Introduction:

Psychometrics is the field of study concerned with the theory and technique of educational and psychological measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and personality traits. The field is primarily concerned with the study of measurement instruments such as questionnaires and tests. It involves two major research tasks, namely: (i) the construction of instruments and procedures for measurement; and (ii) the development and refinement of theoretical approaches to measurement. Those who practice psychometrics are known as psychometrians and whilst they may also be practicing psychologists they are not obliged to be so and could instead be (for example) human resources or learning and development professionals. Either way specific, separate, qualifications in psychometrics are required.

Origins and background

Much of the early theoretical and applied work in psychometrics was undertaken in an attempt to measure intelligence. Francis Galton is often referred to as the father of psychometrics, having devised and included mental tests among his anthropometric measures. However, the origin of psychometrics also has connections to the related field of psychophysics. Two other pioneers of psychometrics obtained PhDs in the Leipzig Psychophysics Laboratory under Wilhelm Wundt; James McKeen Cattell in 1886 and Charles Spearman in 1906. The psychometrician L. L. Thurstone, founder and first President of the Psychometric Society in 1936, developed and applied a theoretical approach to the measurement referred to as the law of comparative judgment, an approach which has close connections to the psychophysical theory developed by Ernst Heinrich Weber and Gustav Fechner. In addition, Spearman and Thurstone both made important contributions to the theory and application of factor analysis, a statistical method that has been developed and used extensively in psychometrics.

More recently, psychometric theory has been applied in the measurement of personality, attitudes and beliefs, academic achievement, and in health-related fields. Measurement of these unobservable phenomena is difficult, and much of the research and accumulated art in this discipline has been developed in an attempt to properly define and quantify such phenomena.

Definition of measurement in the social sciences

The definition of measurement in the social sciences has a long history. A currently widespread definition, proposed by Stanley Smith Stevens (1946), is that measurement is "the assignment of numerals to objects or events according to some rule". This definition was introduced in the paper in which Stevens proposed four levels of measurement.

"Measurement in psychology and physics are in no sense different. Physicists can measure when they can find the operations by which they may meet the necessary criteria; psychologists have but to do the same. They need not worry about the mysterious differences between the meaning of measurement in the two sciences." (Reese, 1943)

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Thematic Apperception Test

The Thematic Apperception Test is an example of a projective test.

Historically, the Thematic Apperception Test or TAT has been among the most widely

used, researched, and taught projective psychological tests. Its adherents claim that it taps

a subject's unconscious to reveal repressed aspects of personality, motives  and  needs 

for achievement, power and intimacy, and problem-solving abilities.

History

TAT was developed by the American psychologists Henry A. Murray and Christiana D.

Morgan at Harvard during the 1930s to explore the underlying dynamics of personality,

such as internal conflicts, dominant drives, interests, and motives.

After World War II, the TAT was adopted more broadly by  psychoanalysts  and 

clinicians to evaluate emotionally disturbed patients.

Later, in the 1970s, the Human Potential Movement encouraged psychologists to use the

TAT to help their clients understand themselves better and stimulate personal growth.

Procedure

The TAT is popularly known as the picture interpretation technique because it uses a

standard series of provocative yet ambiguous pictures about which the subject must a

story. The subject is asked to tell as dramatic a story as they can for each picture

presented, including:

what has led up to the event shown

what is happening at the moment

what the characters are feeling and thinking, and

what the outcome of the story was.

If these elements are omitted, particularly for children or individuals of

limited cognitive abilities, the evaluator may ask the subject about them directly.

There are 31 cards in the standard form of the TAT. Some of the cards show male

figures, some female, some both male and female figures, some of ambiguous gender,

some adults, some children, and some show no human figures at all. One is completely

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blank. Although the cards were originally designed to be matched to the subject in terms

of age and gender, any card may be used with any subject. Most practitioners choose a set

of approximately ten cards, either using cards that they feel are generally useful, or that

they believe will encourage the subject's expression of emotional conflicts relevant to

their specific history and situation. 

Scoring Systems

The TAT is a projective test in that, like the Rorschach test, its assessment of the subject

is based on what he or she projects onto the ambiguous images. Therefore, to complete

the assessment each story created by a subject must be carefully analyzed to uncover

underlying needs, attitudes, and patterns of reaction. Although most clinical practitioners

do not use formal scoring systems, several formal scoring systems have been developed

for analyzing TAT stories systematically and consistently. Two common methods that are

currently used in research are the:

Defense Mechanisms Manual DMM This assesses three defense

mechanisms: denial (least mature), projection (intermediate), and identification (most

mature). A person's thoughts/feelings are projected in stories involved.

Social Cognition and Object Relations SCORE scale. This assesses four different

dimensions of object relations: Complexity of Representations of People, Affect-Tone

of Relationship Paradigms, Capacity for Emotional Investment in Relationships and

Moral Standards, and Understanding of Social Causality.

Contemporary applications of TAT

Despite criticisms, the TAT remains widely used as a tool for research into areas of

psychology such as dreams, fantasies, mate selection and what motivates people to

choose their occupation. Sometimes it is used in a psychiatric or psychological context to

assess personality disorders, thought disorders, in forensic examinations to evaluate crime

suspects, or to screen candidates for high-stress occupations. It is also commonly used in

routine psychological evaluations, typically without a formal scoring system, as a way to

explore emotional conflicts and object relations .

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Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is one of the most

frequently used personality tests in mental health. The test is used by trained

professionals to assist in identifying personality structure and psychopathology.

History and development

The original authors of the MMPI were Starke R. Hathaway, PhD, and J. C. McKinley,

MD. The MMPI is copyrighted by the University of Minnesota. The standardized answer

sheets can be hand scored with templates that fit over the answer sheets, but most tests

are computer scored. Computer scoring programs for the current standardized version,

the MMPI-2, are licensed by the University of Minnesota Press to Pearson Assessments

and other companies located in different countries. The computer scoring programs offer

a range of scoring profile choices including the extended score report, which includes

data on the newest and most psychometrically advanced scales—the Restructured

Clinical Scales (RC scales).

The original MMPI was developed in the late 1930s using an empirical keying approach,

which means that the clinical scales were derived by selecting items that were endorsed

by patients known to have been diagnosed with certain pathologies The theoretical

approach to MMPI development ostensibly enabled the test to capture aspects of human

psychopathology that were recognizable and meaningful despite changes in clinical

theories. However, because the MMPI scales were created based on a group with known

psychopathologies, the scales themselves are not a theoretical by way of using the

participants' clinical diagnoses to determine the scales' contents.

MMPI-2

The first major revision of the MMPI was the MMPI-2, which was standardized on a new

national sample of adults in the United States and released in 1989. It is appropriate for

use with adults 18 and over. The current MMPI-2 has 567 items, all true-or-false format,

and usually takes between 1 and 2 hours to complete depending on reading level. There is

an infrequently used abbreviated form of the test that consists of the MMPI-2's first 370

items.

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MMPI-2 RF

A new and psychometrically improved version of the MMPI-2 has recently been

developed employing rigorous statistical methods that were used to develop the RC

Scales in 2003. The new MMPI-2 Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF) has now been

released by Pearson Assessments. The MMPI-2-RF produces scores on a theoretically

grounded, hierarchically structured set of scales, including the RC Scales. The modern

methods used to develop the MMPI-2-RF were not available at the time the MMPI was

originally developed. The MMPI-2-RF builds on the foundation of the RC Scales, which

have been extensively researched since their publication in 2003.

Clinical scales

The original clinical scales were designed to measure common diagnoses of the era.

While the descriptions of each type were originally used in assessment, the current

practice is to use the numbers only.

Number Abbreviation Description What is Measured

1 Hs Hypochondriasis Concern with bodily symptoms

2 D Depression Depressive Symptoms

3 Hy HysteriaAwareness of problems and vulnerabilities

4 Pd Psychopathic DeviateConflict, struggle, anger, respect for society's rules

5 MF Masculinity/FemininityStereotypical masculine or feminine interests/behaviors

6 Pa ParanoiaLevel of trust, suspiciousness, sensitivity

7 Pt Psychasthenia Worry, Anxiety, tension, doubts,

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obsessiveness

8 Sc Schizophrenia Odd thinking and social alienation

9 Ma Hypomania Level of excitability

0 Si Social Introversion People orientation

A - EXTRAVERSION/INTROVERSION

Trait 1 - ACTIVITY

Are you happiest when you get involved in some project that calls for immediate and rapid activity?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you become restless when working at something and little action is occurring?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

When climbing stairs do you usually take them two at a time?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Are you inclined to be slow and deliberate in your actions?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

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Do you usually finish your meals before other people even though there is no reason to hurry?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do other people regard you as a very lively person?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Are you always "on the go" when not actually sleeping?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you like organizing and initiating leisure activities?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

When driving a car, do you get very frustrated by slow-moving traffic?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Are you generally very enthusiastic about starting a new project or undertaking?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

When you are walking with other people, do they often have difficulty keeping up with you?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

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At work or at play, do other people find it hard to keep up with the pace you set?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Are you inclined to rush from one activity to another without pausing for rest?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you often find yourself hurrying to get to places, even when there is plenty of time?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Are you frequently lacking in energy and motivation to do things?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you like to lie in bed late at the weekends?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you prefer holidays that are quiet and restful without a great deal of rushing about?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you generally move about at a leisurely pace?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

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When you wake up in the morning are you usually ready to "get cracking"?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Are you usually full of pep and vigour?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you often feel tired and listless?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you like to have a lot of things to do all the time?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do other people seem to get more done in a day than you?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Most days, are there times when you enjoy just sitting and doing nothing?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Would you rather watch sports than play them?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

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Do you frequently take a nap in the middle of the day?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you get agitated if you have to wait for someone?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

If you had to wait a few minutes for the lift, would you prefer to use the stairs instead?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Normally, do you tend to do things as quickly as you can?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you often feel bubbling over with excess energy?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

A - EXTRAVERSION/INTROVERSION

Trait 2 - SOCIABILITY

Do you like going out a lot?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you often need understanding friends to cheer you up?

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Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Generally, do you prefer reading to meeting people?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Are you fairly talkative when you are with a group of people?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Can you usually let yourself go and have a good time at a party?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you hate being with a crowd who play practical jokes on one another?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you like talking to people so much that you never miss a chance of talking to a stranger?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

If you were making a business enquiry, would you rather write than discuss it on the telephone?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you enjoy spending long periods of time by yourself?

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Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Are you relaxed and self confident in the company of other people?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Are you more distant and reserved than most people?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you like mixing with lots of other people?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you easily make new friends with members of your own sex?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you like to tell jokes and stories to groups of friends?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you enjoy talking and playing with young children?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Are you apprehensive about going into a room full of strange people?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

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A - EXTRAVERSION/INTROVERSION

Trait 5 - EXPRESSIVENESS

Do you sit calmly while watching a race or competitive sport?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

If you are watching a good comedy, do you laugh louder than many of the people around you?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you quickly express your annoyance or anger?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Does a sentimental film easily move you to tears?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Would you prefer to maintain outward calm in the face of an emergency?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you get upset when watching documentaries or news items about unfortunate people?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

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Do you get easily so involved with music that you sing along or move in time with it?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you feel embarrassed when you express emotion?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you like to play pranks on other people?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you subscribe to the philosophy of "have a good time while you can"?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you tell your friends if you think they are making a mistake?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

If you were in town during a Carnival, would you rather observe the festivities than join in with them?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Would you give a standing ovation if you had enjoyed a performance immensely?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

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Do you find it easy to discuss intimate and personal matters with other members of your family?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you fancy being a performer in a dramatic or musical production?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

A - EXTRAVERSION/INTROVERSION

Trait 7 - RESPONSIBILITY

Are you inclined to be overly conscientious?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you make sure you are on time for appointments?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you think that a job should be done well or not at all?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Can you always be fully relied upon?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Are you inclined to live each day as it comes along?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

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Do you often leave things until the last minute?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you have a tendency to "let things slide" occasionally?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you have difficulty applying yourself to work that requires sustained concentration?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

B - EMOTIONAL STABILITY

Trait 1 - SELF-ESTEEM

Do you think you are able to do things as well as most other people?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you feel that you have little to be proud of?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you often think of yourself as a failure?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

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Do you suffer from feelings of inferiority?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

In general are you pretty sure of yourself?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you often wish you were someone else?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Would you be troubled by feelings of inadequacy if you had to make a speech?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Are there a lot of things about yourself that you would change if you had the choice?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you think that, in general, you are quite popular with people?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

B - EMOTIONAL STABILITY

Trait 3 - ANXIETY

Do you blush when people are all looking at you?

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Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Would you say that you seldom lose any sleep over difficulties in your life?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Are you usually calm and not easily upset?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you sometimes feel that you have overwhelming responsibilities that you cannot allow to go wrong?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you have any foreboding about the future?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you have misgivings about the outcome of actions that you initiated?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you feel optimistic that all is or will be well?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Is life often a strain for you?

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Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Are you afraid when you are alone or in the dark?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Trait 5 - INDEPENDENCE

Is there some habit such as smoking that you would like to break but cannot?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

If you see a game that you would like to be good at, are you usually able to acquire the necessary skills to enjoy it?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you take steps to control your figure by exercise or diet?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you believe that your personality is laid down in your genes, your star sign, your upbringing - so that there is nothing you can do to change it?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you make your own decisions regardless of what other people say?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you find it difficult to stay in good health?

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Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you place your trust in God or fate to see you through?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

If something goes wrong do you usually attribute it to bad luck rather than bad management?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you often feel you are a victim of outside forces that you cannot control?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you feel you can achieve your goals by working hard and organizing your life?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

C - MASTERY/SYMPATHY

Trait 1 - AGGRESSIVENESS

If someone does you a bad turn do you feel obliged to do something about it?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Would you like to watch an execution if given the opportunity?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

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Do you think that if someone is rude to you it is best to let it pass?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Have you ever felt as though you would genuinely like to kill somebody?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you get very angry when you read what certain politicians have said in the newspaper?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you like to watch boxing matches on TV?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you ever get so angry with other people that you yell and swear at them?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

C - MASTERY/SYMPATHY

Trait 2 - ASSERTIVENESS

Would you rebuke a friend if you disapproved of his/her behavior?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you try to get your own way regardless of opposition?

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Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

If someone went to the front of a queue out of turn, would you do something about it?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

If somebody smoking nearby was annoying you, would you ask them to stop?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you believe that it is necessary to fight for your rights?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you express your opinions with a belief that you have a right to be heard?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you make a point of complaining if you are sold shoddy goods?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you think your views are not necessarily important?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

At school did you prefer English literature over general science?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

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Do you enjoy reading romantic stories?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Are you very sensitive to beauty in your surroundings?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you enjoy shopping?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you feel like crying if you see a sad film?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Are you afraid of snakes, worms or spiders?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Does computer technology interest you more than the psychology of personal relationships?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

E - SOCIAL & POLITICAL ATTITUDES

Trait 3 - BELIEF

There is no survival of any kind after death.

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

The Church should attempt to increase its influence on the life of the nation.

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Most religious people are hypocrites.

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

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The Church is the main force for good in the society.

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Religious beliefs of all kinds are just superstition.

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

The Universe was created by God.

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

The idea of god is an invention of the human mind.

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

The average man can lead a good life without religion.

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

E - SOCIAL & POLITICAL ATTITUDES

Trait 4 - SOCIALISM/CAPITALISM

No one should be allowed to buy privileges in education or medical care for his family.

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

There is no such thing as a "class struggle" in this country today.

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Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Too much is paid in tax by people with high incomes.

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

The government is gradually taking away our basic freedom.

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

True democracy is limited in this country because of the special privileges enjoyed by business and industry.

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

E - SOCIAL & POLITICAL ATTITUDES

Trait 2 - RACISM

It would be best to keep foreign races in their own districts and schools in order to prevent too much contact with them.

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

The people of foreign countries should be left to fend for themselves.

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

It is obvious that some races are more civilized than others and therefore should lead the world community.

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

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Charity towards third world countries is a waste of money.

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

People of a different color are innately inferior.

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Validity scales

The validity scales in the MMPI-2 RF are minor revisions of those contained in the

MMPI-2, which includes three basic types of validity measures: those that were designed

to detect non-responding or inconsistent responding (CNS, VRIN, TRIN), those designed

to detect when clients are over reporting or exaggerating the prevalence or severity of

psychological symptoms (F, Fb, Fp, FBS), and those designed to detect when test-takers

are underreporting or downplaying psychological symptoms (L, K)). A new addition to

the validity scales for the MMPI-2 RF includes an over reporting scale of somatic

symptoms scale (Fs).

Scoring and interpretation

Like many standardized tests, scores on the various scales of the MMPI-2 and the MMPI-

2-RF are not representative of either percentile rank or how "well" or "poorly" someone

has done on the test. Raw scores on the scales are transformed into a standardized metric

known as T-scores (Mean or Average equals 50, Standard Deviation equals 10), making

interpretation easier for clinicians.

RC and Clinical Scales

Individuals in favor of retaining the older Clinical scales have argued that the new RC

scales are measuring pathology which is markedly different than that measured by the

original clinical scales. This claim is not supported by results of research, which has

found the RC scales to be cleaner, more pure versions of the original clinical scales

because 1) the interscale correlations are greatly reduced and no items are contained in

more than one RC scale and, 2) common variance spread across the older clinical scales

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due to a general factor common to psychopathology is parsed out and contained in a

separate scale measuring demoralization (RCdem). Critics of the new scales argue that

the removal of this common variance makes the RC scales less ecologically valid (less

like real life) because real patients tend to present complex patterns of symptoms.

Some descriptions of the pics

Pic 1.

Most of the people saw this pic as a boy who did not like music, or composed music (ach). Some felt it as a person who dislikes to do his homework, daydreamer (aff)Pic 2.

The story here was mostly on family orientation of dad mom and daughter (affliation). Some saw it on a different perspective as a women who wants to change the conditions of the poor by her studies (achievement)Pic 3.

Most of them had said a story of new drug or new invention (ach). Yet a few had brought in the element of love (Aff). Some had a story of supervision and order (Pow).Pic 4.

Most had the story of two related people like grandson and grandmother, (aff), very few had reflected the achievement and power.Pic 5.

This was more on the story of the murder and repentment after that, also infedility of husband and wife, sucide (aff), few had a story on the achnone on powerPic 6.

Most of the story was on reaching the height... (ach) and also on the top of all (pow) ... Some had identified monkey (aff)Pic 7.

Here the incapacitance of the man and the woman crying for it, the father was sick so the daughter was crying (aff) dominated. none on power andachievement.Pic 8.

Most was on the bullet removal by docs. Some on murder ... mostly on affliation... some had deviated in the same theme and used words like invention (ach) and leader (pow).Pic 9.

Man in the graveyard... here again the words like searching for friends, relatives tombstone dominated(aff). Some have given words of achievement and powerPic 10 & 11.

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These were abstract pics so the words used to define them were used to identify the needs...

Thematic Appreciation Test TAT

This is a test that has been a sore to many psychologists but while handling the subject of MOTIVATION esply on the content theory of McClelland... It becomes inevitable to

avoid this test...

A series of eleven pictures were shown to the class of 31 students to find out the level of n Achievement in them and also to identify the n Power and n Affliation..

This post contains the pictures shown to them:

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.

Rorschach test

The Rorschach test ; also known as the Rorschach inkblot test or simply the Inkblot

test) is a psychological test in which subjects' perceptions of inkblots are recorded and

then analyzed using psychological interpretation, complex scientifically

derived algorithms, or both. Some psychologists use this test to examine a person's

personality characteristics and emotional functioning. It has been employed to detect an

underlying thought disorder, especially in cases where patients are reluctant to describe

their thinking processes openly. The test takes its name from that of its creator, Swiss

psychologist Hermann Rorschach.

In a national survey in the U.S., the Rorschach was ranked eighth among psychological

tests used in outpatient mental health facilities. It is the second most widely used test by

members of the Society for Personality Assessment

Method

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The tester and subject typically sit next to each other at a table, with the tester slightly

behind the subject. This is to facilitate a "relaxed but controlled atmosphere". There are

ten official inkblots, each printed on a separate white card, approximately 18x24 cm in

size. Each of the blots has near perfect bilateral symmetry. Five inkblots are of black ink,

two are of black and red ink and three are multicolored, on a white background.  After the

test subject has seen and responded to all of the inkblots (free association phase), the

tester then presents them again one at a time in a set sequence for the subject to study: the

subject is asked to note where he sees what he originally saw and what makes it look like

that (inquiry phase). The subject is usually asked to hold the cards and may rotate them.

Whether the cards are rotated, and other related factors such as whether permission to

rotate them is asked, may expose personality traits and normally contributes to the

assessment. As the subject is examining the inkblots, the psychologist writes down

everything the subject says or does, no matter how trivial. Analysis of responses is

recorded by the test administrator using tabulation and scoring sheet and, if required, a

separate location chart.

The general goal of the test is to provide data about cognition and personality variables

such as motivations, response tendencies, cognitive operations, affectivity, and

personal/interpersonal perceptions. The underlying assumption is that an individual will

class external stimuli based on person-specific perceptual sets, and including needs, base

motives, conflicts, and that this clustering process is representative of the process used in

real-life situations.

Content

Content is classified in terms of "human", "nature", "animal", "abstract", etc., as well as

for statistical popularity (or, conversely, originality).

Determinants

Systems for Rorschach scoring generally include a concept of "determinants": these are

the factors that contribute to establish the similarity between the inkblot and the subject's

content response about it, and they can represent certain basic experiential-perceptual

attitudes, showing aspects of the way a subject perceives the world. Rorschach's original

work used only form, color and movement; currently, another major determinant

considered is shading, which was inadvertently introduced by poor printing of the

inkblots.

The ten inkblots

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Below are the ten inkblots of the Rorschach test printed in Rorschach's Rorschach Test –

Psychodiagnostic Plates, They have been in the public domain In Hermann Rorschach's native

Switzerland since at least 1992 (70 years after the author's death, or 50 years after the cut-off

date of 1942), according to Swiss copyright law.

Card Popular responses Comments

Beck: bat, butterfly, mothPiotrowski: bat (53%), butterfly (29%)

Dana (France): butterfly (39%)

When seeing card I, subjects often inquire on how they should proceed, and questions on what they are allowed to do with the card (e.g. turning it) are not very significant. Being the first card, it can provide clues about how subjects tackle a new and stressful task. It is not, however, a card that is usually difficult for the subject to handle, having readily available popular responses.

Beck: two humansPiotrowski: four-legged animal (34%, gray parts)

Dana (France): animal: dog, elephant, bear (50%, gray)

The red details of card II are often seen as blood, and are the most distinctive features. Responses to them can provide indications about how a subject is likely to manage feelings of anger or physical harm. This card can induce a variety of sexual responses.

Beck: two humans (gray)

Piotrowski: human figures (72%, gray)

Dana (France): human (76%, gray)

Card III is typically perceived to contain two humans involved in some interaction, and may provide information about how the subject relates with other people (specifically, response latency may reveal struggling social interactions).

Beck: animal hide, skin, rugPiotrowski: animal skin, skin rug(41%)

Dana (France): animal skin (46%)

Card IV is notable for its dark color and its shading (posing difficulties for depressed subjects), and is generally perceived as a big and sometimes threatening figure; compounded with the common impression of the subject being in an inferior position ("looking up") to it, this serves to elicit a sense of authority. The human or animal content seen in the card is almost invariably classified as male rather than female, and the qualities expressed by the subject may indicate attitudes toward men and authority.

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Beck: bat, butterfly, mothPiotrowski: butterfly (48%), bat (40%)

Dana (France): butterfly (48%), bat (46%)

Card V is an easily elaborated card that is not usually perceived as threatening, and typically instigates a "change of pace" in the test, after the previous more challenging cards. Containing few features that generate concerns or complicate the elaboration, it is the easiest blot to generate a good quality response about.

Beck: animal hide, skin, rugPiotrowski: animal skin, skin rug(41%)

Dana (France): animal skin (46%)

Texture is the dominant characteristic of card VI, which often elicits association related to interpersonal closeness; it is specifically a "sex card", its likely sexual percepts being reported more frequently than in any other card, even though other cards have a greater variety of commonly seen sexual contents.

Beck: human heads or faces(top)

Piotrowski: heads of women or children (27%, top)

Dana (France): human head (46%, top)

Card VII can be associated with femininity (the human figures commonly seeing in it being described as women or children), and function as a "mother card", where difficulties in responding may be related to concerns with the female figures in the subject's life. The center detail is relatively often (though not popularly) identified as a vagina, which make this card also relate to feminine sexuality in particular.

Beck: animal: not cat or dog(pink)

Piotrowski: four-legged animal (94%, pink)

Dana (France): four-legged animal (93%, pink)

People often express relief about card VIII, which lets them relax and respond effectively. Similar to card V, it represents a "change of pace"; however, the card introduces new elaboration difficulties, being complex and the first multi-colored card in the set. Therefore, people who find processing complex situations or emotional stimuli distressing or difficult may be uncomfortable with this card.

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Beck: human (orange)

Piotrowski: noneDana (France): none

Characteristic of card IX is indistinct form and diffuse, muted chromatic features, creating a general vagueness. There is only one popular response, and it is the least frequent of all cards. Having difficulty with processing this card may indicate trouble dealing with unstructured data, but aside from this there are few particular "pulls" typical of this card.

Beck: crab, lobster, spider(blue)

Piotrowski:crab, spider (37%, blue),rabbit head (31%, light green),caterpillars, worms, snakes (28%, deep green)

Dana (France): None

Card X is structurally similar to card VIII, but its uncertainty and complexity are reminiscent of card IX: people who find it difficult to deal with many concurrent stimuli may not particularly like this otherwise pleasant card. Being the last card, it may provide an opportunity for the subject to "sign out" by indicating what they feel their situation is like, or what they desire to know.

Validity

 The same source reports that validity has also been shown for detecting such conditions

as schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders; thought disorders; and personality

disorders (including borderline personality disorder). There is some evidence that the

Deviant Verbalizations scale relates to bipolar disorder

Applications

The test is also controversial because of its common use in court-ordered

evaluations. This controversy stems, in part, from the limitations of the Rorschach, with

no additional data, in making official diagnoses from the Diagnostic and Statistical

Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV). Irving B. Weiner (co-developer with John Exner

of the Comprehensive system) has stated that the Rorschach "is a measure of personality

functioning, and it provides information concerning aspects of personality structure and

dynamics that make people the kind of people they are. Sometimes such information

about personality characteristics is helpful in arriving at a differential diagnosis, if the

alternative diagnoses being considered have been well conceptualized with respect to

specific or defining personality characteristics.

Bender Gestalt Test

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Definition

The Bender Gestalt Test, or the Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test, is a psychological

assessment instrument used to evaluate visual-motor functioning and visual perception

skills in both children and adults. Scores on the test are used to identify possible

organic brain damage and the degree maturation of the nervous system. The Bender

Gestalt was developed by psychiatrist Lauretta Bender in the late nineteenth century.

Purpose

The Bender Gestalt Test is used to evaluate visual maturity, visual motor integration

skills, style of responding, reaction to frustration, ability to correct mistakes, planning and

organizational skills, and motivation. Copying figures requires fine motor skills, the

ability to discriminate between visual stimuli, the capacity to integrate visual skills with

motor skills, and the ability to shift attention from the original design to what is being

drawn.

Precautions

The Bender Gestalt Test should not be administered to an individual with severe visual

impairment unless his or her vision has been adequately corrected with eyeglasses.

Additionally, the test should not be given to an examinee with a severe motor

impairment, as the impairment would affect his or her ability to draw the geometric

figures correctly. The test scores might thereby be distorted.

The Bender Gestalt Test has been criticized for being used to assess problems with

organic factors in the brain. This criticism stems from the lack of specific signs on the

Bender Gestalt Test that are definitively associated with brain injury, mental

retardation, and other physiological disorders. Therefore, when making a diagnosis of

brain injury, the Bender Gestalt Test should never be used in isolation. When making a

diagnosis, results from the Bender Gestalt Test should be used in conjunction with other

medical, developmental, educational, psychological, and neuropsychological information.

Finally, psychometric testing requires administration and evaluation by a clinically

trained examiner. If a scoring system is used, the examiner should carefully evaluate its

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reliability and validity, as well as the normative sample being used. A normative sample

is a group within a population who takes a test and represents the larger population. This

group's scores on a test are then be used to create "norms" with which the scores of test

takers are compared.

Description

The Bender Gestalt Test is an individually administered pencil and paper test used to

make a diagnosis of brain injury. There are nine geometric figures drawn in black. These

figures are presented to the examinee one at a time; then, the examinee is asked to copy

the figure on a blank sheet of paper. Examinees are allowed to erase, but cannot use any

mechanical aids (such as rulers). The popularity of this test among clinicians is most

likely the short amount of time it takes to administer and score. The average amount of

time to complete the test is five to ten minutes.

The Bender Gestalt Test lends itself to several variations in administration. One method

requires that the examinee view each card for five seconds, after which the card is

removed. The examinee draws the figure from memory. Another variation involves

having the examinee draw the figures by following the standard procedure. The examinee

is then given a clean sheet of paper and asked to draw as many figures as he or she can

recall. Last, the test is given to a group, rather than to an individual (i.e., standard

administration). It should be noted that these variations were not part of the original test.

Results

A scoring system does not have to be used to interpret performance on the Bender

Gestalt Test; however, there are several reliable and valid scoring systems available.

Many of the available scoring systems focus on specific difficulties experienced by

the test taker.

Additionally, observing the examinee's behavior while drawing the figures can provide

the examiner with an informal evaluation and data that can supplement the formal

evaluation of the examinee's visual and perceptual functioning. For example, if an

examinee takes a large amount of time to complete the geometric figures, it may suggest

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a slow, methodical approach to tasks, compulsive tendencies, or depressive symptoms. If

an examinee rapidly completes the test, this could indicate an impulsive style.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) intelligence quotient (IQ) tests are the

primary clinical instruments used to measure adult and adolescent intelligence. The

original WAIS (Form I) was published in February 1955 by David Wechsler, as a

revision of the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale. The fourth edition of the test

(WAIS-IV) was released in 2008 by Pearson.

Wechsler defined intelligence as "The global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to

think rationally, and to deal effectively with his/her environment."

WAIS-IV

The current version of the test, the WAIS-IV, which was published in 2008, is composed

of 10 core subtests and five supplemental subtests, with the 10 core subtests comprising

the Full Scale IQ. With the new WAIS-IV, the verbal/performance subscales from

previous versions were removed and replaced by the index scores. The General Ability

Index (GAI) was included, which consists of the Similarities, Vocabulary and

Information subtests from the Verbal Comprehension Index and the Block Design,

Matrix Reasoning and Visual Puzzles subtests from the Perceptual Reasoning Index. The

GAI is clinically useful because it can be used as a measure of cognitive abilities that are

less vulnerable to impairment.

Indexes and scales

There are four index scores representing major components of intelligence:

Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI)

Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI)

Working Memory Index (WMI)

Processing Speed Index (PSI)

Two broad scores are also generated, which can be used to summarize general intellectual

abilities:

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Full Scale IQ (FSIQ), based on the total combined performance of the VCI, PRI,

WMI, and PSI

General Ability Index (GAI), based only on the six subtests that comprise the VCI

and PRI

Subtests

The Verbal Comprehension Index includes four tests:

Similarities : Abstract verbal reasoning (e.g., "In what way are an apple and a pear

alike?")

Vocabulary: The degree to which one has learned, been able to comprehend and

verbally express vocabulary (e.g., "What is a guitar?")

Information : Degree of general information acquired from culture (e.g., "Who is

the president of Russia?")

Comprehension [Supplemental]: Ability to deal with abstract social conventions,

rules and expressions (e.g., "What does Kill 2 birds with 1 stone metaphorically

mean?")

The Perceptual Reasoning Index comprises five tests

Block Design : Spatial perception, visual abstract processing & problem solving

Matrix Reasoning: Nonverbal abstract problem solving, inductive

reasoning, spatial reasoning

Visual Puzzles: non-verbal reasoning

Picture Completion [Supplemental]: Ability to quickly perceive visual details

Figure Weights [Supplemental]: quantitative and analogical reasoning

The Working Memory Index is obtained from three tests

Digit span: attention, concentration, mental control (e.g., Repeat the numbers 1-2-

3 in reverse sequence)

Arithmetic : Concentration while manipulating mental mathematical problems

(e.g., "How many 45-cent stamps can you buy for a dollar?")

Letter-Number Sequencing [Supplemental]: attention and working memory (e.g.,

Repeat the sequence Q-1-B-3-J-2, but place the numbers in numerical order and then

the letters in alphabetical order)

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The Processing Speed Index includes three tests

Symbol Search: Visual perception, speed

Coding: Visual-motor coordination, motor and mental speed

Cancellation [Supplemental]: visual-perceptual speed

Uses

The WISC is used not only as an intelligence test, but as a clinical tool. Many

practitioners use it to diagnose attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

and learning disabilities, for example. This is usually done through a process

called pattern analysis, in which the various subtests' scores are compared to one another

and clusters of unusually low scores in relation to the others are searched for.

However, the research does not show this to be a very effective way to

diagnosis ADHD or learning disabilities. The vast majority of ADHD children do not

display certain subscores substantially below others, and many children who display such

patterns do not have ADHD. Other patterns for children with learning disabilities show a

similar lack of usefulness of the WISC as a diagnostic tool.

The empirical consensus is that the WISC is best used as a tool to evaluate intelligence

and not to diagnose ADHD or learning disabled children. It can be used to show

discrepancies between a child's intelligence and his/her performance at school (and it is

this discrepancy that Educational Psychologists are looking for when using this test). In a

clinical setting, learning disabilities are generally diagnosed through a comparison of

intelligence scores and scores on an achievement test, such as the Woodcock Johnson III

or Wechsler Individual Achievement Test II. If a child's achievement is below what

would be expected given their level of intellectual functioning (as derived from an IQ test

such as the WISC-IV), then a learning disability may be present.

Bibliography:

American Psychological Association (APA). 750 First St. NE, Washington, DC 2002-4242. (202) 336-5700.

www.apa.org. http://www.ericae.net . www.minddisorders.com www.mpdfoundation.org

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