valuable exchange of informa- 31. Capacity building is a difficult issue. ARltion and experience and an effective way of donors recognize its importance but find it diffi-influencing the policies of other donors. culttoachieveinpractice,althoughthetimeshould

now be ripe in most African countries. CapacityWorld Bank Lending Policies building has been noted as a weakness in the

Program,both in the self-evaluationby the RWSGs27. The World Bank has not been a major (Abidjan meeting, 1989) and in other evaluationsdonor in the rural water supply or periurban (such as Ethiopia, 1990). And although the Pro-sanitation sector in Africa in the past. Specific gram is decentralized, there is still a danger thatprograms have, however, been included in some theRWSGswillbecomeivorytowers,independentof the country lending programs, such as in Nige- of the countries they are meant to assist.ria and Ghana; moreover, at the verbal briefing by 32. As above, we may assess the potentialoperations staff in Washington it was intimated merits of the Program with regard to capacitythat the World Bank was considering very ambi- building,.tious plans for investment in the rural water sup- (a) The Program does not yet have a clear apply sector in Africa. proachtocapacitybuilding. Thelnternational28. Until the recent establishment of a Policy Training Network can play a potentially im-Unit within INUWS, the Program has effectively portant role, but this is not enough. Humancomprised the total staff within INUWS/PRE. To resource development should be recognizedthe extent that INUWS has influenced lending as an activity for which all have responsibil-policies, this may be therefore attributed to the ity, but for which it may also be necessary toProgram. engage specialized staff. Some in-country29. In addition, regional and country Pro- Program staff have clearly been extremely

43

successful in this respect; others have not. namely, instead of a continuous stay of two yearsPersonalities play a major role here. Staff or more, staff should go elsewhere (possiblybased at RWSGs have less opportunity (and providing services to another Program activity inhence less responsibility) for capacity build- the region), leavingspecific tasks to beundertakening; but here too, there is such a need. It is in their absence.important for the Program to define imore 35. There are other useful ways of buildingclearly how it proposes to go about capacity local capacity also, for example using and assist-building, both in-country and in the RWSGs. ing local consultants.

(b) The way the Program is set up at the regional 36. In-country staff should, wherever pos-level does not particularly favor capacity sible,benationalsofthecountryconcerned. Therebuilding. Even in-country Program staff may is an important distinction, however between thefeel answerable to the Program more than to roleof project coordinator, incharge ofa particularthe government, but the Program is not at a project, and that of country coordinator, coordi-disadvantage here by comparison with other nating a range of activities, such as sector workforms of technical assistance. and assistance to handpump manufacture. (The

(c) If capacity building were given more explicit role of the latter, and indeed the very existence ofemphasis (and more thought on how to such an in-country position, is still under discus-achieve it), the Program might achieve a sion in the Program.)comparative advantage in this respect; but it 37. The project coordinator can, and should,does not possess it at present. be located within the cooperating agency. For the

country coordinator (if they are to exist), the fol-Capacity Building and the Use of Regional Staff lowing principle should be adopted: that they

locate in an agency if possible, and in a separate33. The Program is, at present, staffed to a office, or in UNDP, as the next best alternative.largeextentby personnel fromoutside theRWSGs' Only with very good reason should they locate inregion,especiallyinseniorpositions. (TheAbidjan World Bank premises, since the practical advan-RWSG office is an exception.) Although the Team tages would be more than outweighed by therecommends that the Program should continue, problem of maintaining a distinct identity.once a more secure financial base is achieved, theobjective should be to ensure that the majority of Conclusions on Overall Effectiveness of thestaff in the RWSG are from the region. Excellence Programshould be the criterion for selection of RWSGpersonnel, and this is perfectly compatible with Findings of the Africa Teamhiring staff from the region. Bilateral donors whoprovide seconded staff should be urged to employ 38. The major areas of activity of the ProgramAfricans. Itmaybe argued that this would reduce have been defined as rural water supply andthe extent of informal contacts with donor agen- sanitation, periurban and urban sanitation, andcies, an element that has been so important to the resource recovery-solid waste management, al-Program. But some seconded staff have been though it is only in the area of rural water supplyconsultants and have maintained few contacts that much has been achieved to date. It is notwith donor agencies, while high quality profes- recommended that the Program expand into othersional staff from the region often have a network areas. It has already more than enough to occupyof contacts that could easily be extended by short its limited resources, and other agencies are bettervisits to their sponsoring bilateral agency. equipped to deal with other very important sec-34. Individual technical assistance personnel toral problems, for example the issue of waterworking in-country should, consistent with the resources.stated aim of such personnel everywhere, "work 39. The Program has been effective inthemselves out of a job." In other words, a major broadening the technological options available.part of their task should be to work closely with Mostof theachievementshereshould properlybelocal staff who can then continue the work when attributed to earlier projects now incorporatedthey depart. For both long-term staff and shorter- under the Program, but this work has not com-term consultants there should be more experi- pletely ceased, and the Program is able to ensurementation with the "bus-stopping" approaclh - that it will have a more lasting impact.

44

40. A start has been made with broadening the Water and Sanitation Decade's strategies is inthe institutional and financial options, most no- most cases nonexistent. This is so even wheretably, perhaps, in Kumasi and RUSAFIYA in Ni- attempts were made earlier by some UNDP fieldgeria. A start has also been made, notably through offices to act as a local focal point. Unfortunately,the sector work, in working with governments to the sector was not taken seriously and othercreate supportive policy frameworks. pressing sectors demanded more urgent attention41. Apart from support to local manufactur- of UNDP.Anothermoreacutecauseforthelackofing of handpumps, assistance to the private sector coordination appears to be that the Resident Rep-hasbeenslight. The strengtheningof local capacity resentatives have not been given the necessaryand the involvement of women are also areas supporttofulfilltheircoordinatingresponsibility.where less emphasis has been placed. Meanwhile, in response to the donors' desire, a42. A significant and productive activity is number of informal coordination mechanismsnetworking,bothintra-countryandinter-country. were developed, which in most part involved theThe Program rightly emphasizes this activity, in RWSGs and their country offices. While formalwhich it clearly has a comparative advantage, but coordination rests with the recipient country, lo-its impact cannot easily be measured. cal coordination of donors is generally welcomed43. The Program's decentralized structure is by govermments as a useful supportive role.beneficial especialy because it allows for a closer 48. Regarding the Program's effectiveness,and more continuous relationship with govern- participating governments and donors expressedments and others in-country. The Program needs appreciation, and the Team was pleased to noteto continue to act sensitively, building the confi- that cooperation extended by the Program per-denceof donorsand governments. Itshould resist sonnel, whether from regional or global projects,any temptation to link its advice to prospective was generally welcome. The Team found thatWorld Bank loan financing. several elements were crucial in the Program's

success at gaining a reputation as a trusted andFindings of the Asia Team competentcollaborator.Inparticular,governments

and donors cited Program assistance in providing44. On the whole, the main outputs and technical information and advice, preparation ofachievements in the region relate to the emerging new activities, and general readiness to behelpful.changeofauthorities'attitudesand policiestoward This stands the future Program in good stead asacoverage problems and the use of lower cost op- leader in the water and sanitation sector in thetions and concepts. Asian region.45. The Program has had a substantial practi-cal impact on the policies and strategies of the Findings of the Latin America Teamgovernment authorities and donors with regardto the poverty-focused subsector. Furthermore, 49. The Program in Latin America in the pastthe Program has generated technical assistance decade has been very limited. Program activitiesand increased investment in the low-income have been carried out in three countries only. Ingroups subsector. Brazil, where the Assessment Team did not visit,46. In relation to its broad thematic areas, the the Program has been involved in the develop-Program is consciously maintaining its objectives ment and dissemination of alternative technolo-in promoting basic needs as part of poverty alle- gies for urban low-cost sanitary infrastructure,viation policies and attempts to tap appropriate including latrines, small-bore sewers, pour-flushcommunity-based management systems. Itisalso toilets, and septic tanks.trying to incorporate the support of NGOs, the 50. In Bolivia, which has one of the lowestprivate sector, and regional and interregional ex- service levels for water supply and sanitation inchange of experience, results, and information. LatinAmerica,theProgramstartedthepilotproject47. The Asia Team found a lack of suitable in Oruro as a cooperative venture to field testcooperation and coordination of activities with handpumps (in 60 dispersed rural communities)those of other donors active in the same countries with the participation of a number of agencies.and regions. In the countries visited, the Team Themainobjectiveoftheprojectwastotrycertainobserved that the field coordination required of methodologies and work strategies that wouldthe UNDP Resident Representative to carry out allow the active participation of the communities

45

in the solution of their water supply and sanita- the Oruro pilot project was executed, one oftion problems. The Corporacion de Desarrollo de its components executed by the ProyectoOruro (DevelopmentCorporation of Oruro) acted Auto-Desarrollo Campesino (PAC) is a goodasthemaingovernmentagencythroughitsunitof example of how the Program could eventu-waterresourcesor"UnidaddeRecursosHidricos" ally influence the donors' assistance policies(URH). and programs. PAC is a program of the51. Oneof theweaknessesof theOruroproject Bolivian government developed with thewas that, from the outset, it did not have a project assistance of the European Economic Com-documentora work plan and activities developed munity, which keeps a strong presence in it.in an ad hoc way. The project had three compo- The person responsible for the Oruro projectnents: diggingwellsandinstallinghandpumpsin in PAC told the Assessment Team that thea rural area of Oruro; producing handpumps lo- achievements of the project would influencecally through the transfer of technology from PAC's policies and other projects. The fact isBangladesh; and, training and development of that several donors in the country were quitehuman resources. aware of the activities of the Oruro pilot52. Duringthelifeof theprojectsomepositive project and its achievements. The Nether-results were achieved. With the participation of lands, USAID, PAHO/WHO, and the Inter-the community and the involvement of women, a American Development Bank were amongmethodologywasdeveloped. Trainingprocedures the donors who were all quite positive inwere developed with the cooperation of expressing support for the enlargement ofPROWWESS, Project Concern International (an Program activities in the country and in theNGO), and the sanitation unit for the ministry of Latin American region, with the potential forpublic health. Financing was obtained from the the Program to play a more decisive role inSocial Emergency Fund of the Bolivian govern- coordinating the effort of a new Water andment. Fifty pumps were installed in several Sanitation Decade with the full cooperationcommunitiesusingthe methodologythathadbeen of all interested donors.developed. (c) The World Bank lending policies seem not to53. The production of handpumps was un- have been very much influenced by the Pro-dertaken by a factory, CASAM, that belongs to the gram in the Latin American region in the pastDevelopment Corporation of Oruro. In the year decade. However, investment in the waterand a half that they had been operating at the time supply and sanitation sector has been influ-of the Team's visit, the factory had produced 500 enced by the region's slow progress in itshandpumps, 250 of which had been produced in overall development, which is due to athe last three months. These Yaku-type pumps number of circumstances not the least ofare, in fact, similar to the Tara pump from which is its debt burden. This slow develop-Bangladesh. The transfer of technology was done ment has occurred especially in the rural andwith the assistance of the UNDP-World Bank periurban areas where, in many cases, theProgram. delivery of water and sanitation services has

regressed from levels formerly attained.Impact in Latin America (d) The Bolivian pilot project of Oruro attracted

the interest of the Netherlands government,54. Program activities in Latin America have which agreed to provide funds to UNDP onhad some impact in spite of limited regional in- a cost-sharing basis to support a new projectvolvement. of water supply for the dispersed rural(a) Due to the fact that Program activities have population of the Bolivian highlands, to be

been very limited in the Latin American re- executed through the Program. The amountgion, their impact on the govemments' sector contributed by the Netherlands governmentpolicies and strategies has been practically is slightly over US$4 million, which will benil. used to expand and improve the water sup-

(b) The donors' assistance policies in the Latin ply and sanitation services in the rural com-American region have not been directly im- munities of the department of Potosi.pacted by the Program for the same reason. (e) There has been little opportunity for inter-However, in the experience in Bolivia, where country cooperation and information ex-

46

change in Latin America through the Pro- and sanitation. Through its training mod-gram. An exception is the readiness of the ules, the project has begun to focus the at-Bolivian govemment, through the Develop- tention of those working in the sector on thementCorporationofOruro,to cooperate with role of women in sector development. As thethe government of Guatemala in the transfer Assessment Team had little or no contactof technology for the manufacture of the with the communities involved, it cannotMaya pump. Regarding information ex- comment on the direct impact of the projectchange, the UNDP-World Bank Water and on women and communities. Nonetheless,Sanitation Program financed the Pan futureprojectdesignsshouldincludebaselineAmerican Center for Sanitary Engineering data and apply indicators developed byandEnvironmentalSciences(CEPIS)inLima, PROWWESS to assess the project impact onin order to translate into Spanish four train- womenandcommunities. Additionaleffortsing modules developed by the Program in should be made to involve the poor (womenotherregions. Thematerial had tobeadapted and men) of the communities in the action-to the conditions of Latin America. With this oriented preinvestment research and plan-material CEPIS organized three workshops ning, as well as in the design and imple-to train trainers in low-cost technologies. mentation of the projects. Promotion of theFifteenLatinAmericancountriesparticipated Program's concepts of women and commu-in the CEPIS workshops. nity participation should also penetrate all

55. In relation to its broad thematic areas, the levels of the Program's human resource de-Program's effectiveness in Latin America can be velopment, policy, and institutional inter-gauged in a number of ways. ventions. Another dimension of community(a) The Program's pilot projects in Guatemala participation discussed by CEPIS is worth

andBoliviahavefocusedonthedevelopment studying further The need to sensitize theand implementation of appropriate technol- community-at-large at country and city lev-ogy in the form of handpumps for use in the els,includingcorporations,politicians,media,poor rural areas. In Oruro, a community and others, to their roles in promoting theparticipation component stressing the role of Program's water and sanitation goals andwomen in this sector featured in the project. objectives to aid the poor.These initiativeshaveserved asabasis for the (d) The Program introduced the first low-costdevelopment of a more comprehensive ap- handpump for usein Bolivia and Guatemala.proach to be launched in Potosi. Focusing on the demonstration of commu-

(b) The pilot projects in Guatemala and Bolivia nity-based service delivery mechanisms thathave had a poverty orientation with higher use lower-cost technologies has helped topriority placed on unserved rural communi- alleviate investment constraints and to sup-ties. Thenew projectinCochabamba, Bolivia, port more effective use of limited availableis virtually the Program's first intervention in resources. Other methods being studied anda poor periurban area in the region, and it tested mayoffer new choices for the Programwill be an important experience to monitor to introduce in the future.and evaluate for the lessons that can be ap- (e) By and large the "knowledge base" of theplied. The phenomenal growth of ci ties, par- Program from which governments might planticularly the poor periurban sectors, is a se- and implement sector policy has not beenrious problem in most of South America and sufficiently developed and transmitted to theis a growing problem in Central America. governments in the countries where theThrough its activity in this region, the Pro- Program is operating. In both Guatemalagram can eventually make an important con- and Bolivia, the prospective involvement oftribution to the growing urban areas of this the social investment fund in the water andand other regions as well. sanitation sector presents an important op-

(c) The project in Bolivia has made an important portunity for the Program to interact effec-start in the application of the PROWWESS tively to stimulate policy and institutionalmethodologies for the involvement of the responses. The Program has already beenpoor communities in the planning and identified in these two countries as a primeimplementation of project activities in water actor in the implementation of sectoral

47

projects that the social investment fund will wellawareofthetrainingactivitiesof thelTN,andsupport. to a certain extent had used material the ITN has

(f) In implementation of the country projects, developed.theProgramhaseffectivelyencouragedNGOaction in the sector and has formed partner- Role and Comparative Advantage of theships with NGOs in Bolivia and Guatemala Program (Africa Team)at the community level. Some donor agen-ciesemphasizedinmeetingswiththeAssess- 57. TheProgramhasacomparativeadvantagement Team the importance of opening the in relation to other alternatives, especially in sec-way for governments to increase their efforts tor policy work and in assisting governments into work with NGOs, including the possibility donorcoordination. Within theBank, theProgramof contracting components of national pro- has a combination of knowledge and country-grams to NGOs for execution. It is important based activities that give it a clear comparativefortheProgram to develop methods foriden- advantage in the rural water supply and sanitationtifyingNGOsthathaveademonstrated ability sector. Geographically, it currently has a severeto perform to the standard required by the disadvantage in Francophone Africa, but everycountry project. NGOs should also be in- effort should be made to change this situation.cluded in Program orientation and training Lesscritical,butprobablyimportantforthefuture,in order to ensure the integrity of the is the lack of Portuguese-speaking staff, a condi-Program's goals and objectives. The Pro- tion that limits the Program's effectiveness ingram has effectively identified private sector Southem Africa especially.manufacturers for the production of 58. The Program has a clear comparativehandpumps in both countries. However, advantageinsectoradvisorysupport-notjustinthesecompaniesshouldbegivenguidancein preparing documents but, more importantly, inthe production standards and development supporting governments over a sustained period.of marketing and sales plans to ensure prod- This advantage arises by virtue of both the locationuct quality and easy maintenance, as well as of Program staff and the relationships that theylow cost and expansion of the market. Some establish and maintain.thought should be given to the possibility of 59. Demonstration projects are also very im-investinginmanufacturingfirmstobeowned portant, but the Program does not necessarilyand operated by community members as an have a comparative advantage in implementingincome-generating initiative. This has 'been them. Onlyif ti herearenotalreadysuitableprojectsdone by a women's project in Mexico, with a - completed or underway - might it be neces-revolving loan fund from UNIFEM. The sary for the Programto setone up. Demonstrationproject is producingahandpump developed projects should be undertaken to the maximumin Colombia and selling it in Mexico. extent by or in close collaboration with govern-

56. The few activities of the Program in the ments. The Program should have a comparativeLatin American region have attracted the atten- advantage in "scaling-up" successful projects andtion of other donors. In Bolivia, the follow-up to in translating the experience from such projectsthe Oruro pilot project by the Potosi demonstra- into sector policies and larger scale programs.tion project financed by the Netherlands govern- 60. Since resources are scarce, the Programment is a good example of the coordination with may achieve maximum impact by assuming aother bilateral donors. However, the Dutch gov- more comprehensive role in project preparation:ernment will not be alone in the Potosi project as writing terms of reference, reviewing the perfor-the cooperation of other bilaterals is envisaged, in mance of consultants, and other evaluative tasks.particular USAID and the Inter-American Devel- 61. Themovefromresearchanddevelopmentopment Bank. The donors who were contacted in of handpumps to manufacturing is rational andLa Paz, especially USAID, IDB, UNICEF, and timely, but it represents a major shift for the Pro-PAHO, are well aware of the activities of the gram and will require a very different set of skills.Oruro pilot project and of the new project in More thought is required on how this should bePotosi. CAPRE in Costa Rica, ERIS in Guatemala, done, and hence whether the Program does haveand CEPIS in Peru - all regional organizations a comparative advantage or not. Mobilizing in-dealing with water supply and sanitation - were dustrial and private sector support is critical to the

48

outcome of this shift in focus. Nonetheless, the preparation, and support to the private sector.private sector is already involved in water supply Capacity building should also be seen as a sepa-and sanitation in many other ways, through the rate component, requiring specific action andefforts of local artisans, contractors, and consult- policy direction.ants from the country or region. There is scope for 63. The Africa Team does not recommendfurther work by the Program here. further additions to the "box of tools," but it62. Capacity building is not simply one com- should be stressed that the whole is potentiallyponent in the "box of tools' but is basic to the greater than the sum of its parts. This relationshipapproach of the Program. It is a necessary part of is most important for the combination of sectorthe Program's activities and should be seen as a workanddemonstrationprojects(andrelatesalso"cross-cutting activity" that includes sector advi- to the policy of having countries of concentration).sory support, demonstration projects, project

49

_ _ _IX

International Training Network (ITN)

1. This review does not aim to assess every Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade.International Training Network Center, but in- Under the leadership of UNDP and the Worldstead to assess the ITN "system": its justification, Bank, the ITN was launched in 1984 with "theconcept, objectives, strategy, mechanisms, and long-term development objective to increase theglobal outputs after a few years of operation. capacity of developing countries to deliver water2. To perform this assessment, the Team supply and sanitation services to low-incomevisited the Network Centers in the Philippines, groups,usingprimarilylow-costtechnologiesandIndonesia, Bangladesh, and Burkina Faso. Ex- community-based approaches." Morespecifically,tensive discussions were held with Network theITN'simmediateobjective was"to strengthenCenter directors or representatives, as well as the capacity of sector and educational institutionswith managers or officers from the Regional Wa- within developing countries to carry out trainingterandSanitationGroupsof Singapore,New Delhi, programs and other human resources develop-and Abidjan. In Burkina Faso, the mission was mentactivitiesonlow-costwatersupplyand wasteable to meet with representatives of African management" (UNDP project document INT/Centers (Kenya, Ghana, Zimbabwe, and Burkina 86/027).Faso). Discussions were also held with represen-tatives of bilaterals from Denmark (DANIDA) in Planned ActivitiesBangladesh, and Switzerland (SDC) and Canada(CIDA) in Burkina Faso. In addition, the Assess- 4. Toward the above objectives, the ITN'sment Teams had the opportunity in Africa, Asia, main tasks were originally defined as follows:and Latin America to address some ITN-related (a) To inform decisionmakers and to educateissues. On the other hand, very few contacts were and train practicing and student engineerspossible at the "central level," apart from meeting and other field staff, in the use of low-costpeople during the Team's gathering in Washing- appropriate technologies and approaches;ton in October 1990. (b) To promote the introduction of a multi-dis-

ciplinary approach emphasizing socioculturalITN Concept, Objectives, and Approach and health considerations, in the planning,

implementation, and maintenance of waterBackground and Objectives supply and sanitation systems;

(c) To support the collection and active dissemi-3. The International Training Network for nation of information on low-cost technolo-Water and Waste Management is a joint initiative gies and their successful applications; and,of bilateral and multilateral development agen- (d) To undertake research leading to furthercies in support of the goals of the International improvements in the cost-effectiveness, large-

50

scale implementation, and replication of ba- and experiences, and thus, to promote bothsic water supply and sanitation programs. technical cooperation among developing

countries and cooperation among develop-Network Organization ment institutions active in the sector.

5. The above tasks had to be performed by ITN SustainabilityNetwork Centers, established in developingcountries, within carefully selected existing sector 7. The issue of sustainability was discussedor educational institutions; at least 15 Centers duringtheITNdesignstage. ITNwasdesignedtowere expected to operate in the late 1980s. The initiate the process of training sector actors in theproject envisaged both national or regional Cen- use of appropriate technologies and community-ters, each with its own network or local participat- based approaches and to incorporate these topicsing institutions. Program and budget for Net- into curricula on a permanent basis. ITN Centerswork Centers were supposed to be supported by should be established within existing institutions,bilateral or multilateral agencies and technical not to supplant them, but to assist them in intro-assistance and support (twinning) brought by ducing topics not previously in their programs.associated institutions from developed countries. Financial support to Network Centers was in-At World Bank headquarters and under the tended to be of limited duration - usually fiveProgram's management, a coordination unit was years - with the clear understanding that thesetuptooverseeandcoordinate the lTN'sactivities teaching of nonconventional technologies andand to provide technical support and assistance to approaches would be incorporated into the regu-Centers and sponsoring organizations in plan- lar programs. To the extent that these institutionsning, implementing, monitoring, and evaluating are permanently engaged in sector training andtheir activities. education, the ITN message would be sustained.

In other words it was assumed that, after someITN Evolution years and with ITN's assistance, a given country

would evolve from a sustained "conventional"6. Three phases can be identified in ITN training and education system to a "less-conven-evolution since its conception: tional or nonconventional" but still sustained sys-(a) Phase I (1982 to 1986), actually a pre-ITN tem. With that in mind, ITN's role should be to

phase, was dedicated to the preparation of assist countries in properly and definitely takingtraining materials on low-cost technologies a bend in their sector approaches.and approaches based on research and de-velopment by the World Bank and by other ITN's Status and Achievementdevelopment agencies. These materials forthe use of Network Centers consist of 47 8. In the last five years of the Water andslide-sound shows, 3 films, and selected Sanitation Decade, utilization of low-cost tech-training and information materials. Most of nologies progressed dramatically all over thethem have been translated widely. world, mostly under the stimulus of the funding

(b) Phase II, from 1985, concentrated on the es- agencies. Fortunately, it has become more andtablishment of the Centers. From that date, more difficult to find projects in rural areas andthe coordination unit focused its attention on even urban fringe areas using conventional tech-the identification, preparation,and financing nologies, and low-cost technologies arebecomingof proposals for theestablishment of national conventional. The Decade, and more specificallyand regional Centers. This phase of Center the donor community, should be given credit forestablishment should continue until the this evolution. But the "software" approaches,number of Centers has reached 15, the suchashealthandhygieneeducation,communityavailability of external support permitting. involvement, and social marketing - the

(c) Phase III of global collaboration started re- nontechnical aspects - face many more difficul-cently with the first ITN Directors Meeting in ties to penetrate the layers of tradition and atti-Calcutta in September 1990. This ultimate tudesassumedbydecisionmakers,whoarelargelyphase should allow the Centers and other dominatedbyengineers. Thechangefromsupply-sector institutions to exchange information driven to demand-driven projects is a culturally

51

difficult step. With the nontechnical issues - Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, within the Comitemore recently emphasized by the international Interafricaind'EtudesHydrauliques(CIEH). Also,community - the most difficult part remains in Harare, Zimbabwe, the Training Center forahead. This does not mean that training in low- Water and Sanitation was established in 1988cost technologies is no longer useful, but that within the University of Zimbabwe (Departmentmoreemphasis should be given to thenontechnical of Civil Engineering). There are six national Cen-components. Even if the context evolves slightly, ters serving Africa, South Asia, and SoutheastITN general objectives are still relevant to the Asia. The Training Network Center was estab-needs of the sector. lished in 1989 in Kumasi, Ghana, within the Uni-9. The New Delhi Statement (September versity of Science and Technology. Before that, in1990) issued by the international conununity at 1987, an ITN Center was established in Calcutta,the close of the Global Consultation for Safe Water India, at the All-India Institute of Public Healthand Sanitation for the 1990s defines "human re- and Hygiene to serve rural areas. Also in 1987,sources development (HRD) at all levels, from twoCenterswereformedinIndonesia-inJakartacommunity members to politicians, as an essential within Cipta Karya (DirectorateGeneral of Humancomponent of institutional development." The Settlements, ministry of public works), and inITN Directors Meeting in Calcutta characterized Bandung within the Institute of Technologythe ITN as a "collaborative effort among institu- Bandung (ITB). The ITN Center in the Philippinestions in developing countries, strengthened with was established in 1990 in the Manila Local Waterthe cooperation of external support agencies, and Utilities Administration (LWUA), while a newcharged with building and strengthening HRD Center proposed for Dhaka, Bangladesh, shouldcapacity for delivery of sustainable water supply start operation this year within the Bangladeshand sanitation services for the unserved rural and University of Engineering Technology (BUET).urban poor." This statement is consistent with Discussions are under way to establish otherITN final objectives and is clearly oriented to Centers in Asia (India, China, Thailand), Africacapacity building. (Nigeria and Lusophone countries), and the Arab

states. In Latin America, the Pan American CenterShort-Term Objectives for Sanitary Engineering and Environmental Sci-

ences (CEPIS) in Lima, Peru, and the Regional10. If long-term development objectives do School for Sanitary Engineering and Water Re-not raise any question, short-term objectives do. sources (ERIS) in Guatemala have been involvedAs a matter of fact, most Network Centers have no with the ITN, mostly for organization of regionalshort-term tangible objectives; work plans pre- workshops and translation and development ofpared by the Centers include very detailed ac- ITN modules. There are plans for establishing ativities but refer either vaguely or not at all to any Network Center in Guatemala, within the Centralshort-term objective. The evident risk is to have American Association of Water Authoritiesestablished a system that will indefinitely require (CAPRE) with GTZ support.assistance fornew trainingand additionalresearch. 12. TheoriginalplanningforestablishingnewIt is absolutely essential to define clearly specific Centers, which is the coordination unit's respon-short-term, three-to-five year objectives for each sibility, was to proceed with three to four newNetwork Center. There is no reason why taking Centers each year - that is, a total of about 15 bythebend in sectorapproachesshould requirermore the year 1990. Actually, only seven Centers werethan a few years. Although the ITN is a long-term operational by the end of 1990. It appears that theoperation, the actual process of changing atti- process of establishing new Centers has beentudes and behaviors must be of limited duration. grosslyunderestimated. Motivatinggovernments,11. Since 1986, nine Centers have been or are assessing training needs, identifying the mostabout to be established: There are three regional appropriate host institutions, mobilizing externalCenters in Africa. The Regional Network Center and counterpart funds -all are part of a very longfor East Africa was established in 1986 in Nairobi, and tedious process that can easily take betweenKenya, within the African Medical and Research twoand fouryearsormore. AnotherfundamentalFoundation (AMREF). In West Africa, the Centre reason for this delay in establishing Network Cen-regional pour l'eau potable et l'assainissement a ters stems from the very limited capacity of thefaible cofit (CREPA) was established in 1988 in coordination unit and its small staff. During the

52

last two years, the coordination unit was a one- normally carried out by the supporting agencyman show, and since mid-1990, the position has with the assistance of RWSGs. Two RWSGs (Newbeen vacant. Actually, the role of establishing Delhi and Singapore) were recently strengthenednewCentersisnowpartiallyplayedbytheRWSGs, with HRD specialists, who should play a majorwhich are not staffed and prepared to take over. It role in the process of establishingnewCenters andappearsthereforeveryurgenttopreparearealistic in maintaining a regional dialogue. During theschedule for establishing new Network Centers, assessment period, RWSGs should also look intoto staff the coordination unit accordingly and existing or potential projects that can serve asproperly, and to provide the appropriate terms of demonstration support to training activities.reference and work plans. 15. As emphasized in the guidelines for es-13. The question of government motivation tablishing Centers, selection of host institutions istoparticipatein theITNmustberaised. Anumber difficult but essential. Generally, the choiceof hostof Network Centers-orsubcenters in thecaseof institutions has so far been adequate. In someregional Centers - are at a standstill, lacking countries like the Philippines or Indonesia thatcommitment from governments. Despite official have national institutions like LWUA and Ciptaand generally sincere declarations, most govern- Karya already involved in sector training with aments do not really give human resources devel- broad national network, the selection is easy. Theopmentaveryhighpriorityinanysector. TherTN same applies to CREPA, hosted by a group ofCenter in Indonesia, which regroups the two three inter-country institutions engaged in theformer Centers, has been waiting for government sector in most Francophone African countries. Onclearance for months. Only half of CREPA mem- the other hand, selection can be less evident, as inber countries are really actively training at coun- Bangladesh where BUET has no apparent low-try level. On the contrary, there is a strong com- cost orientation and no nationwide audience. It ismitment, which includes regular provision of therefore crucial that new ITN Centers, which willcounterpart funds, in the Philippines, in Ghana, be responsible for changing mentalities and atti-and in Zimbabwe. It seems therefore urgent to tudes, be carefully identified, investigated, andconcentrate ITN efforts on countries showing a selected. Real motivation of prospective hoststrong commitment to working with the ITN; as it institutions should be thoroughly investigated;is correspondingly for the RWSGs. This is true for institutions may be more interested in providen-future Centers as well as for existing ones. Gov- tial financial resources brought by a new Centerernment commitment should be a prerequisite to than in its actual objectives and project activities.any assessment exercise for establishing a new Selection of host institutionsshould leavenothingCenter. ExistingregionalCentersshouldwithdraw to chance.from countries showing little or no interest in ITN 16. To ensure sustainability of the ITN systemactivities and objectives. Obviously, the best but at country or regional level, it is essential that thenottheonlyindicatorofgovernmentcommitment Network Centers be integrated in the sectoris the level of project participation. training and education systems; this has been

emphasized since the early days of the project andEstablishment of Network Centers regularly repeated. Most Centers visited by the

Assessment Team are properly integrated in the14. The draft guidelines, "Preparing an As- existingsystem. However, the regional Center forsessment Report and Project Proposal for the Es- Francophone Africa, CREPA, after two years oftablishment of a Network Training Center," were existence, has gained a broad independence fromprepared in the mid-1980s by the coordination its host institutions, which are actually regardedunit. Although these guidelines are still generally as regional participating institutions. If this situ-valid, more emphasis should now be given to the ation is acceptable today, its medium and long-identification of target groups or institutions that term sustainability is really questionable. Thehave the maximum influence on sector develop- regional Network Center for East Africa has beenment, and to the nature and content of the "mes- established in the Environmental Health Unit forsage" to be conveyed to each of those groups, with AMREF, a well-established and reputable institu-maximum possible impact. This would provide tion based in Nairobi with branches in neighbor-more specific targets and immediate objectives for ing countries. But, after five years of existence, itthe Centers. Assessment of new ITN Centers is appears that the regional network is essentially

53

the AMREF network - that is, a health-oriented neering, sociology, public health and hygiene,network; the water and sanitation sector is not communication, training, social marketing, andextensively involved in this network's activities community development. Presently, the Centersand this is prejudicial to project credibility and are essentially staffed with engineers, some soci-sustainability. On the other hand, proposals from ologists, and public health specialists. To achieveNetwork Centers to ensure their long-term ITN objectives, a balanced mix of skills must besustainability with consulting activities are unre- available at the Centers, either as permanent oralistic and irrelevant to ITN objectives. part-time staff or as short-term consultants. But it

is also important that all Center staff have, atNational Networks minimum, similar frames of reference in technol-

ogy (handpumps, low-cost sanitation) and com-17. Depending on the size of the country, munity development (SARAR and others) to en-national networks include five to twelve partici- sureconstructivedialogueforglobalcollaboration.pating institutions. With very few exceptions, This should not exclude any specificmethodologythey are either educational institutions, such as or technology, which might be more appropriateuniversities, institutes, schools, and so on, or they in a particular environment.are government sector agencies: ministries of 20. Network Center staff consist of qualifiedwater, health, and others. Very few NGOs (except professionals and, so far, the ITN has been lucky toin the Philippines and India) and professional recruit dedicated staff and enthusiastic managers.associations (except in Indonesia) are represented But whatever professional qualities they may have,in national networks. These networks are consti- there is among them a serious lack of capacity intuted progressively after the establishment of the teaching and especially in teaching adults (educa-Network Center, without specific criteria or tors, trainers, practicingengineers, to name a few).methodology. It seems, however, that a core It seems, however, essential for the credibility ofnational network, representative of the most in- the "messages" presented by staff that they can,fluential target groups, should be constituted through ability and expertise, convince peopleduring a Center's initial assessment period. This who already have very strongly anchored con-would not exclude any public or private institu- ventional ideas and a cultural reluctance to de-tions willing to join the network. mand-driven and community development ap-

proaches. Therefore, to meet ITN objectives it isStaffing of Network Centers crucial to train Center staff, including local con-

sultants, in specific techniques of teaching adults.18. Staffing of Network Centers should be 21. At the level of technical cooperationpart of the initial assessment exercise. Qualifica- among developing countries, more experiencedtion, number, country of origin, and cost of per- Centers could take responsibility for training staffmanent or part-time local staff to be assigned to at new Centers. This might be the case in Calcuttathe Center should be determnined and committed for staff assigned to the new Center in Dhaka. Thisat the time of assessment. Provision of qualified would, in addition, create constructive regionallocal staff should be regarded as the major coun- linkages between Center staffs.terpart contribution-and one of the key elementsfor Network Center success. A good example is Sponsoring and Fundingprovided by the Philippines where LWUA hasseconded full-time qualified training officers to 22. With no exception, establishment andthe Center. These LWUA employees are assisted operation of Network Centers, at least during theby a group of full- or part-time agents of various evolution stage, needs financial external assis-skills fromNGOs and universities participating in tance. Fortunately, funding has not so far been athe local network. Such a mix of local specialists, real constraint in establishing Centers. Financialrepresentative of the major components of the support not including counterpart funds is sum-local network, is certainly the best means to es- marized in Table 1. Only two donors (SDC andtablish and maintain contact and communication DGIS) contribute more than 50 percent of the totalthroughout the network. funding. It appears desirable to diversify the19. Ideally, a Network Center team should funding sources for ITN expansion.include specialists in various fields, such as engi- 23. Funding for the coordination unit at cen-

54

tral level has been provided by various donors (EPFL) of Switzerland assists CREPA in Burkinasuch as UNDP (DGIP), DGIS, SDC, GTZ, CIDA, Faso. This type of assistance by training profes-and the Ministry for Cooperation and Develop- sionals is very helpful in preparing work plans,ment (France) for a total of about US$2A million. newtrainingmaterials,coursecurricula,andotherThis amount indudes the costs of coordinating necessary tasks. Yet this support is missing inunit staff, as well as costs relating to production some ITN Centers such asin Kumasi and Nairobi.and translation of training materials and prepara- It is therefore recommended that an experiencedtion of the Center establishments. institution be associated, as nonpermanent tech-24. Government contribution is limited to nical assistance, to each of the planned and es-personnel, vehicles, facilities, and premises; con- tablished Network Centers.tributions in cash (counterpart funds) are veryseldom arranged. Activities and Outputs

Associated Institutions 26. Network Centers generally prepare workplans for periods of one to four years. They are

25. Most existing Network Centers benefit assisted in this task by the support agency (or itsfrom technical support and assistance from a executing agency in the case of UNDP), or by thetraining/education institution from the donor participating institution, and in theory by thecountry. For instance, the International Institute coordination unit but more frequently by thefor Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering RWSGs. Work plans are generally suffering from(IHE) from Delft, Netherlands, provides technical the lack of short-term objectives. Activities in-supporttothePhilippinesandlndonesia, whereas cluded in work plans are of similar nature, but thethe Ecole Polytechnique F6d6rale de Lausanne emphasisisputontrainingorresearch,orevenon

Table I Summary of Financial Support to the ITN Centers

Network Externd Tota aernd faudingcenter suport as ofDecenber 1989

(USS)

Regional Network Center for East Africa SDC (Switzerland) 1,065,000(RNC, Nairobi, Kenya) GTZ (Germany) (198689)

Centre regional pour reau potable et SDC (Switzerland) 1,111,000rassainissement a faible cofit (CREPA, CIDA (Canada) (1989-91)Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso)

Training Center for Water and Sanitation UNDP (IPF/Zimbabwe) 717,000(Harare, Zimbabwe) NORAD (Norway) (1989-91)

Training Network Center CIDA (Canada) 282,000(Kumasi, Ghana) UNDP (IPF/Ghana) (1989-91)

All-India Institute of Public Health and ODA (UK) 340,000Hygiene (Calcutta, India) (1989-94)

ITB (Bandung, Indonesia) DGIS' (The Netherlands) 434,000(1987-89)

Cipta Karya (akarta, Indonesia) IBRD Loan 272,000(1987-89)

ITN Philippines (Manila) DGIS* (The Netherlands) 1,009,000(1990-94)

ITN Bangladesh (Dhaka) DANIDA (Denmark) NA.(proposed)

DGIS also proposed support for phase 2 (single Indonesian ITN), starting 1991.

55

consultancy activities, depending on the views of 30. Modifying curricula in universities bythe support agency, the orientation of the host introducingnewtechnologiesandapproachescaninstitution, and thepersonalityof theCenterman- pose administrative and cultural problems, butager. The scope of activities also varies and may within the ITN framework, this introduction isinclude fields such as water treatment, water re- progressing satisfactorily. Some engineeringsources protection, wastewater reuse, and others. schools like EIER and ETSSHER in OuagadougouThis situation reflects the various personalities of have indeed introduced low-cost technologies inhost institutions and Center managers. Even if all their curricula and research programs long beforethese topics are highly regarded in the New Delhi the establishment of CREPA. But Network Cen-Statement, to address them all poses for ITN a ters should see that the teaching of low-cost tech-serious risk of dispersing the limited Center re- nologies, health education, and community de-sources and efforts. It is therefore recommended velopment is actually an integral part of the cur-to specify clearly in the work plans the extent of ricula and is not treated as a minor option. Sometechnical subjects to be addressed by the Network Network Centers receive students who come for aCenters, as consistent with their short-term objec- length of time to benefit from its library andtives. These subjects can vary according to the participate in its research program. The Networkcountries. It is also recommended that the coordi- Center in Nairobi also sponsors students for over-nation unitguide the preparation of workplainsto seas long-term training. However commendableavoid duplication of efforts, especially in research they may be, these marginal activities should notprograms. divert the Centers from their objectives.27. All ITNCentersuse,orused atonepoint, 31. All Network Centers have established athe training slide-sound modules prepared by the specialized basic library, available to any memberWorld Bank. Most of them also prepared addi- institution of the national network; regional net-tional materials, generally based on local experi- works try to establish mini-libraries in theirence (case studies). The Centers in Indonesia member countries. Libraries generally comprisespent the first two years of their existence in the Program's publications as well as books andtranslating modules into Bahasa and adapting commentsprovidedbytheassociatedinstitutions.them to the local conditions. EDI training mod- Some Network Centers also produce their ownules on water and sanitation and PROWWESS documents(casestudies,researchdocuments,andtraining methodology are unfortunately not in the like). Few Network Centers are aware ofuse in Network Centers. available documentation on specific subjects and28. Training activities are conducted by all of documentsproducedbyotherNetworkCenters.Centers based on work plans - or in a more ad Centersshouldberegularlyinformedandadvisedhoc manner - and are offered through courses, on existing documents of interest, and such dis-seminars, and workshops for trainers and educa- semination should be analyzed in the frameworktorsaswellasforpracticingengineers. Existingor of global collaboration.adapted modules are widely used for these activi- 32. "Research activities must be viewed as aties. There is unfortunately no thorough evalua- support to training and education work.' Thistion and no follow-up of these training activities statement from the ITN Directors Meeting is quiteand the impact cannot be assessed. An evaluation reasonable. Most ITN Centers have preparedmethodology should be made available to each research programs that are generally consistentCenter for the proper identification of indicators with their training programs; but duplication ofto measure the impact of training activities and to efforts can be found in some. Better coordinationevaluate the achievement of objectives. It is evi- between Centers and dissemination of results aredently too early to measure any impact on project needed. In addition, it appears that researchplanning, design, and implementation. carried out by some Network Centers - espe-29. Sometrainingcourseshavebeenorganized cially those hosted by universities- is not clearlyin Europe for consulting engineers from developed training-oriented and can divert Center staff fromcountries, generally from private firms. Thisactivity theirobjectives. Research themes shouldbeclearlyshould continue and be extended to consulting en- identified during the work plan preparation, thusgineers from developing countries and to project avoiding duplication and deviations.managers from bilateral and multilateral agencies,particularly regional development banks.

56

ITN Management and Linkages with the Program to lead to an "ITN club" with few external con-tacts. All major institutions active in the sector

33. Under the Program's supervision, the should be associated in this global collaboration.coordination unit concentrated its efforts on pro- 36. Global collaboration needs to be struc-ducing training materials until 1986 and then on tured and to have clear objectives. The coordi-establishing Centers and monitoring their activi- nation unit, which is responsible for materializingties. It was also supposed to animate the ITN in and sponsoring this collaboration, should notpromoting exchanges of training experiences, dis- handle the day-to-day operation and should notsemination of documents, communication of re- be responsible for the following: the collection,search activities, and other transfersof information. analysis, and circulation of information within theActually, since early 1990, the coordination unit is ITN; training of Center staff; preparation of basicalmostnonexistentand thereisno managementof training materials; preparation and organizationITN by the Program, with the exception of ITN of regional or global workshops and meetings;Centers in Kumasi and Harare. (For these Centers answering Center questions, and other relatedfundedbyUNDP,theWorldBankistheexecuting tasks. For those duties, the coordination unitagency and the RWSGs of Abidjan and Nairobi should seek assistance from specialized institu-supervise.) The role of the coordination unit must tions. But, atpresent, prioritymustbegiven to thebe clarified for the future, but it should assume definition of short-tern objectives, implementa-overall ITN management, including expansion of tion of appropriate activities, and careful expan-donor support and supervision of the global col- sion of the ITN.laboration within the Network.34. Network Center supervision is presently Conclusionscarried out by support agencies, either directly orthrough their associated institutions or executing 37. It is difficult to formulate conclusions onagencies (RWSGs for the World Bank). This su- achievements since the Network Centers have anpervision is combined with technical assistance average of less than two years' existence. Inand support and includes preparation and ex- addition, the diversity of environments in whichecution of work plans (training, research, docu- they exist precludes any general consideration ofmentation, monitoring, provision of funds, and so performance. However, global conclusions canforth). Additional technical assistance is provided be expressed on ITN's concept, objectives, andby RWSGs, especially for preparation of work organization. The general concept and long-termplans, identification or development of "demon- objectives- namely, the development objectives,stration" projects, and other tasks. This system is should not be questioned; however, the Networkworking properly and there is no need to change Centers are clearly missing short-term specificit, provided that an active system of global col- and tangible objectives. Training by itself cannotlaboration can establish dialogue among support- be an objective for the Centers, each of whiching institutions. should have its own institutional objectives. This

deficiency at the local level might rapidly jeopar-Global Collaboration dize the whole project. The other main conclusion

is that no significant expansion of the ITN and no35. So far, the unique manifestation of global real global collaboration will be possible withoutcollaboration (Phase III of the ITN evolution) has an appropriate and stable coordination unit at thebeen the ITN Directors Meeting in Calcutta. Re- central level. The following recommendationsgional African meetings were held in 1989 in tend to address these issues.Nairobi and in 1990 in Ouagadougou. The needfor international collaboration was recognized at Recommendationsthe time ITN was conceived and is still to beencouraged. Some of the main benefits of such a 38. After - and only after - a governmentglobal collaboration are the promotion of techni- has expressed its strong interest in and support tocal cooperation among developing countries, co- an ITN project, the assessment process shouldordination of research programs, exchange of continue forward - conducted by the supportexperiences, and dissemination of information. agency, the coordination unit, and the RWSG.But, it would be dangerous for this collaboration The process should focus at the national level on

57

a number of objectives: pact of their operations.(a) The assessment of training needs, with iden- Associated institutions from developed countries

tification of target groups, especially those would provide assistance to Network Centers forwho are the most influential on sector devel- work plan preparation and monitoring of Centeropment and orientation; activities.

(b) Theidentificationofthepriorityfields(urban, 40. The above considerations on objectivesrural; water, sanitation; hardware, software; and activities apply also to existing Centers, and,and others); as necessary, existing national or regional Net-

(c) The definition of training and education work Centers should define and refine their short-programs to be implemented, including post- term objectives, relevant strategy, and activities tograduate diploma, short courses, and others; achieve these objectives. As a matter of fact,

(d) The identification of the most appropriate national objectives should be set up for all coun-training and education institutions where tries already involved in the ITN.the above programs should be implemnented 41. Depending on the country, it should take(universities, water utilities, continuing edu- from three to five years to achieve reasonablycation centers, etc.); these participating in- these short-term objectives. During this period,stitutions will form the local network, one of financial assistance wiU be needed to train Centerthem being identified as the Network Center staff, to prepare work plans, implement activities,(host institution); and, and support other action. A maximum of five

(e) The identification of the key staff to be as- years of progressively decreasing financial assis-signed to the Network Center for project tance,asoriginallyproposedinttheprojectconcept,implementation. is necessary and should be sufficient to achieve

The assessment process should thus provide the short-term objectives. Beyond this stage, theNetwork Center with clear and specific short- achievement of long-term objectives is essentiallyterm objectives. Typically, that objective should the host government's responsibility, includingbe the implementation and development, within the provision of resources to support regular ac-existing selected institutions, of sustainable ca- tivities and cover recurrent costs.pacities in training and educating in new sector 42. A coordination unit, reestablished withinapproaches. This objective should be achieved in the UNDP-World Bank Program, should be re-a specified time frame, according to a detailed and sponsible for the ITN overall management andspecific work plan. expansion. It should also supervise ITN global39. After establishing the Network Center collaboration and promotion of technical coop-and training the staff according to the work plan, eration among developing countries. For thisproject activities should include the following task, the coordination unit should lean on repu-efforts: table intemational institutions, specializing in in-(a) Identification and training of trainers, educa- formation and documentation (such as IRC);

tors, and selected local consultants assigned training, research, and development (IDRC forto participating institutions (local network); one); and training and exchange (such as

(b) Preparation of training modules and adapta- CEFIGRE). Professionals from participatingtion of existing curricula, with the participa- countries should be employed and trained withintion of trainers, educators, and local consult- thoseinstitutionstoensurepropercommunicationants; within the ITN. These institutions would be re-

(c) Establishment of documentation centers sponsible, under the coordination unit's supervi-within the local network; sion, for preparing new basic training materials,

(d) Initiationandpromotionoftraining-oriented training Center staff, collecting and circulatingresearch withinparticipatinginstitutionsand information and documentation, issuing news-other research centers; but, in any circum- letters, coordinating and promoting research ac-stances, research should not supplant train- tivities, preparing and organizing regular meet-ing in Center activities; ings, and so on. In other words, these institutions

(e) Assistance to participating institutions in or- would be responsible for animation of the wholeganizing and running the first courses, semi- network, cooperating closely with ITN Centers asnars, or workshops; and, well as with "non-ITN institutions" (such as

(f) Preparing a self-evaluation methodology for UNICEF, WHO, AMT), international professionalparticipating institutions, to assess the im- associations (IWSA, IWRA), and NGOs.

58

x~~~~~"Program Priorities in the 1990s

The Challenges of the 1990s Implications for the Program

1. At the end of the International Drinking 3. The Program represents only one effortWater Supply and Sanitation Decade it is appar- among many, and its role in helping to meet theseent that there are still very largenumbersof people challenges must not be exaggerated. It is, never-without safe drinking water and sanitation. Dur- theless, one of the leading instruments at theing the Decade, however, important lessons have disposal of governments and the internationalbeenlearned. These are well described ina number community for fostering sector development. Toof reports, including the background paper for the makea significantcontribution intheyearsahead,Global Consultation on Safe Water and Sanitation the Assessment Team believes that the Program'sfor the 1990s, held in New Delhi in September priorities should be established according to the1990, and in the official statement resulting from principles discussed below.that meeting. The challenge now facing govern-ments, the international community, and the Immediate Objectives: "Scaling-Up" of OperationsProgram in particular, is to apply the experiencegained during the 1980s on the scale required to 4. The present Program management seesreduce the number of unserved families signifi- the next stage of its work as a "scaling-up" phase.cantly by the end of the 1990s. This means several things:2. As the New Delhi Statement aptly notes, (a) At the country level - moving from small-the challenges are formidable: scale local demonstration proJects to larger-

scale investment programs;Population growth continues apace. Infrastruc- (b) Geographical expansion of the Program toture in many cities is stretched to the breaking includemorecountries,particularlyinAfrica,point. Uncontrolled pollution is putting greater the neediest region; and,stress on the living environment. Depletion and (c) Expansion of "global" research and other ac-degradation of water resources are causing the tivities needed to support a larger countrycosts of new water supplies to escalate. Without and regional effort.fundamentally new approaches, the broad-scale 5. Given the extent of the need, the Assess-deprivation will turn into unmanageable crises. ment Team concurs that 'scaling-up" is a highCreating the right conditions for accelerated ment Team in the ealy is a heprogresswillofteninvolveprofound institutional, priority for the Program in theearly 1990s. But theeconomic, and social changes, as well as realloca- rate at which scalingup is achieved-particu-tion of resources and responsibilities at all levels. larly as regards increased investment - and the

means by which it is done, must vary considerably

59

with regional and country circumstances. More- (b) Revitalization of the ITN, and the addition ofover, scaling-up must be set in the context of the more Centers, to train key personnel in apply-Program's long-term objectives: it is not an end in ing these concepts.itself, but part of an overall process intended to (c) Movement from limited-scale demonstrationincrease developing countries' capacity to help projects to larger-scale projects or programs.themselves. (d) Refinement of case study and other materials,

supported by basic research as needed.Long-Term Objectives: Increase Developing (e) A progressive shift of resources into the ITNCountry Capability Centers, increasing theircapacityforbuilding

technical cooperation among developing6. The Program's impact as a technical as- countriesretaininga smallheadquarterscoresistance unit will always be limited, whatever staff to assist in synthesis, liaison with Worldlevel of scaling-up is achieved, if it relies solely on Bank-sponsored research, and support.its own resources. It is now recognized that effec- (f) Progressive phasing out of project prepara-tive sector development depends on making the tory work by Program staff, as the new ap-best use of the capabilities of many different proaches become accepted as routine and sogroups: public sector agencies, private sector funded through normal project preparationentrepreneurs, community groups (with empha- channels.sis on the participation of women), NGOs, and theusers themselves. The Program therefore needs to Expansion of Country-Level Operationsdevise the best way to use available resources inorder to assist each of these groups to play its role 9. It is important to be clear about whatmore effectively. scaling-up at the country level entails. In a poor7. There isno doubt that, in the long run, the country with a weak public sector and an unde-most cost-effective contribution that the Program veloped private sector, successful scaling-up iscan make is in training. This permits a multiplier likely to require great institution- and capacity-effect that is fargreater than canbe achieved by the building activities, quite different from thoseefforts of staff working on individual projects. It possible in small demonstration projects. Exter-was for this reason that the International Training nal technical assistance, such as that availableNetwork was conceived as the only long-tern fromtheProgram,cannolongerbeapplieddirectlyelement of the overall Program - the other ele- at the community level, but has to be directedments would lay the policy and the intellectual, towards helping local intermediary institutionsoperational, and institutional foundations on performmoreeffectively. Thereareclearlygreaterwhich the ITN would build, and then be pro- risks involved, not only because the scale of in-gressively phased out or absorbed by other ac- vestment is much larger but also because closetivities. However, over the past fewyears, the ITN operational linkages are no longer feasible. Thesehasbeen the least visible element of theProgram's risks are most acute on the software side (mostactivities, and changing this will require a long- evaluations find that "people problems" are theterm, carefully managed effort. Nevertheless, in root cause of failures in urban and rural develop-the opinion of the Assessment Team, this must be ment projects), but the possible technical diffi-attempted. culties should not be underestimated.

10. Scaling-up has importantimplications forProgram Evolution to Meet Long-Term Objectives the Program. Instead of "feeling its way" on small

projects, the Program will have to give clear8. The next few years should see a marked guidance to national staff who, for example, willevolution of Program activities. The precise de- beresponsibleforplanninganddesigningprojecs,tails will need to be worked out by Program engagingandsupervisingexternalconsultants,ormanagement to match resources and country in- regulatingandassistingprivatesectorefforts. Theterest and commitment, but the general sequence Program may also have to deal with a wider rangeis likely to be similar to the following: of institutions and agencies: not just one or two(a) Development of case studies, guidelines, and agencies - carefully selected because they most

information of immediate operational appli- closely meet the Program's ideal standards-butcation. many that have to be included because of their

60

mandateorbecause of the scope of their activities. other ESAs, especially the European bilateralTherefore, onboth hardware and software aspects agencies, and in comparison with its urban water(but especially the latter, since they are more supply and sanitation operations) and with thecritical to success and generally far less well un- low-costtechnology,comnmunity-basedapproachderstood) the Program needs to prepare itself for that the Program and the great majority of sectoroperating in a quite different way. Monitoring specialists advocate. The World Bank's experi-and evaluation and effective action to adjust ap- ence with rural development projects in Africa,proaches as needed should be much more thor- which has been rather mixed, may be leading to aough than previously. It is suggested that exten- greater recognition of the need for communitysiveupgradingofthetoolsavailabletotheProgram involvement, but its views with regard to com-should be given priority, and that the ITN might munity-based approaches are not yet fully devel-take the lead in this (see "Research and Develop- oped. In this region in particular, the Program hasment Needs" below). to balance the possibly conflicting priorities of the11. An importantstrategicdecisioninscaling- Bank, the other ESAs supporting sector develop-up willbe the selection of the country and subsector ment (and contributing to Program funding), and(urban/rural; water supply/sanitation) on which the countries concerned.to focus efforts. While this selection has always 14. Within the World Bank, the Program hasformed part of the Program planning process, it a combination of knowledge and country-basednowtakeson additional significance if the Program activities thatgive itaclearcomparativeadvantageis to play a larger role in the country concerned. in the rural water supply and sanitation sector. IfThe judgment will need to be based not only on theWorldBank,throughitsoperationaldivisions,the Program's assessment of the likely cost-ef- doesbecomeheavily involved in this sector,itwillfectiveness of its inputs but also on the recep- badly need the assistance of the Program; not totiveness on the part of the country concerned, and spend money(otherdonorshavelearned fromthethe ESAs active there, to the proposition that a Decade that this is all too easy), but to spend it insignificant section of infrastructure investment a way that achieves sustained benefits-which isshould be heavily affected by Program activities. likely to mean a selective and situation-specificThe decision on the role of the Program will also approach. It is also likely to mean that, in anyhave to take account of the larger issues posed by given project, the amount of money that can bethe rate of urbanization and the need to improve lent will not be large. But the financial resourcesurbaninfrastructureservicesingeneral,discussed of the World Bank are considerable, and if theWlow ("The Urban Challenge"). Program can contribute to ensuring that they are12. In the particular case of Africa, the most well used, this will be a valuable achievement.needy region, AFrIN has stated (as noted in 15. The World Bank's influence is not, how-Chapter II) that the broadening of the Program ever, derived only from the provision of loans,impact, from research and pilot projects to coun- and the Program should seek to convince throughtrywide sector development, will have to take the force of its knowledge rather than through theplace under the framework of externally sup- power of the Bank's pocket - especially in thisported operations that deal with policy changes sector in which an excess of investment funds hasand institutional reform. In most countries this often been the problem rather than the solution. Ifwill call for Bank involvement, and the accompa- the World Bank is seen to endorse the approachnying experience in sectoral policy reform and advocated by the Program, its impact is likely tocoordination of multi-donor efforts. be very substantial.13. TheAssessmentTeamfindsmuchtoagree 16. Very generally, when all these circum-withhere, but believes that the rural water supply stances are taken into account, Asian and Latinsector in sub-Saharan Africa poses rather special American countries appear to be readier for theproblems for the World Bank. It is apparent from scaling-up of Program activities than those inits recent policy statements that the need for a Africa, and sub-Saharan Africa in particular. Butpoverty focus is now emphasized; and in the final strategy decisions must be based on a morecontest of structural adjustment lending, the wa- detailed country-by-country appraisal.ter supply sector may be seen asa priority. But theWorld Bank has rather little experience both inthis sector (certainly in comparison with many

61

Cost and Sustainabillty of Systems 21. This shift towards low-cost, sustainableprojects and community involvement implies a

17. The rate at which service coverage can be corresponding shift in government's role: less'scaled-up" is directly related to the cost of water emphasis should be placed on government'sand sanitation systems and their sustainability after function as a provider of water and sanitation ser-construction. The New Delhi Statement notes that vices, through public investment and manage-"to achieve full coverage by the year 2000 using ment of public utilities, and more on the goal ofconventional technologies and approaches would enabling users - in particular, poorer communi-require five times the current level of investment." ties - to develop, finance, manage, and then18. Whatevertheiraccuracy,theseinvestment maintain their own systems. During the 1980s,figures understate actual financial needs. Past the Program and its partners helped develop andemphasis has been on new construction, much to demonstrate water and sanitation technologiesthe detriment of funding for operation and main- thatareboth technicallyand financially within thetenance. As a result, many systems are inopera- self-help capacities of communities. The problemtive or have serious deficiencies and will need to nowistodeviseinstitutionalframeworkstonmatchbe rehabilitated. Rehabilitation costs will add these technological shifts and to build on thesubstantially to financial requirements. increased understanding of the essential role of19. The conclusion is inescapable: more ef- the community. These frameworks will need tofective and less expensive solutions must be drawuponalltheresourcesavailable(forexample,adoptedbasedondevelopingcountries'realneeds sector agencies and other govermment institu-and realities. The Program has done important tions, private sector entrepreneurs, NGOs, andand pioneering work in developing both the community-level organizations and individuals).technology and the delivery systems for low-cost The particular institutional "mix" will usuallywatersupplyandsanitationservicesinbothurban have to be location-specific, and so, as part of itsand rural areas. What is now required is to refine move towards scaling-up, the Program needs tothese approaches and to make the information prepareillustrativecasestudiesandalsotoprovidemore widely available; this is discussed below more general guidance on designing and imple-under "Research and Development Needs." menting appropriate institutional arrangements.

All of which may require attention to a variety ofCommunity Involvement different aspects, from human resources devel-

opment to legislative amendments.20. Important as low-cost technologies and 22. Achievinganautomaticandwidelyusablecommunity-based approaches are for holding formula for matching users to delivery systemsdown the cost of water and sanitation systems, remains problematic. Two techniques appearthey areeven more important for thesustainability particularly promising. The first is the use ofof services. Probably the most important lesson to "effective demand" (the subject of an ongoingemergefromtheDecadeexperienceisthat,unless Program research effort), which encourages theusercommunitiesthemselvesareactivelyinvolved intended users to specify the level of service theyin the planning, financial support, operation, and will receive and will be prepared to pay for. Thismaintenance of systems, these systems cannot be is a good example of the sort of approach thatsustained and will break down within a fairly should be pursued more widely in government-short period of time. (Some people claim that assisted programs. The second approach thatconventional urban piped water and sewerage seemsespeciallyrelevanttotheProgram'sworkissystemsinmajorcitiesmanagedbywell-organized the use of "social marketing," which focuses onutilities are exceptions to this general conclusion; "the four Ps: Product, Price, Place, and Promo-however,mostof these systemsarealso in technical tion."* Social marketing uses modem marketingand financial trouble, both in the industrialized principles to increase theacceptabilityof a sociallyworld and in developing countries, and it can be beneficial idea, commodity, or practice. It hasargued convincingly that these utilities should been used successfully in generating demand foralso spend more time on consumer relations tobuild a constituency for the tariff revisions or Theeides on socialWmarketing aredloptd in detail inapaper by

other changes needed in order to rehabilitate the CecdiaaCaflro -VerzosaentitLed,StrateglesforScalingUp Wa-systems and restore viability.) ter and Sanitation in Rural Areas.

62

social services such as immunizations or family components was developed through the prede-planning; in persuading populations to change cessor projects and widely disseminated, and thehealth practices; and in helping shape social be- knowledge available at that time formed the basishavior. (The Program had initiated work in social for the initial set of training modules used by themarketing in India, but this now seems to be in ITN Centers.abeyance. In the opinion of the Team, work in this 25. Thisworkwasdeemphasizedaroundthearea should now be reactivated.) In the words of mid-1980s, and it does seem clear that really in-the Asia Team, the Program should take the fol- novative research and development work camelowing action: largely to a halt some years ago. This hiatus has(a) Develop a social marketing strategy to deter- left a gap in the Program's spectrum of activities

mineexpecteddemand,productavailability, and may have had some undesirable side effects.acquisition price, and compelling consumer In particular, many of the "state of the art" docu-benefitsthatcanbearticulatedinpromotional ments available through the Program are now acampaigns. number of years old, while the shifts in emphasis

(b) Implement an integrated program based on and country focus after reorganization have leftconsumer needs, making the products avail- some research topics unresolved andhave resultedable to the low-income communities at a in missed opportunities to evaluate the long-termprice they can afford. impactandsustainabilityofsomeoftheProgram's

(c) Undertake a sustained communication cam- initial activities. For example, the urban sanitationpaign to increase awareness about the health program in India was an early attempt to "scalepractices related to safe drinking water and up"operationsandcouldhaveproducedvaluableproper sanitation. lessons. In general, there does not seem to have

23. Whatever processes are developed for been sufficient attention given to evaluating pastcommunity involvement, they must take full ac- experienceand "leamingby doing." If thoseearlycount of the needs and concems of a key segment efforts were not successful, why not? If they wereof the consumer population: women. Program successful, why did attention move elsewhere?staff should bear this need in mind at all stages, as What are the implications for the future?they evaluate the appropriateness of water and 26. Research, however, is once more on thesanitation technologies, astheydevelop financing rise with the establishment of the Policy and Re-schemes to make the technologies affordable to search Unit in ISUWS, which has the dual re-low-income communities, as they design instruc- sponsibility of serving both the World Bank'stional materials (appropriate for women who are main line divisions and the Program. The currentlargely semi-literate to understand and use), and agenda of the Policy and Research Unit is focusedas they design logistics systems for these tech- on three areas: water resources, environmentalnologies (aware that women in the community sanitation, and institutional issues. In the Team'swill also be involved in operation and rnainte- view, the Program-funded research and devel-nance). Because women are the main users and opment effort should be prioritized to support thebeneficiaries of water and sanitation systems, it is agreed long-term strategy. As mentioned above,criticalthattheProgrammakethemractivepartners the Team does not consider that the Program hasin decision making in all aspects of its work. The any comparative advantage in water resourcesTeam considers that PROWWESS can and should research, nor does it see this topic as central to thebe a major support element in this process, with Program's objectives, with the exception of threeever closer connections to the Program. topics narrowly focused on more efficient use of

water resources: water conservation, water re-Research and Development Needs use, and leakage control. The second two themes

should respond to the Program's need for more24. As described in Chapter I of this report, systematic and operationally focused research onimportant progress has been made in developing both hardware and software, and the Assessmentand promoting low-cost sustainable water and Team strongly endorses expanded research andsanitation techniques, first by the World Bank in development in these areas as a priority activitythe late 1970s, and subsequently by the Program for the Program in the next phase.and its predecessor projects. An extensive series 27. Definitionof theseresearchneedsrequiresof publications on both hardware and software careful thought. There are both short-term needs,

63

with an immediate operational focus and applica- Sanitation Decade strategy meeting held at thetion, and more fundamental questions that re- Bank, and it should now be addressed.quire long-term studies. Agreeing on the priori- 30. While there may at this stage in theties in these two distinct areas requires consulta- Program's evolution seem to be a need for moretion both with the academic research and devel- research into institutional issues, technical prob-opment community and with the people more lems must not be neglected. To take an exampleimmediately concemed with project promotion that some dismiss as trivial, it is irresponsible toand implementation: Program field staff, sector promote on-site sanitation if the Program cannotagencies, and supporting ESAs. In both cases, the provide a convincing and reliable method of ser-Team suggests that more scientists from partici- vicing latrines. Resource recovery, which is atpating countries be drawn into the effort. The present peripheral to the Program's work, needsmodel of the earlier Program activities - a broad to be brought into heightened focus as a valuableprogram of research into key issues, conducted by means to make sanitation more affordable, toa number of institutions in both developed and provide altemative water sources in arid regionsdeveloping countries, with support from various orcountries,andtoprotecttheenvironment. Also,ESAs, and coordinated but not necessarily man- a number of recent technical developments haveaged by the headquarters units - may prove notbeenfullycoveredbyearlierProgramresearchsuitable. efforts, such as various forms of alternative sewer28. As discussed above ("Community In- systems, or sewage treatment by means of artifi-volvement"), two key topics in the Program's cial wetlands, or more effective lagoon systems.research agenda should be the refinement of in- The potential application of these techniques institutional frameworks suited to community-based developing countries where the Program is activeprojects and the development of techniques for needs careful evaluation.encouraging participation and determining what 31. There is some suggestion that dissemi-service standards will be acceptable and sustain- nation of the Program's findings has been inhib-able ("effective demand" estimation and "social ited because much of the work lacks the rigor thatmarketing" being two candidates). Finding so- the Bank expects in its publications. While fun-lutions to these issues is fundamental to any at- damental research and development should betempt to scale up Program activities. subjected to rigorous peer review, in the view of29. Questions have been raised whether suf- the Team this process is not so critical for caseficient rigorous cost data (covering all software studies, working papers, and the like; in theseand hardware costs) have been assembled to cases, because the Program is almost the onlypersuade traditionalist policymakers and engi- source of guidance, it is more important to haveneers that the technologies developed earlier materials available in the field as soon as possible(chiefly several types of handpumps and on-site to help project staff. A possible solution appearslatrines and alternative types of sewerage) can be to be to use the rejuvenated IIN Centers as thesafely recommended for large-scale application. prime agencies for preparing and disseminatingThe Assessment Team did not include the iexper- this type of more ephemeral material. The Centerstise to evaluate this contention, but it is clear that are advantageously located in the regions, awarecredibility of the Program's claims concerning the of critical problems, and able to formclose contactspotential for low-cost solutions remains an impor- with both public and private sector experts whiletant issue, affecting the Program's impact both regularly updating, replacing, or discarding ma-within the Bank and elsewhere. Producing sound terial as needed for their training and dissemina-data based on over 10 years' experience is critical tion functions.to winning the support of senior decisionmakers,which is required if the programs are to "go to The Urban Challengescale." This implies independent engineeringevaluations, carefully designed cost comparisons 32. The Decade of the 1990s will withoutbetween conventional and alternative solutions, doubt be a decade of accelerating urbanization.and an assessment of the institutional and soft- All forecasts are daunting.ware costs associated with community-based 33. The repercussions of the population on-schemes. This has been a known deficiency since slaught are already being felt and have been suc-at least 1984, when it was raised at the Water and cinctly summarized in the New Delhi Statement

64

quoted above: overstretched urban infrastruc- functions on INUWS and, more importantly,ture; uncontrolled pollution; stress on the living would seriously dilute the present identity of theenvironment; depletion and degradation of water Program, which is clearly focused on poorresources; and, as a result of these other impacts, unserved communities, low-cost nonconventionalserious adverse effects on health. techniques, and community-based approaches.34. What does this imply for the future de- 37. The Team also notes the recommenda-velopment and orientation of the Program? As tions of the evaluation mission that reviewed thea "poverty-oriented" effort dedicated to bringing SDTinJanuaryandFebruaryl990,whichproposesafe water and sanitation to unserved low-income broadeningtheSDTinto anUrbanEnvironmentalcommunities, the Program cannot ignore the Services Team (UEST) that would deal not onlytrends. The numbers of urban poor are multiply- with water and sanitation in the narrow sense buting rapidly, and in some countries, will soon ap- also with related issues, including drainage,proach, if not exceed, the numbers of rural poor. wastewater management, water pollution, andGovernments are increasingly concerned over this solid waste disposal. While this recommendationtrend, especially in Asian and Latin American has not yet been accepted by RBAP, the Asia SDTcountries, as evidenced at the New Delhi Consul- and the Program are clearly developing separatetation and in other meetings. In these circum- identities. Whileworkingincomplementinlargerstances, the Assessment Team recommends that urbancenters,eachprogramhasitsdistinctstaffingthe Program increase its activities in urban areas and management requirements. The Team be-as a matter of high priority, without, however, lieves that the kinds of assistance that would beabandoning rural work, particularly in Africa. provided by transforming the SDT into a UEST in35. The urban components of the Program Asia are also needed in cities of Latin America,should continue to be focused on the periurban, and to some extent in some African and Arabintra-urban poor neighborhoods that are not ad- countries. It is therefore suggested that seriousequately served by existing conventional systems considerationbegiven to converting theSDTtoanand/or that are outside the jurisdiction of the interregional program with core support fromestablished utilities. The effort should continue to DGIP, RBLA, RBA, and with continued supportbring to these communities the affordable, low- from RBAP for the Asia component.cost, community-planned and managed systemsin which the Program has a demonstrated com- Sector Policy Issuesparative advantage. In this work, careful atten-tion needs to be given to the issue of how these 38. The decision to expand water and sani-systems can be linked to the city's existing and tation coverage for the poor and the rate at whichexpanding conventional water supply and sani- this is to be done is ultimately a governmenttation systems, both technically and financially, to responsibility. Experience to date has shown thatachieve maximum benefits for the poor. agrowingnumberofgovernmentshavewelcomed36. WhilerecommendingincreasedProgram Program assistance in developing their sectoractivity in urban areas, the Team does not recom- policiesandstrategies. Experiencehasalsoshownmend that the Asia Water and Sanitation Sector that in a number of countries the Program hasDevelopment Team (SDT) be merged with the begun to have an influence in gaining a higherProgram under the management of INUWS. The priority forpoverty-oriented sectorstrategies.ThisSDT is presently supported by UNDP's Regional effort should be intensified during the next phaseBureau for Asia and the Pacific (RBAP) and sev- (always, however, without attempting to imposeeral bilaterals. Since the establishment of tne policies from outside). On the basis of the evi-RWSGs and with the approval of participating dence to date, it is likely that the Program as suchgovernments, it has increasingly focused its assis- and by itself can have only a limited and slowtance on larger cities and towns in Asia, on the impact on sector policies: the support of the Bankstrengthening of urban sector utilities, and on the is needed to accelerate the required policy andidentification and preparation of investment institutional reforms. It is suggested that theprojects based on conventional and intermediate Programmanagementreviewthismatterwiththetechnologies, all of which are recognized needs in Bank's technical departments, to determine therapidly growing cities. To merge the two initia- appropriate structures for closer cooperation intives would impose large additional management this area.

65

39. The point has also been made to the As- acceptable, consideration should be given to lo-sessment Team that Program activities directed to cating the management of the UEST in INURD,low income periurban and intra-urban commu- thus facilitating liaison with INUWS as well asnities must be closely linked with overall urban linking UEST's activities more closely with over-policy if they are to produce a substantial impact all urban policy and research.in terms of increased coverage. This is the strongview of the Bank's Urban Development Division A New Approach to Sector Planning(INURD), a unit of the Infrastructure and UrbanDevelopment Department of the PRE complex. In 42. TheNewDelhiStatementemphasizestheINURD's view, the Program's present focus on need for "fundamentally new approaches" tospecific individual neighborhoods cannot solve sector development if the goals of "Safe Waterthe problem in large and growing cities because it 2000" are to be achieved. Possibly the most basicdoes not address the larger picture. By the time requirement is the need for a new approach todemonstration work has been carried out and a sector planning. At present, the typical planningprogram implemented in a particular neighbor- process assumes that the entire community willhood (a time-consuming process), three or four have a single service standard and be served bymore poor urban communities will have sprung one central system. The planners then focus moreup, or existing ones grown larger. It is argued that on the issuesaffectingtherateatwhichtheselectedthe micro-level neighborhood-by-neighborhood technology can be extended, rather than on theapproach has not worked in the case of low-cost morefundamentalquestionofhowbesttoprovidehousing and will not work with water and sanita- people with service. This approach disregardstion. A citywide approach is needed, and this differences in socioeconomic conditions of usersrequires linking Program activities more closely in different localities and neglects the potentialwith overall urban policy and planning. savings that could be achieved by using a mixture40. The Assessment Team believes that this of technologies, both conventional andposition makes a great deal of sense, although it is nonconventional, as well as by using differentnotentirely clear at this timejust how the Program institutional arrangements suited to local condi-can integrate its operations with citywide urban tions.development policies. An initial entry point into 43. Experience during the Decade has shownthis area could possibly be provided through a that this "single service standard" approach iscloser linkage between the Program and the now outmoded. It should be replaced by a plan-Interregional Urban Management Program, now ning system based on the following principles:*enteringits second phase,whichismanaged jointly (a) Determination in every case of the appropri-by INURD and the United Nations Centre for ate solution on the basis of effective localHuman Settlements (HABITAT), with substantial demand, to achieve technical and financialfinancial support from a number of ESAs in addi- viability.tionto UNDP. Consultationsbetween the Program (b) Employment of a combination of measures,and INURD have recently been increased, and the such as demand management, water conser-Team suggests that these be intensified and pos- vation, on-site and off-site water reuse, andsibly expanded to include Program collaboration decentralized wastewater collection andat the field level. Other important programs with disposal.which the Program might usefully link up are the (c) Use of a circular, rather than a linear, flowMunicipal Program for Sub-Saharan Africa man- model to emphasize sustainability within aaged by the World Bank and by "Asia-Pacific given area and to avoid the export of envi-2000," an initiative of UNDP's Regional Bureau ronmental problems to other, downstreamfor Asia and the Pacific to support NGOs in ad- communities.dressing the urban environmental challenge in (d) Definition of achievable standards appropri-Asia. ate to local conditions, rather than the adop-41. Finally, for maximum impact in urban tion of unrealistic and inappropriate onesareas, close cooperation between the Program andthe proposed Urban Environmental Services Team * See"QuoVadis,SanitaryEngineer,"byJohn M. Kalbermatten;(UEST) is essential. If the recommendation to availablethroughtheUNDP-WorldBankWaterandSanitationbroaden the scope of the SDT as suggested proves Program.

66

simply because industrialized countries are management of water resources and liquidcapable of achieving them or find them nec- and solid waste.essary or desirable under their own local (b) Institutional reformspromotinganintegratedconditions. approach and including changes in proce-

(e) Assessment of what environmental services, dures, attitudes, and behavior and the fullsuch as water supply, human waste disposal, participation of women at all levels.storm drainage, and garbage disposal, are (c) Community management of servicesbackedneeded, and in what priority, to solvea given by measures to strengthen local institutionsproblem and to optimize the use of available in implementing and sustaining water andinvestment funds. sanitation programs.

(f) Creation of the necessary institutional frame- (d) Sound financial practices, achieved throughwork, particularly arrangements that en- better management of existing assets andcourage needed community participation in widespread use of appropriate technologies.project development and subsequent com- 46. Achievement of the goals of "Safe Watermunity management of assets, to make this 2000" in accordance with the above principles willapproach feasible. require closer collaboration among ESAs, and

44. These considerations appear to the Team between them and governments, than has gener-to have a direct bearing on the scaling-up of Pro- ally prevailed during the International Drinkinggram activities during the next phase, particularly Water Supply and Sanitation Decade. With itsin larger urban areas. It is suggested that the many interagency connections, and reinforced byissues be reviewed by the Program management the Review Board recommended in this report,for possible application at field level in collabora- the Assessment Team believes that the Programtion with the proposed UEST. can serveasan effective instrumentforhelping to

achieve this collaboration, provided certain con-Conclusion ditions are met.

47. These are (a) a serious desire on the part45. Thegeneral conclusion of theAssessment of ESAs to coordinate their assistance programsTeam is that the UNDP-World Bank Program is more closely at the country level in support ofsound and deserves continued support, and that govemment- and poverty-oriented sectorpoliciesits impact can be materially increased during its and objectives; (b) willingness of ESAs to ex-next phase in accordance with the guiding prin- change timely information with one another onciples of the New Delhi Statement. These prin- the assistance they plan to provide; and, (c) con-ciples were endorsed by the United Nations tinuing consultation between ESAs and the Pro-General Assembly at its 45th session: gram management to identify ways in which ac-(a) Protection of the environment and safe- tivities can be more closely dovetailed to the mu-

guarding of health through the integrated tual benefit of all.

67

I I I

I I I I

V�

I I I

ANNEX 1: REGIONAL AND IN-COUNTRY STAFF

March 1, 1991

Region Title/Discipline Recruitment Type Funded by

RWSG East Africa

Regional Regional Manager International UNDP/RAFSector Planning Engineer International DenmarkSector Planning Engineer International FinlandSector Planning Engineer International NorwaySocial Scientist International CanadaCommunity Dev. Specialist International UNDPIRAF (PROWWESS)Water Resources Engineer International SwedenFinancial Analyst (Vacant) International UNDP/RAFMechanical Engineer Local UNDP/RAFResearcher Local UNDPtRAF

In-Country

Ethiopia Sanitary Engineer International UNDP/IPFFinancial Analyst (Vacant) International UNDP/IPF

Rwanda Sanitation Adviser International UNDP/IPF

Zimbabwe(Advisory Team) Rural Sanitation Coordinator International Norway

Sanitation Adviser International Norway

Zimbabwe(Training Center) Training Center Manager Local Norway, UNDP/IPF

Sanitary Engineer Local Norway, UNDP/IPF

RWSG West Africa

Regional Regional Manager International UNDP/RAFSanitary Engineer International UNDP/RAFSanitary Engineer International UNDP/RAFSanitary Engineer International SwitzerlandCommunity Dev. Specialist International UNDP/RAFFinancial Analyst International UNDP/RAFSanitary Engineer Local UNDP/RAF

71

Region Title/Discipline Recruitment Type Funded by

In-Country

Burkina Faso Project Coordinator International UNDPtlPF

Ghana Country Coordinator* International UNDP/RAFProduction Engineer Adviser* International SwitzerlandProject Manager (KumasiSanitation Project) Local UNDP/1PF

Nigeria Project Coordinator International UNDP/IPFTraining Adviser International UNDP/IPFWater Supply Adviser International UNDP/IPFWID Adviser Local UNDPIPFCommunity Dev. Adviser Local UNDP/IPFSanitation Adviser Local UNDP/IPFHydrogeologist Local UNDP/IPFHygiene Education Adviser Local UNDP/1PFMechanical Engineering Adviser Local UNDP/IPF

RWSG East Asia and Padfic

Regional Regional Manager International UNDP/DGIPEngineer (Training Specialist) International UNDP/DGIP

In-Country

China Chief Technical Adviser International UNDP/DGIP; UNDP/IPFSanitary Engineer International UNDP/DGIPSanitary Engineer Local UNDPIDGIP

Indonesia Project Manager Local Netherlands;UNDP/IPFCommunity Dev. Adviser International Netherlands;UNDP/IPFSanitation Adviser International Netherlands;UNDP/IPFSanitation Adviser Local Netherlands;UNDPAIPFSanitary Engineer Local Netherlands;UNDPllPF

* Regional Staff not located in the RWSG Office

72

Region Title/Discipline Recruitment Type Funded by

RWSG South Asia

Regional Regional Manager International UNDP/DGIPSr. Sanitary Engineer International NorwaySector Planning Engineer International DenmarkHRD Specialist International United KingdomProduction Engineer(Technology Unit) Local UNDP/DGIP

Sanitary Engineer Local UNDP/DGIPFinance & Inst. Specialist Local UNDP/DGIPCommunications Specialist Local UNDP/DGIP

In-Country

Pakistan Country Coordinator International NorwayFinancial Analyst Local UNDP/DGIPEngineer Local UNDP/DGIP

Bangladesh Country Program Manager Local UNDP/DGIP;UNDP/RASResearcher Local UNDP/DGIP

latin America

Bolivia Country Coordinator International NetherlandsProject Manager Local NetherlandsPlanning & MonitoringEngineer International Netherlands

Water & Sanitation Adviser Local NetherlandsCommunity Dev. Adviser Local NetherlandsProvincial Supervisors

(3 - Vacant) Local NetherlandsHydrogeologists (3-Vacant) Local Netherlands

73

ANNEX 2: UNDP-WORLD BANK WATER AND SANITATION PROGRAMEXTERNALLY FINANCED INVESTMENT PROJECTS IN WHICH THE PROGRAM IS INVOLVED

West Africa RWSG

NO COUNTRY NAME OF OBJECTIVE EXT PROJECT AREAS NO OF ROLE OF PROGRAM REMARKS STATUSPROJECT FUND- SIZE COVERED BENEFI-

ING (US$ mln) CIARIES

1. Benin First Urban Improve the IDA Cotonou 20,000 Assistance in project Appraisal Under prep.Project, environment in (one neighbor- preparation and missionCotonou Cotonou hood) appraisal including scheduled

community management for AprilSupport to with a focus on solid 1991community wastemanagementwith a focus onsolid wastes

2. Guinea H Urban Improve IDA 70 Conakry 1.1 mnl Assistance in project Pop. of Under impl.project Conakry's preparation and Conakry:

environmental implementation 1.1 mln insanitation 1990; est.

2 mln by2000

3. Guinea National Rural water IDA 88.55 140 villages Water Aasistance in project Under impl.Rural supply and supply, preparation, appraisalInfrastruct- sanitation 60,000; and supervisionure Project (RWSS) sanitation,

7,000

4. Ghana Rural Water RWSS IDA/ESAs 54 Ghana Approx. Assistance to Govt and The SSAP Under prep.Supply 6 mln the Bank to prepare draft to be

sector strategy and discussed byaction plan donors in

Feb 1991

5. Ghana 1 Urban Development of UNDP/ 0.9 Kumasi (one 2,500 Execution of Demo Under impl.Project Urban ODA/ (WSS neighborhood) Project which is part of

Infrastructure IBRD component) the Kumasi Project

6. Nigeria Multistate Urban WSS & IDA 400 Rural areas of 5.1 mn Supervision of Appraisal Under prep.Water RWSS Katsina and consultant-identification mussionSupply Kaduna States of RWSS component Feb 1991

7. Nigeria Rural Water RWSS IDA/ESAs 350 Approx. Assistance to Govt. in Unserved Under prep.Supply Unserved 7 mtn but defining policy as bais ruralLending population yet to be for RWSS programs. population.Program deter- Draft sector strategy and

mined action plan beingprepared

West Africa RWSG (Continued)

NO COUNTRY NAME OF OBJECTIVE EXT. PROJECT AREAS NO OF ROLE OF PROGRAM REMARKS STATUS

PROJECT FUND- SIZE COVERED BENEFI-ING (US$ mln) CIARIES

8. Cote Rural Water Piped water IBRD 25 3 large villages 10,000 Assistance in The project Under impl.

D'Ivoire Points supply in large (Loan in southern preparation and covers

Rehabilita- villages 2130- regions implementation of 13,500

tion Project IVC) RWS component water points.Program tostudy RWScomponentof newInfrastruct-ure Project.Focus willbe on villagemanagement

9. Cote Rural RWS IBRD 5 80 villages 160,000 Assistance in project

D'Ivoire Infrastruc- (WSS country-wide preparation Under prep.

ture Project component)

10. Mali Rural Rural water IDA 389 villages in 200,000 Evaluation of commnu-

Develop- supply southern Mali nity management and Proposed

ment Project (Fana, Sikasso, O&M of Mali Sud 11

(Mali Sud Koutiala) and preparation ofKoutiala) ~~~~~Action Plan for Mali

Sud HI. NGO identifi-cation, supervision,TOR preparation forhealth education; super-vision of consultantsworking on reorgani-zation of maintenancesystem

East Africa RWSG listing foUows on next page.

n4

ANNEX 2: UNDP-WORLD BANK WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROGRAMEXTERNALLY FINANCED INVESTMENT PROJECTS IN WHICH THE PROGRAM IS INVOLVED

East Africa RWSG

NO COUNTRY NAME OF OBJECTIVE EST. PROJECT AREAS NO OF ROLE OF PROGRAM REMARKS STATUSPROJECT FUND- SIZE COVERED BENEFI-

ING (US$ mln) CLARIES

11. Ethiopia Addis Infrastructure IDA 35 Addis Abbaba 1.7 mln Assisted in the Bank loan to Under impl.Abbaba development preparation of project be approvedLnfrastruc- in FY91ture

12. Ethiopia Market Water supply IDA 40 Provincial towns 1.6 nln Assisted in preparation Bank loan Under impl.Towns nd sanitation in of project approved inProject urban areas FY 90

13. Ethiopia Urban Demonstration NORAD Not yet 2 neighborhoods 10,000 All aspects from Results will Under prep.Sanitation project determined in Aselba planning through be incorp in

supervision fiiture Bankoperations

14. Madagascar Water Sector loan for IDA 157.7 Country wide Not yet Development of sector Bank loan Under prep.Supply WSS trategy determ- strategy and action plan underProject ined preparation

FY 92

IS. Maawi Infiastuc- Upgrading IDA/ADF 66.2 Country wide 7.9 nln Assisted in preparation Bank loan Under impl.ture Project infiarucure: UNCDF/ project of borehole approved in

principally roads UNDP/ rehabilitation component FY 90and water supply USAID

GTZ16. Rwanda Urban Inprovement in 0.6 Country wide 6.4 ndn Assisted in preparation Bank loan Under innpl.

Institutions urban IDA/ project of project approved inProject management UNCDFI FY 89

PAC/UNDP

17. Rwanda Urban Demonstration 20 Urban areas Not yet Identification and Future Bank Under inIpl.Demonstra- of low-cost UNDP determ- supervision of demo lending totion Project sanitation ined project sector

IS. Uganda Second Water pply in HDA/ECC 36 Seven major 1.2 mln Assisting in preparation Bank loan Under impl.Water urban areas Italy/ towns of project approved inSupply Austa FY 90Project GTZ

19. Uganda Small Water supply IDA 67 20 small towns 0.6 rln Assisting in the Bank loan Underprep.Towns small towns and 20 grwth preparation of project scheduledWater centers for FY 92supplyProject

East Africa RWSG (Continued)

NO. COUNTRY NAMEOF OBJECTIVE EXT. PROJECT AREAS NO OF ROLE OF PROGRAM REMARKS STATUS

PROJECT FUND- SIZE COVERED BENEFI-

1NG (USS ml) CIARIES

Dank lan Undrprep.

20. Uganda Northern Recontntetion IDA 35 (approx.) Northern region Not yet Asisting in prepaation wheduled

Reconstuc- and social deter- of project fot FY93

tion Project econoniie mined

infrastructure

21. Uganda PAPSCA Mitigating social IDA 37 National N.A. Asided in preparation Bank loan Under impl.

Project Costs of of peuruban component apptoved in

Project costs of ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~FY90adjustment

5v Asd RWSG UsLqfd veW OX pae.

ANNEX 2: UNDP-WORLD BANK WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROGRAMEXTERNALLY FINANCED INVESTMENT PROJECTS IN WHICH THE PROGRAM IS INVOLVED

South Asia RWSG

NO COUNTRY NAME OF OBJECTIVE EXT. PROJECT AREAS NO OF ROLE OF PROGRAM REMARIS STATUSPROJECT FUND- SIZE COVERED BENEFI-

ING (USS mnl) CLARIS

22 Bangladesh Third Dhaka Improved water IDA 41.4 Dhaka 5 min Asitance in Bnk cedit Under imy.Water supplynd implementation of approvedinSupply & sanitation project FY 85SeweragePtoject

23* Bangladesh Fourlh hIproved water IDA 300 Dhaka 9 mnJn Auistane in project Bank credit Under inml.Dhaka supply and preparation prowed inWater sanitation FY91Supply &SewerageProject

24* Bangladesh Third Improved water IDA 55 Chittagong 2.1 mln Preparation of strategy Under prep.Chittagong aupply and paper and project ident-Water & sanitation icationSewerageProject

25 Bangldesh Urban Low Development of UNDP/ 0.95 84 Towns 10,000 Asisance in prepar- Under impl.Cost low cost DANIDA ation andSanitation sanitation implemntation of lowProject cost sni-

tation nd olid watemanagement comnponent

26 Bangladesh Mirzapur Handpump CIDA 0.38 Mirzapur 5,000 Planning and Under impl.Handpump testing and implementation of demoProject health impact project.Profect is

study (which is complete and Handpumpalready report is published.published)

27 Bangladesh Mirzapur Developnent of CIDA 0.06 Mirazpur and 5,000 Planning and Project Under prep.Conun comm Impl UNICEF new villages are implementation of the completedManagement capability and NGOs being identified project. and caeProject dsdy is

beingprpared

28 Bangldesh Tars Pump Establish CIDA 0.04 Country wide 20,000 Planning and Terminal Under impilPerformance monitoring implementation report isMonitoring system beingProject prepared

South Asia RWSG (Continued)

NO COUNTRY NAME OF OBJECTIVE EXT PROJECT AREAS NO OF ROLE OF PROGRAM REMARKS STATUSPROJECT FUND- SIZE COVERED BENEFI-

ING (US$ ron) CARES

29 India Maharastra Improved water IDA 125 Maarasta 4 mmln Asidanc in project Bank credit Under impl.RWSS supply and State preparadon approved inProject snitation FY 91

30 India Karnataka Improved water IDA 80 Karnataka I mn Preparation of tategy Bank credit Under prep.RWSS wpply and State paper and project swheduledProject sanitation idendficadon for FY 93

31 India Second Improved water IDA 240 Tamil Nadu Not yet Assiance in project Bnk credit Under prep.Madras supply and State deer- preparton of low cost sceduledWater environment mined sanitation and aolid for FY 93Supply & wast mangementEnviron componontsSanitationProject

32 India RWSS Demonstration NORAD 0.6 Mob Bar Planning and Under inml.Project-West Block 120,000 implementation of demoBengal project

33 India Solid Waste Demonstration NORAD 0.1 One city Planning and Reults will Under prep.Management 100,000 implementation of be used inProject project fiture Bank

credit

34* Pakistan Rural Water Provision of IDA 194 3 provinces Assidtance in Bank credit Under prep.Supply RWSS in 3 3 mln preparation of project approved inProject Districts FY90

35* Sri Lanka RWSS Provision of IDA 20 3 districts Assistance in Proposed Under inpl.Project in 3 RWSS in 3 2 mln preparation of project Bank creditDistricts Districts

In collaboration with the Asia Sector Development Team (SDT).

ANNEX 2: UNDP-WORLD BANK WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROGRAMEXTERNALLY FINANCED INVESTMENT PROJECTS IN WHICH THE PROGRAM IS INVOLVED

East Asia and Pacific RWSG

NO COUNTRY NAME OF OBJECTIVE EXT. PROJECT AREAS NO OF ROLE OF PROGRAM REMARKS STATUSPROJECT FUND- SIZE COVERED BENEFI-

ING (US$ mln) CIAREES

36. China RWSS II RWSS in 6 IDA 140 5 provinces 10 mln Assitance in Bank credit Under prep.Provinces preparation of project scheduled

for FY 91

37. China Beijing Env Environment IDA 120 Beijing 4 mln Asistance in solid wade Bank credit Under impl.Project improvement management component scheduled

for FY 92

38. Indonesia East Java Improved water IBRD 43.3 East Java Region N.A. Support to UN center Provides Under impi.WS 11 supply for training taining

nput intoBank ban

39. Indonesia East Urban IBRD 260 East Java/Bali 180,000 WSS demo project in Bank loan Under inpl.Java/Bali infrastructure two cities approved inUrban Dev improvement FY 91

40. Indonesia Jakarta Sanitation in IBRD 80 Jakarta 10,000 Development of low Bank Loan Under inpl.Sewerage Jakarta coSt sanitationRoptions approved inand FY 89SanitationProject

41. Idonesia WSS for the WSS in poor IBRD 160 Sulawesi,mmur I mln Assistance in project Bank loan Under prep.poor areas Irian Jay& preparation scheduled

for FY 93

42. Indonesia Third Health Improvement of BRD 60 Nation wide 300,000 Assistance with project Bank loanProject health preparation appproved in Inder impl.

FY895

43. Indonesia JUDP HI Improvement of BRD 97 Jakarta,Bogor 500,000 Technical support for Bank loan Under impl.urban Tangerang,Bek- low cost sanitation approved ininfrastructure asi FY 90

East Asia and Pacific RWSG (Continued)

NO COUNTRY NAMEOF OBJECTIVE FUND- PROJECT AREAS NO OF ROLE OF PROGRAM REMARKS STATUS

PROJECT ING SIZE (US $ COVERED BENEFI-(EXI) millions) CIARES

44. Philippines First Water RWSS IBRD 132.8 Several 3 million Assistance in project Bank loan Under impl.

Supply and provinces preparation and approved in

Sanitation implementation FY 90

Project

Latin Amerka and the Caribbean listings follow on next page.

o0

ANNEX 2: UNDP-WORLD BANK WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROGRAMWORLD BANK FINANCED PROJECTS IN WHICH THE PROGRAM IS INVOLVED

Latin America and Caribbean Region

No. COUNTRY NAME OF OBJECTIVE EXT. PROJECT AREAS NO. OF ROLE OF PROGRAM REMARKS STATUSPROJECT FUND- SIZE COVERED BENEFI-

ING (TUS$ mln) CIARIES

45 Bolivia Potosi Rural Assistance to the Nether- 3.29 3 provinces 75,000 Project preparation, Follow-up Under impl.Water Govt of Bolivia lands around Potosi community management Bank loanSupply and to develop and supervision with scheduledSanitation implementation technical assistance toProject strategies to the government

reach thedispersed ruralpopulation of theAltiplano withadequate WSS

46 Bolivia Cochabamba Development of Nether- 0.83 Cochabamba, 3,800 Preparation and Financed out Under impl.Peri-Urban WSS strategies lands El Alto and (pilot) execution of pilot of an IDAWater for low-income Santa Cruz projects designed to loan to theSupply and areas with active (urban and peri- 43,000 reach 43,000 inhabitants 'IntegratedSanitation involvement of urban areas) (final) with follow-on projects. HealthProject the communities Also assist in the Project'

and the private preparation of nationalsector sector strategies

47 Brazil North East Mid-term IBRD 144.9 10 States in the 17.8 mln Provide technical LAC Under inpi.Brazil Rural technical North East of (rural) assessment of the agriculturalDevelop- appraisal of the Brazil project's water supply sector loansment project's Water component and assess negotiatedProgram Supply the sustainability and with each

component viability of the approach State

48 Brazil National Formulation of IBRD 16.3 National 146,000 Provide technical review Direct Under impl.Plan for national policy (pilot) and assessment on the assistance toRural water based on the status and future of the LACSupply and findings of pilot program TechnicalSanitation regional pilot Department

projects under loanLN-2532

Latin America and Caribbean Region (Continued)

NO COUNTRY NAME OF OBJECTIVE EXT. PROJECT AREAS NO. OF ROLE OF PROGRAM REMARKS STATUS

PROJECT FUND- SIZE COVERED BENEFI-ING (USS mln) CIARIES

Water sector Collaborate with IBRD 150.00 National Several Provide assistance to Direct Under impl.

49 Brazil project for LAC and Govt millions project implementation assistance

municipal- agencies to of Bank loan LN-2983 provided to

ities and low evaluate Bank loanincome areas appropriate LN-2983

institutions forWSS systems

Collabor- Program for To be NIA Initially: The rural Coordination of Assistance Under prep.

50 Central ative collaboration and deter- El Salvador population participating agencies to the Bank

America Program for information mined Guatemala of Central and organization of an in the

Technical exchange Honduras America Identification Mission to preparation

Assistance between all Nicaragua the region and implem-

in Central sector agencies entation

Amedca and institutions of Social

in Central Investment

Amedrea Funds in 3countries

Social To make IBRD 24.00 Rural Guatemala 440,000 Provide tehnical Bank loan Under prep.

51 Guatemala Investmnent available low- (WSS assistance in the currently

Fund cost, sustainable component) preparation of the being

water supply and program scheduledsanitation with the

projects to rural governmentcommnunitieswith direct aidand technicalassistance

ANNEX 2: UNDP-WORLD BANK WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROGRAMEXTERNALLY FINANCED INVESTMENT PROJECTS IN WHICH THE PROGRAM IS INVOLVED

Europe, Middle East, and North Africa Region

NO COUNTRY NAME OF OBJECTIVE EXT. PROJECT AREAS NO OF ROLE OF PROGRAM REMARKS STATUSPROJECT FUND- SIZE COVERED BENEFI-

ING (US$ min) CLARIS

52 Morocco Sewerage Wastewater IBRD 120 Casablanca 4 mln Assistance with project Bank loan Proposedand reuse from 4 Agadir preparation on scheduledWastewater urban areas Rabat wastewater reuse aspects for FY 93Irrigation Marrakech

53 Algeria Local Govt Solid and liquid IBRD 100 Blida 0.87 mln Project preparation Bank loan Under prep.Develop- waste Tlemcen assistance with respect scheduledment Project management Wilayas to solid and liquid waste for FY 92

management andresource recoveryaspects

54 Cyprus Limassol Treatment and IBRD 69 Limassol- 120,000 Assistance with project Mission Under impl.Amathus reuse of urban LN32220 Amathus implementation scheduledSewerage wastewater conceming wastewater for March

reuse and low cost 1991 tosanitation technology finalize site

selection forwastewatertreatmentplant

ANNEX 3: DISTRIBUTION OF PROGRAM SERVICES BY COUNTRY: 1988-1991

Explanatory Notes

1. The following charts and tables show the number of staff weeks allocated to participatingcountries, by subregion, in the Country Work Programs over the four-year period 1988-1991. They donot represent the services actually delivered because the latest (and only) progress report on servicedelivery is for the year 1989.2. Investigations by the Assessment Field Teams show the following:(a) In East Africa the assistance delivered to countries has been in close conformity to the work

programed;(b) In West Africa the actual distribution of staff team by country has diverged significantly from

the work programs. These are the most notable cases:(i) In Niger and Zaire there has been no program activity thus far; and(ii) In Cote d'Ivoire the difference between programed and actual activities has been

+10%; in Benin +5%; in Ghana -10%; and in Mali -11%.(c) Data are not available on the correspondence between programed and actual activity in Asia.3. The data in the following charts and tables should therefore be interpreted as the bestindicative figures available regarding country distribution of Program activities rather than as a fullyaccurate report.

East AfricaStaff weeks distribution by country

BotswanaEthiopia _. l

Kvenya --Lesotho

MalawiMadagascar

RwandaSomalia

Sudan i_.TanzaniaUgandaZambia

Zimbabwe0 50 100 150 200 250 300

staff weeks

W 1988 E 1989 1990 1991

85

Latin AmericaStaff weeks distribution by country

Bolivia l

Brazil

Central America

Colombia M

Guatemala

Mexico

Peru

0 50 100 150 200staff weeks

L 1988 E 1989 1990 _ 1991

East AsiaStaff weeks distribution by country

China

Indonesia

Philippines

Thailand

0 100 200 300 400 500staff weeks

W 1988 1 1989 1990 1991

86

West AfricaStaff weeks distribution by country

BeninBurkina Faso

CameroonCongo

Cote D'IvoireGhanaGuinea

MaliNiger _

Nigeria _Senegal

TogoZaire

0 200 400 600 800ataff weeks

1988 3 1989 1990 1991

South AsiaStaff weeks distribution by country

Bangladesh

India

Nepal

Pakistan

Sri Lanka

0 50 100 150 200 250 300staff weeks

1988 m 1989 1990 1991

87

ANNEX 4: UNDP-WORLD BANK WATER AND SANITATION PROGRAM COSTS1990 ($'000)

EstimatedCountries Projects expenditures

RWSG-East Africa

Ethiopia BKF/851019 570Lesotho LES/86/011 18Madagascar MAG/89/001 10Rwanda RWA/89/001 385Sudan SUD/88/040 126Uganda UGA/84/008 5Tanzania URT/84/004 70Zimbabwe ZIM/88/006 205

INT/87/014 85

Subtotal 1,474

RWSG-West Africa

Burkina Faso NKF/89/016 20Congo PRC/88/018 43Ghana GHA/87/016 260Nigeria NIR/87/011 1,400

Subtotal 1,723

RWSG-South Asia

Bangladesh BGD/85/004 200Pakistan INT/87/014 175

Subtotal 375

RWSG-East Asia

China CPR/88/011 100Indonesia INS/88/005 300Thailand THA/87/002 46

Subtotal 446

TOTAL 4,018

NOTE: These project costs are the costs of country-specific demon-stration and other projects managed by the Program. They arefunded through UNDP Country IPFs.

88

ANNEX 4: UNDP-WORLD BANK WATER AND SANITATION PROGRAM COSTS1990 ($'000)

Categories HQ RWSG-EA RWSG-WA RWSG-SA RWSG-EAP Total

Experts 720 750 1,061 525 266 3,322

Travel 182 115 90 73 45 505

Consultants 630 50 50 50 55 835

Administrativesupport 551 100 128 20 106 905

Local staffand consultants 10 35 20 20 85

Subcontracts 175 175

Training 45 10 10 5 5 75

Equipment 50 50 25 40 50 215

Office main-tenance 65 100 35 35 235

Other 250a 20 30 20 15 335

TOTAL 2,603 1,170 1,529 788 597 6,687

/a Of which $200,000 is for the Program Assessment.

Note: Program costs include personnel costs, travel, office premises and services, andconsultancies. They are funded by UNDP's DGIP and Regional Bureaux and supporting bilateraldonors.

89