ptn winter 2003 - american psychological association · the lack of identity between the lists of...

Psychology Teacher Network Winter 2003

1

For Teachers of Introductory PsychologyAPA EDUCATION DIRECTORATEWinter 2003 ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ Volume 13 ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ Issue 1 PTN

PSYCHOLOGY TEACHER NETWORK

Inside:

Online Psychology............3

Human Factors..................6

Teaching Tools......................9

Thinking Critically...............12

Announcements: New Director........5

Convention............13

[email protected]

TOPSS Funding...............15 Workshops.........15 Awards for Students........15

Activity: Perception............15

RediscoveringWisdom

Robert J. Sternberg, PhDAPA President

King Solomon was wise andAlbert Einstein was intelligent, butwhatever their special ways ofthinking were, these ways ofthinking seem to have been quite

different. Wisdom, as exemplified by Solomon,and intelligence, as exemplified by Einstein, aretwo important attributes in our society, but theyare not quite the same. That they are not identicalcan be shown with the following exercise.

A Classroom ExerciseTry this exercise with your students:

1. Ask your students to write down on asheet of paper the three most intelligentpeople, living or dead, they know orknow of. These might be the kinds ofpeople who have shown outstandingperformance in their school or in theirwork.

2. Now ask your students to write downon the sheet of paper the three wisestpeople, living or dead, they know orknow of. These might be the kinds ofpeople who have given outstandingadvice, or who have shown that theycan help resolve very difficult conflicts,or who many individuals look to orhave looked to as role models in life.

3. Now ask your students whether thethree people they listed as being mostintelligent were the same as the threepeople they listed as most wise. If not,was there any overlap?

4. What it does show is that, for moststudents, the two lists may containpeople who overlap, but who are notexactly the same?

5. Ask your students if they can think ofany people who are intelligent but notparticularly wise? If so, what might itmean that people can be intelligent, butnot necessarily wise?

6. What do you think wisdom is? Howabout intelligence? And finally, how arethey related?

The lack of identity between the lists of intelligentand wise people—and the fact that many of usknow people who are intelligent but not especiallywise—suggests that people distinguish betweenintelligence and wisdom. They see some degreeof overlap between the two constructs, but do notsee them as being exactly the same. WinstonChurchill, Mahatma Gandhi, Kofe Annan, NelsonMandela, and Martin Luther King, Jr. are all peoplewho have been known especially for their wisdom.They were or are, certainly, people of intelligence,but they are not best known for their intelligencebut rather for their wisdom. In contrast, peoplelike Albert Einstein and Enrico Fermi—two greatphysicists—or Francis Crick and James Watson—the biochemists who were the codiscoverers of thestructure of DNA—are best known for theirintelligence, although they may well have shownmany aspects of wisdom as well. What is the relation between the two constructs,and why should we care?

The Relation between Intelligence and Wisdom When people speak of intelligence, they usuallyare referring to the skills involved in learning fromand adapting to the environment (Sternberg, 1985,1997, 2000). These are important skills forsucceeding in school and, to some extent, forsucceeding in life. When people speak of wisdom,however, they are speaking of somewhat differentskills. Wisdom is the use of intelligence andexperience in order to attain a common good(Sternberg, 1998, 2001). Intelligence, then, is abeginning for wisdom, but not an end.

Balancing the Interests of Oneself, Others, andInstitutions Wise people seek to balance multiple and diverseinterests in generating solutions to difficult lifeproblems. In looking at problems, they considertheir own interests, as does almost anybody else.But they also consider the interests of other people,and of institutions as well. For example, wisestudents do not cheat on a test. Why? Becausewhatever they may view as the self-interestinvolved, cheating on a test is unfair to others whodo not cheat, and unfair to the school, which has acode that prohibits cheating. Wise students do notpick on other students, because no matter whatthrill they may imagine such aggression will bringthem, they hurt the person they pick on and they

Wisdom continues on page 2


2

dishonor the school through theiraggressive behavior.

Balancing Short-Term and Long-TermOutcomes There is another reason why wisestudents do not cheat or pick on others—and this reason pertains to the fact thatoften what seems attractive in the short-term ends up being unattractive, or evendisastrous, in the long-term. Thus,students may imagine that by cheatingthey will improve their grades. But if theycarefully consider the long-termconsequences, they will reason that thepunishments that will ensue if they arecaught, and even the damage they will doto their own and others’ sense of who theyare, does not justify cheating in order toget an immediate benefit on a test.Similarly, whatever imagined pleasurethere may be of picking on someone else,in the long term, one establishes oneselfas a bully and as someone who will losethe respect of teachers and other students.

Implication The implication of this discussion is thatthere really is a difference betweenintelligence and wisdom. Some people arevery smart, but only look out forthemselves and perhaps the handful ofpeople they seem to care about. Manydictators and villains throughout historyhave been persons of this sort. People likeGenghis Khan, Adolph Hitler, and JosephStalin, however intelligent they may havebeen, cannot be viewed as wise, becausethey continually sacrificed the interests ofothers and even of their countries forthemselves. And as Hitler ’s probablesuicide and the eventual imprisonment orassassination of many ruthless dictatorsshow, many smart but foolish people endup paying for their behavior in the end.

A Problem for School and Society There has been much more research inthe field of psychology on the nature,measurement, and development ofintelligence than there has been on thenature, measurement, and development ofwisdom. Perhaps this overarchingemphasis on intelligence is a mistake. Ina world that is rife with conflicts, violence,and wars, do we not need to be paying atleast as much attention in our schools andin our societies to wisdom as we do tointelligence? Might we inadvertently bedeveloping in students the view that whatis important is how intelligent one is, butnot how one uses one’s intelligence

wisely? Should we perhaps think ofschools as places to help studentsdevelop not just their intellectual andtheir academic skills, but also theirwisdom-related skills, so that they usetheir intelligence and experience towardgood ends?

A Research Agenda We are currently pursuing in our workat the Center for the Psychology ofAbilities, Competencies, and Expertise(PACE Center) at Yale a research agendadesigned to explore the nature ofwisdom and to try to formulate waysof enhancing the wisdom of students inschool. We have two active projectsregarding wisdom. In one project, people are being askedto solve problems requiring wisdom—for example, problems involvingconflicts between individuals ororganizations and those requiringadvice. These people then are evaluatedfor the extent to which the responsesreflect emphases on working toward acommon good, balancing differentkinds of interests, and balancing short-term and long-term goals. We areattempting to show that it is possible notonly to construct a theory of wisdom,but also to measure wisdom. In a second project, we are developinga curriculum for upper elementary-school students that is designed to fosterthe development of wisdom-relatedskills. The curriculum is based on theteaching of American history. Studentslearn the same basic ideas as do otherstudents studying American history,but they also learn to view these ideasfrom multiple and diverse points ofview. So, for example, they might learnthat the doctrine of “manifest destiny,”which was used to justify theoccupation of Native American,Mexican, and by colonists from theUnited States and its territories, wasperceived very differently by thosepeoples whose lands were occupiedthan the way it was perceived by thecolonists. As another example, thewitch-hunts of Senator JosephMcCarthy, which seemed to locate aCommunist in every corner, scarcelyrepresented a wise path in preservingthe integrity of the government of theUnited States. Thinking wisely abouthistory involves seeing it from manydifferent points of view, andunderstanding how historical eventshave affected diverse people whoseinterests may not have been the same

as each other’s, or of those of authors andpublishers of textbooks, who often glorifya country’s past while omitting ordiminishing some of its blemishes.

Conclusion Intelligence and wisdom are related, butthey are not the same thing. Althoughmost people who are wise are at leastfairly intelligent, there are many peoplewho are intelligent but not particularlywise. Wisdom involves applying one’sintelligence and experience in the serviceof a common good. Not everyone iswilling to apply his or her intelligence inthe service of a common good. But giventhe many challenging problemsindividuals, institutions, and society face,perhaps it is time that schools think aboutnot only developing intelligence in theirstudents, but wisdom as well.

References

Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Implicit theories ofintelligence, creativity, and wisdom. Journal ofPersonality and Social Psychology, 49, 607-627.

Sternberg, R. J. (1997). Successfulintelligence: How practical and creativeintelligence determine success in life. NewYork: Plume.

Sternberg, R. J. (1998). A balance theory ofwisdom. Review of General Psychology, 2,347-365

Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.). (2000). Handbook ofintelligence. New York: Cambridge UniversityPress.

Sternberg, R. J. (2001). Why schools shouldteach for wisdom: The balance theory ofwisdom in educational settings. EducationalPsychologist, 36, 227-245.

Author NoteRobert J. Sternberg is IBM Professor ofPsychology and Education in the Departmentof Psychology at Yale University, and Directorof the Center for the Psychology of Abilities,Competencies, and Expertise at Yale.Preparation of this article was supported by agrant from the W. T. Grant Foundation.

Wisdom, from page 1

Call to Teachers of PsychologyPlease consider subscribing toPsych-News, an online forum fordiscussion and inquiries on theteaching of psychology. To subscribe,write the following commandSubscribe Psych-News [yourname] on your message text box andsend to [email protected].


3

Online Psychology Collaboratories:A Model for High School and College Collaboration

Through Online Psychology LaboratoriesDavid Stigge-Kaufman, Wichita High School East, Wichita, KS; Brian Kennell, Hillsboro High

School, Hillsboro, KS; Kristine Thimm and Dwight Krehbiel, Bethel College, North Newton, KS

The past decade has been exciting forpsychology at the secondary level. Enthusiasmhas largely been centered on new forms ofsupport for teaching high school psychology asan empirically based science. In the past,empirical research has often been absent fromthe secondary curriculum and some studentshave failed to gain a thorough understandingof psychology’s real scientific basis (Brewer,1999). Because most high schools lack theresources for detailed psychological research,many teachers may find this a difficult curriculararea to actively teach to their students. Nonetheless, high school psychology teachersincreasingly strive to encourage collaboration and activelearning. The importance of such activity is clear. As Brewer(1997) noted, “no consideration of undergraduate psychologywould be complete without noting drastic changes in theteaching of psychology at the high school level” (p. 439). Thisfocus will be the basis of future progress and reform inpsychology education, as inquiry-based learning continues toreceive considerable attention in the broader educationcommunity (Olson & Loucks-Horsley, 2000). Two key issues are still paramount in the teaching of highschool psychology. First is the problem of teacher isolation onthe secondary level. Teachers rarely have the time, opportunity,or resources needed to work with professionals from outsidetheir classrooms. This dilemma is shared by other scienceteachers who feel overwhelmingly isolated from theirprofessional colleagues (Cushman, 1994). A second problem isthat the transition from high school to college is difficult formany students, and attending college is not always an easyoption for those of disadvantaged backgrounds (Ascher &Schwartz, 1989). High school students who have a personalexperience with colleges will be more properly prepared andmotivated for higher education. Technology has begun to rectify the problem of teacherisolation on a number of levels. Computer-based collaborationallows teachers to break out of their classroom walls and gainexposure to new colleagues. A number of internet-basedcommunities have already been formed which offer exchangesof information and support for teachers (Bransford, Brown, &Cocking, 2000) in addition to email, websites, and listservs.DiMauro and Gal (1994) note that one of the specific conditionsneeded for progressive, reflective teaching is collaborativeresearch. Even with the current emphasis on inquiry-basedscience in secondary psychology, original research can be quitedifficult to carry out in high schools. Computer-based collaborations between colleges and highschools represent a powerful way to impact the overalleducational system. With these collaborations in place, highschool students will become more knowledgeable and inspiredfor future success in undergraduate psychology courses. Onehigh school and college collaboration is currently available

thanks to an online psychology laboratory fromBethel College in North Newton, Kansas. Interactions with college students and facultyprepare high school students for futureacademic success – especially in the sciences.Colleges also benefit, as they are better able torecruit knowledgeable students who areprepared for the transition from high school.

In the interest of exploring new methods foractive collaborative research between highschools and colleges, an online psychologylaboratory has been established at BethelCollege. This collaborative laboratory, or

“collaboratory,” allows for high school psychology teachers toexpose their students to behavioral learning research with thehelp of Bethel’s psychology faculty, students, and resources. Interactive experiments in operant conditioning are availableon the Web for use in high school classrooms. Bethel Collegestudents train rats in operant chambers. Once the rats aretrained, Bethel College makes the controls of these chambersavailable to high school classrooms online. High schoolstudents can then choose different schedules of reinforcement,and observe the rats’ behavioral responses by live video andcumulative digital graphics. Internet-based communicationmakes it possible for high school students to communicatedirectly with the college faculty to discuss the progress andresults of the experiments. In the end, this project’s successindicates the valuable role that technology-drivencollaborations play in high schools and colleges seeking toenhance the teaching of psychology.

Method Our online behavioral learning experiments are conductedwith operant chambers (i.e., Skinner boxes) controlled byMacintosh computers. The equipment is programmed bymeans of LabVIEW (National Instruments), a visualprogramming language and data acquisition package.Communication between the computers and the operantchambers is easily accomplished with LabVIEW, whichdisplays response and reinforcement data as they occur incharts and digital displays on the screen. Graphical controlsfor changing reinforcement schedules are also shown.Cumulative responses and reinforcements are saved eachminute and these files are posted on the Web. Students can observe and control the experiment in theirremote Web browser just as if they were present in thelaboratory. Additionally, live video recordings of the ratsare available online thanks to a Sony digital camcorder(DCR-TRV900) connected via firewire (IEEE-1394) to aMacintosh iMac G4. Upon completion of these online experiments, the data aremade available in tab-delimited text for downloading overthe web and analysis with spreadsheet software. Students

Online Psychology continues on page 4


4

can graph these data themselves and lookfor patterns over time to visually comparedifferent experimental conditions.Classrooms in Wichita and Hillsboro,Kansas have both participated in onlineexperiments thus far. One of the experiments involvingstudents from Wichita High School Eastwill serve as an example for theremainder of this report. In thisexperiment two rats were monitored inseparate operant chambers forapproximately eight days. At thebeginning of this experiment, rats wereshaped to press the levers withindependent 60-second variable interval(VI) schedules of reinforcement on eachof the two levers. The schedule wasprogressively increased to VI 300 sec, thento VI 450 on each lever in the operantchamber. The high school classes werethen allowed to monitor the rats’responses and make one further changein the reinforcement schedule. Theseclasses decided to place the right and leftlevers on different schedules, VI 300 secand VI 600 sec, respectively. After completing the experiments,students evaluated the project using adownloadable LabVIEW program. Avariety of questions were asked based onestablished inquiry standards from theNational Research Council (Olson &Loucks-Horsley, 2000). Students ratedtheir responses to several statements usinga five-point scale (5 is highest, 1 is lowest).Among these statements, the five in Table1seem particularly relevant. Behavioral data from the rats andevaluation data from 48 students (out of

Question on evaluation

Table 1. Students’ responses to the operant conditioning project

Mean Response(1=unfavorable; 5=favorable)

This experiment helped me betterunderstand what scientists study.

This experiment increased my interestin pursuing a major in some area ofscience.

This experiment helped me in learningto set up and test a hypothesis.

This experiment increased myconfidence in my ability to do collegework.

This experiment helped me in learninghow to analyze and present scientificresults using computer technology.

3.891

3.217

3.850

3.539

4.045

Results Plotting the rats’ cumulativeresponses over time allows for a simplevisual analysis of the overall patternsof behavior throughout theexperiment. Despite the fact that thetwo rats experienced identicalschedules of reinforcement, Figures 1and 2 indicate that they hadsubstantially different behavioralresponses. For the most part, rat 1pressed the left and right levers equallyduring the early phases of theexperiment when these two leverswere governed by equal reinforcementschedules. Shortly after the left leverwent to a VI 600 sec schedule and theright lever went to VI 300 sec, rat 1began pressing the right lever morethan the left. These results contrast with those fromrat 2, which showed a preference forthe left lever early in the experiment.Even after the reinforcement schedulechanged to VI 600 sec on the left andVI 300 sec on the right, rat 2 continuedpressing the left lever more than theright, even though it only providedfood half as often as the right lever.

0 2500500075001000012500TIME (MIN)

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

CU

MU

LAT

IVE

RE

SP

ON

SE

S

RIGHT (thin line)LEFT (thick line)

6060

300300

450450

600300

Figure 1: Cumulative response data fromboth levers for rat 1 over the course of theexperiment. Schedules of reinforcement areindicated for each lever along the top axisso that the top and bottom numbers repre-sent VI schedules (in seconds) for the leftand right levers, respectively. NOTE: Bothlevers used identical schedules until the lastphase, during which the left lever took on aVI 600 sec schedule and the right took on aVI 300 sec schedule.

0 2500500075001000012500TIME (MIN)

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

CU

MU

LAT

IVE

RE

SP

ON

SE

S

RIGHT (thin line)LEFT (thick line)

6060

300300

450450

600300

Figure 2: Cumulative response data fromboth levers for rat 2 over the course of theexperiment. For other details, see Figure 1.

analyze

confidence

hypothesis

major

study

ITE

M

1 2 3 4 5MEAN RATING

Figure 3: Mean student ratings for fiveevaluation items, each assessing adifferent type of educational impact.Each mean score is presented in thecontext of its 95% confidence interval.

Discussion Overall, this online collaboration hasprovided some of the necessaryingredients for quality research. Thestudents rated the project highly on itsability to help them test hypothesesand analyze data, two essential aspectsof empirical research.

Online Psychology continues on page 5

Online Psychology, from page 358 who participated) were compiledand analyzed using SYSTAT™.


5

The behavioral data collected during this project (as seenin Figures 1 and 2) show that rats can exhibit very differentforms of behavior, even when surrounded by the sameenvironmental conditions. These data could be analyzedon many different levels depending on the abilities andinterests of the students. Beginning students should easilybe able to recognize the visual patterns of behavior andmake general comparisons between the animals. Advancedstudents can analyze the data more closely by usingdescriptive and inferential statistics to quantify thedifferences between the two animals. The online collaboratories described here have thepotential to alleviate some problems that currently plaguesecondary psychology classrooms: teacher isolation, a lackof collaboration between high schools and colleges, anddifficulties that students face in the transition to college.During this experiment, professors from Bethel Collegeconversed via e-mail with both high school teachers andstudents. As seen in their ratings, students felt that thisexperience helped them to better understand whatscientists study. In the future, video conferencing, internetchat, field trips to the College, and undergraduatepresentations in the high school could provide additionalways to share ideas between institutions. In many ways this project is still in its infancy, and we lookforward to considerable growth of the project in the future. Thisonline collaboratory may serve as an example to othereducational institutions as well. Many opportunities wouldbe opened for high school students and teachers if more collegesand universities provided this type of project. Behaviorallearning research offers many possible experiments in operantconditioning, and other areas (e.g., involving humanparticipants) may be feasible in the future as well. The participation of high school students in this project hasbeen limited to Kansas so far, but we seek a broader audienceacross the nation as awareness of the project spreads. Highschools in more isolated geographic areas could be empowered

through collaboration with college faculty and students, nomatter how many miles separate them. Meaningful interactionsamong high school classes around the country are also possible.Students would profit tremendously from sharing thoughts andopinions with students from other geographical parts of thecountry. Perhaps highly motivated high school students couldeven be given more control to manipulate and design newexperiments online. Overall, the possibilities of online psychology collaboratoriesare very exciting. Along with other innovative uses oftechnology, these research projects have a tremendous potentialto bring high levels of empirical research into secondaryclassrooms. As more collaborations of this type becomeavailable, high school students from around the country willhave the opportunity to build a more empirically basedfoundation of psychology. We are optimistic that onlinecollaborative experiments will have substantial benefit for highschool teachers and students of psychology in the years to come.

ReferencesAscher, C., & Schwartz, W. (1989). School-college alliances: Benefits for low-income minorities. (ERIC/CUE Digest No. 53). New York, NY: ERICClearinghouse on Urban Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED 308 277)

Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind,experience, and school: Expanded edition. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Brewer, C. L. (1997). Undergraduate education in psychology: Will the mermaids sing?American Psychologist, 52, 434-441.

Brewer, C. L. (Ed.). (1999). National standards for the teaching of high schoolpsychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Cushman, K. (1994). Technology in the essential school: Making change in theinformation age. Horace. Vol. 10, No. 3. Retrieved August 14, 2002 from http://ces.edgateway.net/cs/resources/view/ces_res/143.

DiMauro, V. & Gal, S. (1994). The use of telecommunications for reflective discourse ofscience teacher leaders. Journal of Science Education and Technology, Vol. 3, No. 2.Retrieved August 14, 2002 from http://www.terc.edu/papers/labnet/Articles/Reflective/reflective.html.

Olson, S. & Loucks-Horsley, S. (2000). Inquiry and the national science educationstandards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Online Psychology, from page 4

APA Office of Precollege and Undergraduate Education Welcomes New Director

Maureen McCarthy, PhD, an associate professorof psychology at Austin Peay State University, hasjoined APA as the new Director of Precollege andUndergraduate Programs. She succeeds formerdirector, Barney Beins, PhD, who resumed his postas professor of psychology at Ithaca College lastfall. Dr. McCarthy has expertise in psychometrics, as-sessment, and research methods, and alongstanding commitment to education in psychol-ogy. She has been active in the Psychology Part-nerships Project and a leader in APA’s Division 2(Society for the Teaching of Psychology). Dr. McCarthy helpedorganize the APA/Division 2 Undergraduate DepartmentalConsulting Service as well as the “Measuring Up: Best Prac-tices in Assessment in Psychology Education,” conference, thefirst national conference on assessment in psychology, held lastfall.

In her new role, Dr. McCarthy will have a chanceto make a significant impact on psychology throughAPA’s outreach to psychology teachers at all levels.Dr. McCarthy will coordinate teaching workshops,represent APA’s Education Directorate and the Of-fice of Precollege and Undergraduate Programs atpsychology meetings, and work with the higher edu-cation community to enhance and innovate the psy-chology curriculum. “Her expertise in assessment of undergraduate de-partments, her considerable work with the Societyfor the Teaching of Psychology, and her experience

at two- and four-year institutions and with high school teach-ers give her a unique perspective that will permit her to con-tinue the momentum already created in this department,” saysBeins. If you wish to contact Dr. McCarthy, her e-mail address [email protected].

For inquiries on this article, please contact David Stigge-Kaufman at [email protected].


6

Human Factors/Ergonomics:How Can It Influence Your Students?

Ronald G. Shapiro, PhDIBM Technical Learning Curriculum, Poughkeepsie, NY

An introductory psychology course usually includesinformation about classical psychological topics. Brief mentionis sometimes given to Human Factors or Ergonomics whichdeals with how people function as part of a system (e.g., anair traffic controller governing our nation’s aviation, aphysician performing surgery in a modern operating room, anuclear power plant operator governing the generation ofelectric power, a computer programmer improving code sothat a computer will run more efficiently, or a consumer usinga telephone or the Internet to find important information). Indeed, some students may graduate from high school andnot recognize that Human Factors is a part of psychology.Similarly, the students’ parents and teachers may not realizethis gap in the educational process. Neither the students, theirfamily members, nor their educators may realize how muchtheir lives might be affected by good and bad human factors.Thus, they may be willing to accept that they have an inabilityto use a computer or a VCR or a new telephone system when,in reality, the system is poorly designed. As a matter of fact,the students and their families are influenced by good or badhuman factors design thousands of times every year. Thefollowing scenarios illustrate practical applications of humanfactors.

The Influence of Human Factors The alarm clock rings at 6:30 in the morning. Our student,Susan, decides that 15 minutes more sleep is desirable, so shepresses the snooze button. By mistake Susan turns the alarmoff and oversleeps. Why? Is Susan incompetent or is it justtoo easy for a sleepy student to press the wrong button on theclock? Due to bad product design or bad human factors, Susanis about to miss an important exam. Fortunately, the backupsystem, Mom and Dad, are there to wake Susan so she won’tmiss her exam and, this afternoon Mom is going to the storeto buy Susan a second alarm clock. This clock will bepositioned on the dresser so that Susan cannot turn it offwithout getting out of bed. Thus, Susan and family arecompensating for poor product design. A great alarm clockcould have been designed to allow Susan to easily press thesnooze button, but would make it more difficult to accidentallyturn the clock off. A good human factors professional wouldhave the knowledge to design a teen-proof clock in which it iseasy to do the appropriate activity and more difficult to do“typically undesired” activity. Now that Susan is 15 minutes late, her father has taken hercar to work since it was the last car parked in the driveway, soSusan needs to drive his car. She turns on both the lights andthe wipers, since it is raining. The rain stops and she attemptsto turn off the wipers, but instead finds herself in the dark,since she turns off the lights instead. Susan is distracted bythe absence of lights on a dark morning with wet roads. Thisdistraction nearly leads to a collision. Some people mightattribute this incident to “operator error” or “driver error.” Ahuman factors practitioner might, more accurately, attributethis incident to “poor design compatibility” or “design error,”since, the two car makers have their lights and wipers in

different positions which was the real cause of this incident.Fortunately, the location of the brake and the gas pedals arestandardized! Upon arrival at school Susan is a bit late. She rushes up thestairs and trips. Feeling a bit rushed and clumsy, she tells herpsychology teacher, Ms. Wise, about the day’s experience. Ms.Wise asked “Do you think there could be something wrongwith the stairs?” At first Susan said no, but then Ms. Wisetold her to watch the stairwell for about half an hour and recordthe number of people that came close to tripping on that stepversus all of the other steps. Susan did this exercise anddiscovered more people tripped on her step. Then Ms. Wisetold Susan to figure out why. Susan decided to measure all ofthe steps in the stairwell. She noticed that “her” step had arise about half an inch different than all of the other steps.When the building was designed the builders decided to“cheat a bit” rather than redesigning the entire stairwell. Theythought no one would be hurt by a small change in height.So, the trip was the fault of the stair designer, not Susan’s!The stairs are an example of poor human factors at work. Susan is now in school. We have seen that bad humanfactors design nearly caused her to miss an exam, have anautomobile accident, and a personal injury. We will now seehow less than ideal human factors delayed one of her classes,helped to provide the content for another class, and causedprofessional drivers, power plant operators, and medicalprofessionals to have accidents and what is now being doneto prevent these incidents in the future. We will also see howgood Human Factors makes using the Internet easier and morefun. We will conclude by discussing human factors as aprofession and ways to include it in the high schoolcurriculum. Let us now rejoin Susan on her way to historyclass. The history teacher is attempting to project some artifactsfrom the museum web site onto a screen for all to see. Theprojection device being used is a new one, and it is taking the

Dr. John Ruffner (first person on left), President of the PotomacChapter of HFES, and Dr. Shapiro (last person on right), picturedwith students and HFES staff.Human Factors continues on page 7


7

history teacher about 10 minutes to obtain the image. It took9 minutes too long to get started. Clearly, the Human Factorsdesign of the projector is not a good one. Next, Susan’s physics class is going to a power plant for afield trip. An older style school bus has just pulled up to thecurb to take Susan’s class on the field trip. Susan notices thebus has the engine up front. The driver apologizes for beinglate, but he says taking the morning kindergarten childrenhome took a bit longer than expected. Susan is one of the firstto get on the school bus and sits up front. When she sits down,Susan notices that she can not see the road right in front of thebus. Susan asks the driver “How do you see the little childrenin front of the bus when they cross?” He explains that hecannot see them if they get too close. Indeed, he cites severalaccidents in which the school bus actually bumps into childrenwho got off of the bus, cross the street, and run back for somepapers. That, he explains, is the reason why the bus has agate that comes out from the bumper when the bus stops torelease children. The gate discourages children from gettingtoo close to the front of the bus. In addition, children aretaught never to come back to the front of the bus after theycross if they drop something. The driver also explains thatthe addition of the STOP sign to the side of the school bus wasmade about 20 years ago to discourage motorists from passinga stopped school bus. The driver explains that Human Factorsprofessionals actually were involved in studying school bussafety and the effectiveness of the signs and lights and theydesigned an advertising campaign to encourage compliancewith school bus laws. Once in the power plant, the operator shows Susan’s classa photograph of some of the earlier control rooms as well astoday’s room. She notices that in the early photograph thereare some beer cans on top of the control handles. She askswhy. The operator explains that in the early days the handlesall looked the same. The operators needed an easy way todifferentiate one type of control from another so that theyplaced a different beer can on each control, and actuallyreferred to the controls by the name of the beer. Today, thehuman factors team has designed better controls. Susan asks the operator what had caused accidents at powerplants in the past. He explains that it was the result of humanerror which is sometimes called “operator error.” Often, heexplains, this human error is caused by poor design of thesystem, not by the operator on duty. An operator might, forexample, be told through a signal that an action had beencompleted, for example, a valve was closed, whereas in factall that really happened is that the operator instructed thesystem to close the valve — but the valve may havemalfunctioned and not closed. He explains that in the eventof an emergency, sometimes too much information might comein to be handled by a human. Thus, he explains, today ahuman factors team is involved in determining what messageswill be shown under certain circumstances. A Human Factorsprofessional also participated in designing the operator’straining program to insure that the operator was notoverloaded. After school Susan goes to the hospital where she doesvolunteer work. She asks the nurses if errors are ever madein giving patients the wrong medicine. The nurses reluctantlyanswer yes — this does happen. Susan asks if any HumanFactors studies were done to figure out procedures to reducethese errors. The nurse sends her to the hospital pharmacist,

who explains that studies of medication errors within a HumanFactors framework are just beginning. He refers her to aspecialist who is pioneering some of this work. Susan decides,given her interest in psychology and people, medicine, andher knowledge of technology that she wants to study how toprevent medication errors to save patients’ lives Thus, sheeagerly returns home to search for more information aboutHuman Factors on the web. Fortunately, the web sites were well designed by HumanFactors professionals, so they were easy for her to use. Shequickly finds the web site of the Human Factors andErgonomics Society (WWW.HFES.ORG) which provides herwith some great basic information about Human Factors andErgonomics, which might, one day, become her career. Shethen calls upon some human factors specialists and she findsthat:� Human Factors and Ergonomics is the design andtesting of systems so that they will be safe, easy (and perhapsfun) for people to use.� Psychologists, because they understand people, areable to define what the person can do — and what the systemmust do to optimize safety as well as the human resourcesrequired to perform a task.� Human Factors and Ergonomics are essentially thesame discipline. The term Human Factors originated in theUS, and the term Ergonomics originated in Europe.� Human Factors Psychology is a great career forindividuals interested in people as well as technology, becausepsychologists design and test systems and products based onwhat people need, want, and can use. It is possible, forexample, because of the multidisciplinary nature of the field,to be working on the design of airplanes, possibly even thespace shuttle, consumer products, automobiles, medicalequipment, and computers all in a single career!� Typically a Human Factors professional will have aBA or BS degree in Psychology or Industrial Engineering anda MA, MS, or PhD in Engineering, Experimental Psychology,or Human Factors. Some Human Factors professionals mayhave degrees in medicine (MD) or law (JD).� It is best for a human factors professional to studytechnology as well as psychology in college.� A future engineer, designer, or scientist will benefitfrom at least studying an introduction to human factors tobetter design and to know when to call the experts.� A consumer will make better purchasing decisions ifthey understand human factors.� October is National Ergonomics Month.

� The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society consistsof a group of professionals with an interest in psychology andone or more of the following technical interests:� Aerospace Systems

� Aging

� Cognitive Engineering & Decision Making

� Communications

� Computer Systems

� Consumer Products

� Education

Human Factors, from page 6

Human Factors continues on page 8


8

breadth of the human factors field and the tiny reference tohuman factors in typical high school psychology textbooks.Nonetheless, human factors does integrate well into thestandards for teaching high school psychology. Examplediscussion topics and questions for several of theperformance standards (in italics) follow:

Standard Area: Sensation and Perception:� 1.2 Describe the operation of sensory systems. Studentscan discuss and explain how one would design equipment,optimizing the strengths of the sensory systems andcompensating for the weaknesses.� 1.4 Relate knowledge of sensory processes to applicationsin areas such as engineering psychology, advertising, music,architecture, and so on. Students can discuss current productsand systems and how they take advantage of the visualsystem and how they can be improved. For example, arered or yellow-green fire trucks better?� 2.2 Describe binocular and monocular depth cues.Discuss the appropriate design of computer displays so thata system can be visualized. Perhaps, read some of themedical literature on how physicians can get lost whiledoing endoscopic procedures. How can the displays beimproved?� 3.2 Describe how attention differs for demanding versussimple tasks. Discuss how people can and cannot multitask.Do a task flow diagram on how a person can actuallyperform in a complex system, such as driving a car.

Standard Area: Learning:� 3.1 Describe the operant conditioning paradigm.Discuss how people learn to use computer programs. Wheredoes conditioning take place?� 4.2 Describe cognitive learning approaches. Explainhow to best design learning modules, help panels, and othertypes of computer learning. When is computer learningbetter? When is classroom learning better?

Standard Area: Memory:� 2.1 Describe the operation of short-term memory.Discuss how to optimize a system to complement thelimitations of short term memory.� 2.2 Describe the operation of long-term memory.Discuss how to optimize a system to reduce recall errors.� 3.2 Explain the role that interference plays in retrieval.Discuss how to minimize interference.

Standard Area: Thinking:� 2.3 Analyze the obstacles that inhibit problem solvingand decision making. How does one design systems toencourage, not inhibit problem solving? How do youprepare people to be able to solve problems optimally undercrisis conditions? How well do decision-making modelsdescribe your behavior/experience in retail environments?How well do the models describe your shopping/buyingbehaviors and experiences on the internet? What else mightbe going on in these experiences?


� Environmental Design

� Forensics Professional

� Individual Differences in Performance

� Industrial Ergonomics

� Internet

� Medical Systems and Rehabilitation

� Macro ergonomics

� Perception and Performance

� Safety

� Surface Transportation

� System Development

� Test and Evaluation

� Training

� Virtual Environments

The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society (HFES)typically invites a select number of high school teachers andstudents to its annual meeting. The 2002 annual meeting inBaltimore, MD was attended by psychology teachers NancyKreloff, Faye Johnson, and Geri Acquard, and studentsRebecca Dreifuss, Amanda Shapin, and Jess Engenbretsen.Teacher Geri Acquard indicated that she was truly impressedwith the program. Nancy Kreloff indicated that the conferencehad been most worthwhile and recommends that teachers andstudents attend the HFES meeting in the future. JessEngenbretsen said, “I am mostly interested in psychology andthe people, rather than the machines, but today‘s visit [to theHFES annual meeting] has shown me how important theinteraction is.” Amanda Shapin indicated that she reallyenjoyed the presentations, became really excited about humanfactors, and even edited some of her college essays to indicatethis interest. (Teachers interested in being invited to the HFES2003 meeting in Denver, Colorado or the 2004 meeting in NewOrleans, Louisiana should send a note to the author of thisarticle at [email protected].)

Upon completing her web search and interviews, Susanreceives an evening telephone call from her brother, Bill, whois in the Army. During the conversation she mentions hernew found interest in Human Factors. Bill responds that hehad just finished meeting with some Human Factorsprofessionals who were working on making equipment saferand easier to use. He mentions that the Human Factorsprofessionals observed him at work and prepared a detailedworkflow analysis showing exactly what he and his colleaguesdid at every second. They also asked him to test someprototype equipment and observed in great detail how he usedthis equipment as opposed to the equipment he normally uses.

Recommendations For Teachers Teaching human factors is consistent with the NationalStandards for the Teaching of High School Psychology, althoughNancy Kreloff points out that there is a disparity between the Human Factors continues on page 9


9

Standard Area: Social and CulturalDimensions of Behavior:� 3.2 Describe how social structurecan affect intergroup relations. How doestechnology (such as a virtual classroomor virtual meeting room) help or hurt theability of people to build relationshipsand work together to get things done asteams?

For additional resources, teachers maywish to:�Check the HFES web site over thesummer to see what additional HFactivities may be available to you inOctober for National Ergonomics Month.� Read the following articles in Teachingof Psychology which promote HF thinkingand provide a strong argument for thenecessity of this type of education.

� Carkenord, D. M. (1994).Promoting human factors psychologythinking through design assignments.Teaching of Psychology, 21, 235-237.

� Stone, N. J. & Moroney, W. F.

(1998). Teaching undergraduate humanfactors: The need, activities, andbenefits. Teaching of Psychology, 25, 185-189.� Encourage students who areresidents of Maryland to apply foradmission to Maryland MESA’ssummer camp for Maryland residents.If interested in applying to this campcontact HFES Diversity Chair, V.Grayson Cuqlock-Knopp by e-mail([email protected]).�Consider attending the followingsessions at the Eastern PsychologicalAssociation meeting in Baltimore(March 13-16, 2003): Games To ExplainHuman Factors and Preparing For YourCareer With A Psychology Degree.�Consider inviting a Human FactorsPractitioner to address your state orregional psychology conference oryour classes. You may try to locate anHF professional by contacting theofficers of a local HFES chapter, anHFES student chapter or a universitydepartment with a HF program your

area. These organizations may be foundthrough the HFES web site(WWW.HFES.ORG). If there are no suchorganizations in your area, you maycontact the HFES central office throughthe web site or the author of this articlefor further help.

Summary As a result of our better understandingour human capabilities and limitations,and demanding that productmanufacturers do the same, our societywill be safer. We will be more efficient,and will have more fun! Enjoy teachingHuman Factors as part of yourpsychology course. Let me know if I canhelp.

AcknowledgmentsI would like to thank Arnold M. Lund, HaydeeM. Cuevas, Elizabeth B.-N. Sanders, RobMcEntarffer, Jean E. Fox, Mark Sortino,Geraldine Acquard, V. Grayson Cuqlock-Knopp, John Gosbee, and Raquel Shapiro forhelpful comments and suggestions whichimproved the overall quality of this article.

Editorials and Newsletters as Teaching ToolsWayne Viney, PhDColorado State University, Fort Collins, CO

The growth in size of university classespresents a persistent challenge to exploremethods that engage students moreactively in the learning process. Studenteditorials and class newsletters arepromising pedagogical techniques thatencourage higher levels of studentinvolvement in the classroom and deeperand more critical interaction with text andlecture materials. We tested editorial andnewsletter techniques in courses in thehistory of psychology which you caneasily adapt to almost any course. Wediscuss the value of editorials andnewsletters as teaching tools, follow itwith a description of ways to use thesetechniques in the learning environment,and provide a summary of studentreactions.

The Value of Editorials and Newsletters Many pioneering psychologists (e.g.,Alfred Binet, G. Stanley Hall, WilliamJames, John B. Watson, and WilhelmWundt) considered it their duty toeducate the public at large as well astheir students (see Benjamin, 1986;Fried, 1994; Leary, 1987; Viney, Michaels& Ganong, 1980; Viney, Michaels &Ganong, 1981). Early pioneers inpsychology often spoke to the publicthrough descriptive and evaluativearticles published in general culturaland popular family magazines. Theactive involvement of earlypsychologists in sharing and sellingpsychology to the larger public throughinformal non-technical articles mayhave helped create a climate of opinionthat was receptive to the new discipline.

If the public is to understand psychologyand we are to promote it on a larger scale,it is important that there be continuingmeaningful communication withlawmakers, social institutions, and thegeneral public. A central feature of educating studentsis to teach them to write for professional,technical, and scientific outlets. However,such teaching may encourage anunfortunate insularity unless it iscomplemented by an emphasis on theimportance of sharing ideas andopinions with larger audiences in lessformal media. To develop skillsrequired for communicating in lessformal media, students can have theoption of writing short opinion papers

William Douglas Woody, PhDUniversity of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO


Editorials and Newsletters continues on page 10


10

(editorials) for class credit. Theconcept of asking students to expresstheir ideas about a topic and thenpresenting their opinions to the class is nota novel idea. Waller (1994), for example,encouraged students to write microthemesexpressing their opinions on variousdichotomies in psychology (e.g., nature/nurture and free will/determinism). Theprimary difference between Waller ’smethods and the methods describedbelow is that students write editorials ona broad range of topics that they selectfrom course materials. Further, studenteditorials can be read to the class and/orpublished (with the student’s permission)in a more formal class newsletter. Theclass newsletter serves several additionalfunctions to be described below. Student editorials help promoteawareness of the range of opinions ontopics, and they stimulate strongerinvolvement of students with each otherand with course materials. Editorials canbe rewarded regardless of whether theysupport or challenge the views expressedin course reading materials. Instructorsmay write comments on student papers,so the editorials present students withopportunities for private written dialoguewith the instructor. Additionally,editorials can provide a safe andcomfortable outlet that encouragesexploration of ideas and presentation ofthose ideas, with permission, in a smallpublic forum. When students know thattheir thoughts do matter, that they areimportant enough to be shared and aretaken seriously by the instructor and theclass, students gain confidence. Suchconfidence promotes intellectual freedomand individuality--traits that are highlydesirable in an academic community. Class newsletters can convey informationon a wide variety of topics and greatlyenhance communication between studentsand the instructor. Newsletters maycontain practical information such asexamination dates, syllabus additions, andother business matters but they may alsoinclude substantive materials such aseditorials, sample examination questions,suggested readings, and outlines ofmaterial to be included on examinations.They also foster student interest whenthey include humorous materials, trivia,or birthdays of field leaders. Newsletterspresent an important means for engagingstudents in a course, and they are easilyadapted to course content and are thusvaluable as sources for supplementing and

amplifying material from textbooks andlectures.

Implementing the Editorial and Newsletterin the Classroom We pilot tested editorials andnewsletters in classes in the history ofpsychology at large westernuniversities. In these classes, a student’stotal grade for the class was comprisedof major examination scores, quizscores, and scores on written projects.Editorials were among the options forpossible written projects. The range ofprojects, along with a flexible timeschedule for their completion, allowedstudents to work at their own pace.Students were told they could writeeditorials on any topic that was coveredin the text or lecture. In these particularclasses, students were encouraged toapply, analyze, synthesize, and evaluateideas from a range of topics (e.g., thefree will/determinism issue, thequestion of whether there is a patternin history, the treatment of women inthe Renaissance, and reactions to thetheories of Sigmund Freud; see Bloom,et al., 1956; Gronlund, 2000; McKeachie,2002). Initially, one had to limit thelength of editorials to 350 words, butthis criterion met with little success asstudents insisted on deeper and morelengthy treatments of topics. Students also had opportunities fortheir editorials to be read aloud in class.After obtaining permission from thestudent, we read editorials withoutcritical comment and discussed oredited and printed it in the classnewsletter (see below)1. Publicdiscussion of editorials and thepublishing of editorials in the classnewsletter introduced students to theideas of their peers. Students thusreceived the benefit of criticisms andcomments voiced by their peers. Suchexchanges foster an intellectually openenvironment.

Using newsletters In the Spring 1994 class in the historyof psychology at Colorado StateUniversity, newsletters were regularlyprepared and distributed to studentsprior to each of the four majorexaminations. Newsletters employed inthe aforementioned course includedmaterials on important dates (c.f. Street,1994) in the history of psychology (e.g.,birth and death dates of famouspsychologists, publication dates of

classic works in Psychology), studyquestions for upcoming examinations,announcements, and student editorials2.Again, written permission was obtainedfrom each student prior to printing thatstudent’s editorial. The student was alsogiven the choice of whether his or hername would be attached to the editorial.

Student Reactions to Editorials andNewsletters Student reactions to editorials andnewsletters were assessed. Of 60students, 36 wrote at least one editorial,and 25 of these students wrote more thanone. A 7-point Likert scale, ranging fromone (Strongly Disagree) to seven(Strongly Agree) was used to evaluatestudent opinions of these exercises.Questions concerning editorials includedsuch items as “I enjoyed writingeditorials,” “It feels safe to write editorialsthat disagree with the opinions of theinstructor,” and “The editorial is a goodtool to encourage diversity of opinion.”Those who had written an editorial foundit to be an enjoyable experience (M = 5.84,SD = 1.36). Further, the editorial was acomfortable way to disagree with theinstructor (M = 6.51, SD = .80). Theeditorial also promoted a diversity ofopinions (M = 5.7, SD = .61) and openedup new avenues for student expression(M = 6.63, SD = .58). When asked if weshould include the editorial option inother classes in Psychology, the responsewas positive (M = 6.5, SD = .95). Newsletters generated similar positivestudent feedback. Eighty-three percentof the students reported reading most orall of the newsletters. Students found thenewsletters to be interesting (M = 5.58,SD = .62) and helpful in preparing for theexaminations (M = 5.28, SD = 1.03).Overall attitude toward newsletters waspositive (M = 5.77, SD = .77)3.

Discussion There are numerous variations for theadministration of editorials andnewsletters in classroom settings.Indeed, one possibility is to encouragestudents to be in charge of theadministrative work and production of anewsletter. Based on the feedbackconcerning these teaching tools, theoverall student reaction is likely to bevery positive. Furthermore, such toolswill promote a deeper involvement with

Editorials and Newsletters, from page 9

Editorials and Newsletters continues on page 11


11

text and lecture materials by creating a safeforum for the expression of opinion.Student enthusiasm for these activitiesand increased student involvement in thecourse are more than adequatecompensation for the extra work involvedin employing these techniques.

ReferencesBenjamin Jr., L. T. (1986). Why don’t theyunderstand us? A history of psychology’spublic image. American Psychologist, 41,941-946.

Bloom, B. S., Englehart, M. B., Furst, E. J.,Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956)Taxonomy of educational objectives,handbook I: cognitive domain. New York,NY: McKay.

Fried, S. B. (1994). American popularpsychology: An interdisciplinary researchguide. Garland Publishing Inc.: New Yorkand London.

Gronlund, N. E. (2000) How to write and useinstructional objectives (6th ed.). Columbus,OH: Merrill.

Leary, D. E. (1987). Telling likely stories: Therhetoric of the new psychology, 1880-1920.Journal of the History of the BehavioralSciences, 23, 315-331.

McKeachie, W. J. (2002) Teaching tips:strategies research and theory for collegeand university teachers (11th ed.) Boston,MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Street, W. R. (1994). A chronologyof noteworthy events in Americanpsychology. Washington, DC:American PsychologicalAssociation.

Viney, W., Michaels, T., & Ganong,A. (1980). An annotatedbibliography of psychologicalarticles in selected culturalmagazines. JSAS Catalog ofSelected Documents inPsychology, 10, No. 3, 56, (Ms No.2096).

Viney, W., Michaels, T., & Ganong,A. (1981). A note on the history ofpsychology in magazines. Journalof the History of the BehavioralSciences, 17, 270-272.

Waller, J. E. (1994). Philosophiesof psychology: A discoveryprocess for undergraduates.Teaching of Psychology, 21, 33-35.

Author notes1. For reprints, please contact WayneViney, Department of Psychology,Colorado State University, Fort Collins,CO 80523; electronic mail:[email protected].

2. Contact the senior author for anexample of a newsletter employed in acourse in the history of Psychology.

3. Complete tabular information forquestionnaire results are availablefrom the senior author.

Editorials and Newsletters, from page 10

Community College Teacher Affiliates Join APA During its 2002 legislative year,APA’s Council of Representativesapproved a proposed bylawamendment to create a new affiliatemembership category for Two-YearCollege Teacher Affiliates. InDecember, APA members acceptedthe bylaw amendment with 11,643votes to approve (87.64%).

According to Bylaw Article II,Membership, Section 15,

There shall be a classo f Two-Year CollegeTeacher Affiliates whoare not Members ofthe Association andwho shall not

representthemselves as such.They shall havesuch privileges asmay be granted byCouncil, including

special rates forsubscriptions andpublications.

The new affiliate category takeseffect in January 2003 andapplications are available from theAPA Membership Office(www.apa.org/membership) .Please pass this information on toyour community college facultycolleagues who may wish to takeadvantage of the opportunity tobecome Community CollegeTeacher Affiliates. Visit the PT@CCWeb site for further details:http://www.ptatcc.org.

APF/TOPSS Scholars MeetDr. Phil Zimbardo

At the 110th APA Convention in Chicago, IL,two winners of the 2002 APF/TOPSS Scholarscompetition, Gretchen Sisson and Bryan Read,had the unique opportunity of meeting with Dr.Phil Zimbardo, the 2002 APA President. Sissonand Read were among two of three high schoolstudents recognized for submitting the top threewinning papers for the APF/TOPSS ScholarsCompetition. In addition to scholarships of$1,000 each, both students were awardedtravel expenses to participate at the APAConvention in Chicago last August. Accompa-nied by their mothers, Sisson and Readattended numerous convention sessions andprograms. One of their convention highlightswas meeting with Dr. Zimbardo. Sisson iscurrently a freshman at Amherst College inMassachusetts, and Read is in his first year atHofstra University in New York. (David Miller, afreshman at Duke University, was one of the2002 APF/TOPSS Scholars but was unable toattend the APA Convention due to a mandatoryorientation at Duke.) Pictured above (left to right) are: Craig Gruber(2001 Chair, TOPSS Executive Committee);Deb Park (Chair-elect, TOPSS ExecutiveCommittee); Gretchen Sisson; Dr. PhilZimbardo; Bryan Read; and Rob McEntarffer(Past-Chair, TOPSS Executive Committee).


12

· Professional affiliation(s) of author(s)· In–text citation of references· A reference list or bibliography· The original source of the article if it is published elsewhere, especially peer reviewed journals· An organized method of presentation· Collaborative studies with more than one authorThe criteria were organized on a worksheet and included thequestion “Would you use this article as a source for a collegepaper, and why?” The students received this worksheet infreshman general psychology courses using several differentmethods. We used this worksheet as a learning tool and classassignment by giving students an inferior internet article (onhow women can avoid and prevent rape) and asked them toread and critique it. Following their informal critique weintroduced the criteria, gave examples and reasons, and thenasked them to reevaluate their judgement of the article. Thisassignment made an impression on the students and theyseemed to remember the basic issues for the next exam.However, it was unclear whether students would be able toapply the criteria to their own searches for reliable informationfrom the Internet. Another version of this assignment results in moregeneralized learning for students, but also involves more

ReferencesAPA (2001). Publication manual of the American PsychologicalAssociation (5th edition). APA: Washington D.C.

Burris, J. K. & Becker, S. E. (2002). Teaching introductorypsychology students to critically assess Internet resources. Posterpresented at the annual meeting of the Rocky MountainPsychological Association, April 6, 2002.

Goldsborough, R. (1999) Information on the Net often needschecking, RN, 62, 22-24

Leckie, G.J. (1996) Desperately seeking citations: Uncoveringfaculty assumptions about the undergraduate research process,Journal of Academic Librarianship, 22, 201-209.

Richmond, B. (2001) Ten c’s for evaluating internet sources,Retrieved January 7, 2002, from University of Wisconsin- EauClaire McIntyre Library Web site: www.uwec.edu/library/guides/tencs.html.

VanFossen, P.J. & Shiveley, J.M. (1999) Critical thinking and theInternet: Opportunities for the social studies classroom, The SocialStudies, 90, 42-46.

Teaching Introductory Psychology Studentsto Think Critically About Internet Resources

Dr. Susan E. Becker and Janet K. BurrisMesa State College, Grand Junction, Colorado

With the expansion of the Internet and individual connectionwith it, many changes have occurred in the way that collegestudents acquire information for research papers. It hasbecome a very popular tool for students seeking current, upto the minute information. While there is an unlimited and widely varied amount ofinformation available to students, these resources tend to beof very mixed quality, ranging from high quality on-linejournals to poor quality advertising sites with plagiarizeddiagnostic criteria (Goldsborough, 1999). Faculty have many concerns about students’ reliance on theInternet, not the least of which is the students’ inability tojudge the quality of such Internet resources (Leckie, 1996).Although libraries offer links to academic resources, studentsoften fail to recognize the difference between academic andother less reliable sources. This concern has prompted us todevelop a set of criteria that we could present to students foruse as a guide to selecting higher quality sources ofinformation. We used several sources to develop the set of criteria,including the APA Publication Manual (2001) and the “10 C’s”website (Richmond, 2001). We decided on a list of 7 criteriathat would increase the likelihood that students would selecta more reliable source. These criteria would also increase thelikelihood that students would select on-line journal articlesover unsubstantiated websites. Some of these criteria seemquite obvious, but our experience with first year collegestudents suggests that they are often not aware of the needfor these criteria to be met. These criteria are:· Name of author(s)

grading time on the part of the instructor. We presented thecriteria to the students and gave an assignment to find theirown Internet article using the criteria. The studentsevaluated the article they had selected and made a judgmentabout its use as a resource. We subsequently collected andassessed both the articles and the response sheets for thequality of students’ choices. We found this method to beuseful in helping students apply the criteria more directlyto the search for sources for college assignments. Students who received the evaluative criteria showed anincreased awareness of the differences between the varioustypes of resources available on the Internet. Though theydidn’t always make decisions we agreed with, they did makebetter choices after being presented with the criteria (Burris& Becker, 2002). We hoped that students could apply thesecriteria in future classes, and we have observed that theytend to make better choices of sources for subsequent papers. This class assignment can be considered a learned evaluationskill. College freshmen may or may not have had experiencewith evaluation skills in secondary education, so it isimportant that such skills be presented in the introductorycourses in higher education (VanFossen & Shiveley, 1999).Taking the time, both in class and for grading can beintimidating in larger introductory courses, but students seemto benefit greatly from the expanded assignment when theyhave to apply what they have learned outside of class. Iftime is taken at the beginning of college to assist students inmaking better choices in their search for paper resources, theend result will be improved research skills and students willhopefully, be less intimidated by the process.


13

SAVE THESE DATES!

TOPSS Programs2003 APA Convention

Toronto, Ontario, Canada

TOPSS Preconvention Workshopat the Ontario Science CentreWednesday, August 6, 2003Presenters:Rob McEntarfferLincoln Southeast HS, Lincoln, NEJody Meerdink, PhDNebraska Wesleyan University, Lincoln, NE

TOPSS Invited Addresses

Friday, August 8, 2003

10:00 AM to 10:50 AMCoaching and TeachingPositive PsychologyMartin E.P. Seligman, PhDUniv. of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA

11:00 AM to 11:50 AMStrengths of Character:Meaning and MeasurementChristopher Peterson, PhDUniversity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI

12:00 PM to 12:50 PMTeaching Positive Psychology toNinth Graders: The Developmentof a Positive CurriculumKaren Reivich, PhDUniv. of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA

Saturday, August 9, 2003

1:00 PM to 2:50 PMMaking Hope Happenin the ClassroomShane J. Lopez, PhDUniversity of Kansas, Lawrence, KSC.R. Snyder, PhDUniversity of Kansas, Lawrence, KS

For more information, please contactMayella Valero at [email protected].

G. Stanley Hall /Harry Kirke WolfeLectures

American Psychological AssociationConvention

Toronto, Ontario, CanadaAugust 7-10, 2003

G. Stanley Hall Lectures

Thursday, August 7

9:00-9:50 amTiffany M. Field, PhDUniversity of Miami School of MedicineTouch Therapy Research

Chair: Ann Lynn, PhD, Ithaca College

10:00-10:50 amC. R. Snyder, PhDUniversity of Kansas, LawrenceQuestioning Hope and Finding Positive PsychologyAnswersChair: Peter Salovey, PhD, Yale University

Saturday, August 9

3:00-3:50 pmTimothy D. Wilson, PhDUniversity of VirginiaAffective Forecasting and the Pleasures of UncertaintyChair: Dana Dunn, PhD, Moravian College

Harry Kirke Wolfe Lecture

Saturday, August 94:00-4:50 pmFaye J. Crosby, PhDUniversity of California, Santa CruzTeaching About and Researching Affirmative ActionChair: Norine L. Jalbert, PhD, Western Connecticut State

Learn more about the 2003 G. Stanley Hall/HarryKirke Wolfe Lectures through the Web athttp://www.ithaca.edu/beins/gsh/gsh.htm.

Plan your trip to the 111th Annual Meet-ing of the American Psychological Asso-ciation, and enjoy the sights and soundsof Canada’s magnificent city, Toronto,Ontario. If you are a current member and/or affiliate of APA, details and registrationinformation on the 2003 APA Convention(August 7-10) will be published in theMarch issue of the Monitor. Informationwill also be available on the web athttp://www.apa.org/convention.


14

PT@CC is an acronym for PsychologyTeachers at Community Colleges, a group ofmembers and affiliates of the AmericanPsychological Association that was establishedin 2001 and whose Executive Committee iselected to represent the interests of communitycollege psychology teachers. Members of thePT@CC Executive Committee include AnnEwing, PhD, Chair, Donna Duffy, PhD, RobertJohnson, PhD, Patricia Puccio, EdD, TonjaRinggold, EdD, and Jerry Rudmann, PhD. What Does PT@CC Do?� PT@CC serves the professional needs of

psychology teachers at communitycolleges;

� PT@CC provides a voice for community college teachersin the governance of APA;

� PT@CC supports sessions related to the teaching ofpsychology at national and regional conventions;

� PT@CC conducts surveys that identify the status ofpsychology in community colleges and needs ofcommunity college teachers;

� PT@CC encourages learning of psychology through an

annual “electronic poster” contest andcertificates to recognize outstandingcommunity college students ofpsychology;� PT@CC develops partnershipprojects with Psi Beta (the NationalHonor Society in Psychology forCommunity and Junior Colleges) andSTP (The Society for the Teaching ofPsychology) for the encouragement ofexcellence in teaching and learning ofpsychology; and� PT@CC encourages research in theteaching and learning of psychology

at community colleges. APA encourages its Members, Associates, and Affiliates withan interest in psychology at community colleges to join thePsychology Teachers at Community Colleges (PT@CC). Forfurther information on PT@CC or the new Community CollegeTeacher Affiliate membership category, visit the PT@CC Website at http://www.ptatcc.org/ or contact Martha Boenau inthe APA Education Directorate at [email protected] (1-800-374-2721, ext. 6140).

Psychology Teachers at Community Colleges (PT@CC)

Friday, August 8, 2003

10:00 – 10:50 AMInnovative Community College Teaching MethodsModerator: Tonja Ringgold, EdD, Baltimore City

Community College, Baltimore, MDL. William Cheney, Community College of Rhode IslandIncorporating Interactive Activities into a Career PlanningCourseBeverly Burton, Piedmont Technical CollegeGroups in Cyberspace

11:00 – 11:50 AMThe Last LectureModerator: Patricia Puccio, EdD, College of DuPagePanelists:Jane Halonen, PhD, James Madison UniversityBarney Beins, PhD, Ithaca CollegeDavid Murphy, EdD, Waubonsee Community College

12:00 – 12:50 PMHosting Conferences and Workshops for CommunityCollege Faculty and StudentsModerator: Donna Duffy, PhD, Middlesex Community CollegePanelists:Jerry Rudmann, PhD, Coastline Community CollegePat Puccio, EdD, College of DuPage

PT@CC’s Planned Events at the 2003 APA Convention

Saturday, August 9, 2003

11:00 – 11:50 AMPT@CC Invited AddressModerator: Ann Ewing, PhD, Mesa Community CollegeDiane F. Halpern, PhD, Claremont McKenna CollegeWhat Inquiring Minds Want to Know: Can We TeachThinking?

2:00 – 2:50Using the New Student Outcome Standards in Psychology toImprove Student LearningModerator: Robert Johnson, PhD, Umpqua CommunityCollegePanelists:Jerry Rudmann, PhD, Coastline Community CollegeDonna Duffy, PhD, Middlesex Community College

Other Convention Events

Saturday, August 9, 200312:00 noon – 12:50 pmReception for Diane Halpern

Date and Time PendingConversation Hour in the STP Hospitality Suite

Resources for Community College Teachers

Moderator: Jerry Rudmann, PhD

ANNOUNCEMENTS


15

Perception: The Culture of Scent and Flavors Patrick Mattimore

Former Psychology Teacher at South San Francisco HSSouth San Francisco, California

ConceptThis activity will allow students to recognize that some of oursense preferences are learned, and that not all culturesexperience things the same way.

MaterialsAt least two packs of musk lifesavers that can be purchasedfrom the Australian Catalogue Company (1-800-808-0938;http://www.aussiecatalog.com). Grind lifesavers into fine bits andstore in a plastic bowl.

InstructionsInstruct your students that you are distributing a substance, andthat they are to work individually in identifying the substanceand in guessing how it is used. Ask your students to write theirguesses on a piece of paper. (If you have stored the crushedlifesavers in a dish with a lid or cover, you should remove the lidor cover before passing it around.) It is important that you donot influence your students’ observations, therefore refrain frommaking any comments that could help them in identifying thesubstance. After they have all made their guesses you mightwish to allow them to compare notes in groups of two or more.

DiscussionElicit from students what they think the substance is and howthey reached that observation. Most common guesses are babypowder (based presumably on smell), Pepto Bismol (basedpresumably on appearance), and laundry soap (based on sightand smell). Most students would have based their observationsthrough sight and smell. There is a probability that no one willhave tasted the substance. If none of your students volunteeredthat they did not taste the substance ask why they did not usethat form of inspection. (Perhaps someone might say that it isunwise to put a strange and unfamiliar substance in your mouth.)

Because this will be the first time your students have seenthis novel stimulus, you might point out that the caution withwhich they have perceptually approached this substance mightbe generalized to other novel situations, such as meeting anew person or stepping into a mudbath. Someone may alsoask if the substance is in its “normal” form and you may divulgethat the substance is not in its normal structure. Discuss theimportance of appearance with regard to perceptual recognition.

Before revealing the true identity of the substance, ask yourstudents if they recognize the smell. Although some are familiarwith the scent of musk, it is likely that they might not rememberthat it is musk. In Australia or New Zealand, natives would morelikely identify the musk as a flavor.

Writing ComponentChallenge students to think of other examples of ways in whichculture might alter our perceptions. The examples might involvetaste and smell, but could also involve how we perceive andjudge sounds, the texture of foods or other substances, etc.Ask your students to think of other examples of perception thatmight be less affected by culture.

ACTIVITY

ANNOUNCEMENTS

Funding OpportunitiesAPF Nationwide Psychology Program

To support TOPSS in the development of grassrootsefforts among psychology teachers, the AmericanPsychological Foundation (APF) receives proposals anddistributes modest grants each year through theNationwide Psychology Program. These funds are madeavailable for state-wide initiatives such as mailings,workshops, and institutes that support the formation ofregional networks of psychology teachers. Sendproposals to Mayella Valero, APA Education Directorate,750 First Street, NE, Washington, DC 20002-4242 or byemail to [email protected]. Be sure to include ajustification/rationale for how a specific project would buildlocal networks and enhance high school psychology ona local basis.

TOPSS Workshops at Regional Meetings

TOPSS is sponsoring the following mini-workshops for high schoolteachers at meetings of the Eastern Psychological Association (EPA),Southeastern Psychological Association (SEPA), and Rocky MountainPsychological Association (RMPA). For more information on theprograms listed below and future workshops, please visit the TOPSSwebsite at http://www.apa.org/ed/topsshomepage.html. Or contactMayella Valero at [email protected] (by phone at 1-800-374-2721 ext.3013).

March 14, 2003 – EPA, Omni Hotel, Baltimore, MDBuilding Collaborative Relationships Between High Schools andCommunity Colleges: The MATOP ModelCraig Gruber, Walt Whitman HS, Bethesda, MD; Robin Hailstorks,PhD, Prince George’s Community College, Largo, MD; and TonjaRinggold, EdD, Baltimore City Community College, Baltimore, MD.($20 registration fee for high school teachers — includes access toall EPA sessions. For registration and program information, seehttp://www.easternpsychological.org.)

March 28, 2003 – SEPA, Radisson Hotel, New Orleans, LAIntroducing Students to Psychology: Making the Most Out ofthe High School ClassroomAmy Fineburg, Homewood HS, Birmingham, AL; MarissaSarabando, Memorial HS, McAllen, TX; and Elizabeth Y. Hammer,PhD, Loyola University, New Orleans, LA.($30 registration fee for high school teachers – includes access to allSEPA sessions. For registration and program information, seehttp://www.cas.ucf.edu/sepa.)

April 11, 2003 – RMPA, Sheraton Denver Tech Center, Denver, COTeaching MethodologicallyCharlie Blair-Broeker, Cedar Falls HS, Cedar Falls, IA; and MaureenMcCarthy, PhD, APA, Washington, DC.($35 registration fee for high school teachers – includes RMPAmembership and access to all RMPA sessions. For registration andprogram information, see http://www.rockymountainpsych.org.)

Scholarships and Awards for Students: Call for SubmissionsPlease encourage your students to submit entries for the 2003APF/TOPSScholars Competition and the APF/TOPSS Excellencein High School Student Research Awards. For details, check thefollowing TOPSS web pages:

http://www.apa.org/ed/topsscholar.htmlhttp://www.apa.org/ed/apf_topss.html

Or contact Sherrill Jenkins at [email protected].


16

Psychology Teacher Network is published quarterly by theEducation Directorate of the American PsychologicalAssociation (APA). Subscriptions are free to High SchoolTeacher Affiliates of APA and APA Members, and $15 a yearfor all others. Address editorial correspondence toPsychology Teacher Network, APA Education Directorate,750 First St., NE, Washington, DC 20002-4242; (202) 572-3013. Address inquiries regarding membership or affiliationto the APA Membership Office, at the same address.

Production Editor...................................Mayella Valero [email protected]

Co-Editors..............................................Martha Boenau [email protected] Maureen McCarthy, Ph.D. [email protected]

Consulting Editors:TOPSS....................................................Chuck Schira

[email protected]

[email protected] Johnson, Ph.D. [email protected]

Psychology Teacher NetworkEducation DirectorateAmerican Psychological Association750 First Street, NEWashington, DC 20002-4242

NonprofitUS Postage PaidWashington, DCPermit No. 6348

Visit the PT@CC web site

(www.ptatcc.org) for details

about the 2003 Electronic

Project Contest for community

college psychology students!