Topic : Introduction to Psychology

Unit I: INTRODUCTIONDuration: 3hours

Prescribed: 2hours

PRESENTED BY:

Mrs. Sukhbir kaur

Assistant professor

RN. BSN. PGDHM. MSN

Ph.D (N) Scholar

S.G.R.D. COLLEGE OF NURSING, AMRITSAR

Introduction

• Psychology is fairly a new science.

• Untill 19th century was recognized as separate field of study.

• The birth of formal psychology can be tracked back to 1879.

• It was found by Wilhelm Wundt in Leipizig, Germany.

• Word psychology used by Rudolf Gockle - 1590.

• Psychology derived from two Greek words

psyche logos

(spirit or soul, mind) (study)

Word- soul means spiritual or immortal elements in a person.

William James used word mind instead of soul in 1890.

Mind is abstract and could not be seen but behavior is what

mind do. Mind is a stream of consciousness.

• According to Aristotle psychology is study of soul. (not

accepted).

• Later on Philosopher Plato said Psychology is study of

mind.(incomplete).

• According to Sigmund Freud “ mind” is divided into three

parts – conscious, subconscious and unconscious.

• This was also rejected.

• Later on 18th century experimental psychology or scientific

psychology came into being – founder was William

Wundt.(1832-1920) : first psychology laboratory in Leipzig,

Germany, 1879.

• Definition of Psychology changed to

• “ Psychology is the systematic study of behavior”

• By this definition psychology became as a subject of science

and it comes under Behavioral sciences.

• Scientific study of behavior by measuring tools or tests- called

as Psychological tests.

Why Psychology is science?

1. Method e.g. observation, recording, analysis etc.,

2. Cause and effect relationship

3. Study of facts : factual concepts like intelligence, memory,

learning.

4. Universality. E.g., laws of learning applicable to universe.

5. Validity and reliability e.g., intelligence tests.

6. Verification e.g., research

7. Statistical analysis

8. Predictability e.g., theories and principles can predict the

behavior of person.

Defintion

• Psychology is the scientific study of mental processes and

behavior. It is study of mind and how it works.

- oxford dictionary.

• Psychology is the science of human and animal behavior

which includes the application of this science to solve human

behavior.

• - W.Hamilton

• Psychology is the scientific study of the human mind and its

functions, especially those affecting behavior in given context.

• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and

mental processes and how they are affected by an

organism’s physical state, mental state and external

environment.

Roots of Psychology:

• Psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

• Let’s break down the definition

• Behavior – Anything that you do that can be observed.

• Mental Processes – Internal experiences such as: thoughts, feelings, sensations, and perceptions.

• Systematic Study: Systematic collection and examination of data (empirical evidence) to support or disprove hypotheses (predictions) rather than depending on common sense.

Sub- Fields /Areas/Scope of Psychology

• It is broad and diverse field and divided into two broad

categories :

• Pure psychology: provide framework and theory: basic

concepts of psychology. Formulation of psychological

principles and theories.

• Applied psychology: pure psychology is used in practical

form. Application of principles, rules and techniques of

psychology is done.

Branches of pure psychology

• General psychology

• Abnormal psychology

• Social psychology: scientific methods used to study social

influences, social interactions.

• Experimental psychology

• Physiological/ biological psychology. E.g., MRI, CT Scan,

EEG.

• Para Psychology; telepathy, re-birth

• Geo-psychology: effect of change in environment.

• Developmental psychology: growth and lifespan.

• Comparative Psychology: study of animal behavior.

• Coginitive psychology: thought process and cognition.

Branches of applied psychology

• Educational psychology.

• Clinical psychology: assessment, diagnosis and treatment of

mental disorder.

• Organizational psychology

• Legal psychology e.g., criminals behavior.

• Military psychology

• Political psychology

• School psychology.

Which subfield is most directly concerned with studying

how marketing effects human behavior?

20

%

20

%20

%

20

%

20

%

Clinical Personality

Engineering psych... Industrial- Organ...

Counseling

0

0

32

30

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

1. Clinical

2. Personality

3. Engineering

psychology

4. Industrial-

Organizational

5. Counseling

Which of the following individuals is also a

physician?

20

%

20

%20

%

20

%

20

%

Clinical psycholo... Psychologist

Experimental psyc... Psychiatrist

Developmental Psy...

301 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

1. Clinical psychologist

2. Psychologist

3. Experimental

psychologist

4. Psychiatrist

5. Developmental

Psychologist

A person working within this subfield of psychology might work

closely with their local police department to explain the

behavior of a suspect.

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

Health Psy... Criminal P... Clinical P...

Forensic P... Counseling...

30

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

1. Health Psychologist

2. Criminal Psychologist

3. Clinical Psychologist

4. Forensic Psychologist

5. Counseling

Psychologist

History of Psychology:

• People have been studying human behavior for thousands of years. (Examples: Romans, Egyptians, Indians)

• This was good, but was not done in an organized manner.

• Psychology as a science has a very short history.

• Some scientists (like Mr. Lark) still call psychology a “soft” science.

Key Players in the History of Psychology:

• Roots of psychology can be traced back 2000 years ago to the early philosophers, biologists, and physiologists of ancient Greece.

• Hippocrates – Greek Physiologist that thought the mind or soul resided in the brain.

• He believed that it was not composed of a physical substance.

• This is called mind-body-dualism – seeing mind and body as two different things that interact.

Key Players in the History of Psychology:

• Plato (350 B.C.) – Greek philosopher that believed that

who we are and what we know are innate (inborn).

• Aristotle – Plato’s student believed that who we are and

what we know are acquired from experience.

Important People in the

Dev’t. of Psychology

Aristotle (384 –322 BC) – He made assumptionsout of observation regarding human behavior. Hebelieved that all beings, humans included, havesouls, which animate them. Humans, however,compared to other animal, have rational souls.Thus, humans are not only, physical, but alsorational. He also theorized about learning,memory, motivation, emotion, perception andpersonality.

Important People in the

Dev’t. of Psychology

Rene Descartes

(1596 – 1650) - supported the view that humans enter the world with an inborn store of knowledge. He argued that some ideas (such as God, the self, perfection and infinity) are innate. He is also notable for his conception of the body as a machine that can be studied.

Two historical roots of psychology are the

disciplines of:

25

%

25

%

25

%

25

%

Philosophy and ch... Physiology and ch...

Philosophy and ph... Philosophy and ph...

1. Philosophy and

chemistry

2. Physiology and

chemistry

3. Philosophy and

physiology

4. Philosophy and

physics

30 SecondsRemaining

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

•Predict what will happen

•Systematically observe events

•Do events support predictions?

Life Before Psychology

René Descartes(1596-1650)

Philosophy asks questions about the mind:

Does perception accurately reflect reality?

How is sensation turned into perception?

Problem - No “scientific” wayof studying problems

Physiology asks similar questions about the mind –

but with a biological perspective (ie chemicals, etc)

SCIENTIFIC

METHOD

Descartes believed that there was a link between the mind and body

Key Players in the History of Psychology:

• About 2000 yrs. later John Locke and Rene Descartes had a similar argument.

• John Locke – Believed that knowledge comes from observation, and what we know comes from experience.

• He coined the term “tabula rasa” –blank slate.

• “The mind is like a blank slate in which the environment writes upon.”

• Rene Descartes – Believed that what we know is innate.

• Focused much of his research on how the nervous system responds

• “I think therefore I am.”

The 17th century philosopher who believed that the mind is blank at birth

and that most knowledge comes through sensory experience is:

25

%

25

%

25

%

25

%

Plato Aristotle Descartes Locke

1. Plato

2. Aristotle

3. Descartes

4. Locke

30

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

The Greek philosopher who believed that

intelligence was inherited was:

25

%

25

%

25

%

25

%

Aristotle Plato Descartes Simonides

1. Aristotle

2. Plato

3. Descartes

4. Simonides

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

30

Important People in the

Dev’t. of Psychology

Charles Darwin

(1809 – 1882) - He is the

author of the Law of

Natural Selection or

Theory of Evolution;

inspired the Psychological

school of thought,

Functionalism.

Important People in the

Dev’t. of Psychology

Francis Galton

(1822–1911) - He was

concerned with the study

of individual differences.

He was considered as the

“Father of Mental tests”

Important People in the

Dev’t. of Psychology

Ernst Weber (1795–1878); Gustav Fechner;

Herman von Helmholtz (1821–1894) German

Physicians who started experimenting with behavior

through scientific methodologies.

Important People in the

Dev’t. of Psychology

Wilhelm Wundt – Considered as the “Father ofModern Psychology.” He established the firstexperimental laboratory for the study of Psychology,in Leipzig, Germany, 1879. He created a machinethat measured the time lag between people’s hearinga ball hit the platform and their pressing a telegraphkey. Wundt has seeking to measure the “atoms ofthe mind” – the fastest and simplest mentalprocesses.

Important People in the

Dev’t. of Psychology

G. Stanley Hall

A student of Wundt’s

who established what

many consider as the

first American

psychology laboratory

at Johns Hopkins

University in 1883.

Important People in the

Dev’t. of Psychology

Hermann Ebbinghaus

- A German who reported

on the first experiments

on memory, 1885.

American Psychological Association

(APA)

• Founded in 1892, has grown tremendously in size and today has many different divisions.

• Now has a division for high school students.

• Oversees all current research not done in universities.

• http://www.apa.org/about/governance/president/past-presidents.aspx

APA: G. Stanley Hall

• First president of the APA

• established the first psychological lab in the U.S. in 1883, at Johns Hopkins University.

• Started the American Psychological Journal (1887) now the American Journal of Psychology.

Female significance…

Mary Whiton Calkins

• 1st female President APA

• 1905 (memory researcher)

Margaret Floy Washburn

• PhD in psychology

• Animal behavior researcher

Schools of Thought

1. Structuralism (Edward Titchener) – Study of the parts

of conscious experiences through introspection.

Conscious experiences are composed of sensations,

feelings, and images.

Introspection is a process of studying the self, or self-

examination. Introduced by St. Thomas of Aquinas.

Schools of Thought

2. Functionalism

(William James) – Defines

behavior or the mental

phenomena in terms of their

functions in man’s adjustment

to his environment. It is very

much influenced by Darwin’s

Theory of Evolution.

Schools of Thought

3. Gestalt Psychology

(Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, Kurt Koffka)

Believed that the human mind imposes meaning to

related experiences. It advocates that the study of

human behavior should be wholistic. “The whole is

greater than the sum of its parts.”

Schools of Thought

4. Behaviorism

(John B. Watson)

Emphasized the need to

study what is observable.

Its objective was to predict

and control behavior.

S-R Psychology.

Schools of Thought

5. Psychoanalysis

(Sigmund Freud) – Much ofour behavior is governed byunconscious motive andprimitive biological instincts. Itconsidered all humansbasically would like to gainpleasure and avoid pain.

This German philosopher and psychologist was the first to

set up a laboratory to gather empirical data related

to psychology.

20

%

20

%20

%

20

%

20

%

Wundt, 1879 James, 1890

Freud, 1900 Watson, 1913

Wertheimer, 1950

30

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

1. Wundt, 1879

2. James, 1890

3. Freud, 1900

4. Watson, 1913

5. Wertheimer, 1950

Contemporary Approaches

• Neuroscience - Views behavior from the perspective of

biological functioning

• Psychodynamic - Believes behavior is motivated by inner,

unconscious force over which a person has little control

Contemporary Approaches

Behavioral - Focuses on observable behavior

Cognitive - Examines how people understand and think about

the world

Humanistic – Contends that people can control their behavior

and that they naturally try to reach their full potential

Work In Psychology (?)

Universities &

Colleges

27.2%

Elementary/

Secondary

Schools

4.2%

Hospitals,

Counseling,

Clinics, etc.

22.3%

Business,

Government or

Consulting

12.1%

Independent

Practice

33.1%

Specialties In Psychology

Clinical,

Community

& Counseling

51.1%

Research/university

3.6%

Cognitive

5.2%

Industrial

5.7%

Social/

Developmental

6.4%Other

8.6%School

19.4%

Methods of Psychology

• 1. Introspection method.

• 2. Observation method.

• 3. Scientific or experimental method.

• 4. Clinical method.

• 5. Case study method.

• 6. Co relational method.

• 7. Interview method.

• 8. Survey method.

• 9. longitudinal study method.

• 10. cross-sectional study method.

1. Introspection method

Historically introspection is the oldest method of all, which

was formerly used in philosophy, and then in psychology to

collect data about the conscious experience of the subject.

Introspection means to see with in one self or self observation.

To understand one’s own mental health and the state of mind.

This method was developed by the structuralists in psychology

who defined psychology as the study of conscious experiences

of the individual. Introspection has some advantages and

disadvantages;

3..

• Merits:

1. It gives information about one’s own self which is difficult

by other methods.

2. It is an easy method and needs no equipment

3. It makes a base for other methods such as experimental and

observation method

• Demerits:

1. This method is subjective in nature and lacks scientific

objectivity

2. The most serious objection against this method is that

human mind is not static like inanimate objects such as stone

or chairs etc. our mental process is under constant changes so

when one attempts to introspect, the sate of mental process

disappears and it becomes a retrospect.

3. The human mind is divided in two parts. One is his own mental

operation and the other is the object to which this mental

operation is directed. To expect any individual to attend the

workings of his own mind during a mental process, specially

in a complex and emotional state such as anger or fear, is a

mistaken idea. Ross commenting on the limitation of

introspection said, “ The observer and the observed are the

same, the mind is both the field and the instrument of

observation

4. Introspection can not be employed on children and insane

propel.

5. There are conflicting reports, as regards the findings

collected from different introspectionists

2. Observation method

With the development of psychology as an objective science of

behavior, the method of introspection was replaced by careful

observation of human and animal behavior. Observation

literally means looking outside oneself. It is a very important

method for collecting data in almost all type of research

studies. Different type of Observation used in research, direct

or indirect, scheduled or unscheduled, natural or artificial,

participant and non-participant. But there are two basic types

of observation. They are;

1. Natural observation

In natural observation the observer observe the specific

behavioral and characteristics of subjects in natural settings

and the subject does not aware of the fact that their behavior is

being observed by someone. The teacher can observe the

behavior of his student in the playground or in any other social

gathering without making him conscious. Natural observation

can be done any where with out any tools.

2. Participant observation

In participant observation the observer became the part of the

group which he wants to observe.

Observational study is particularly very important and

produces significant results on developmental characteristics

of children. No doubt that observation is a scientific technique

of collecting data, whose results can be verified and relied

upon to locate behavioral problems

• Merits:

1. this type of observation is a natural and normal way of

knowing the external world but also the mind of the subject

2. This method is objective in nature and free form personal

bias and prejudice.

3. Through this method we can observe as many children as

we like

4. This method id quite suitable for children and abnormal

person who can not be examined through introspection.

5. this can be used any time and anywhere

• Demerits:

1. Observation is useful only for collecting data about overt

behavior which is manifested in a number of activities. This

overt behavior does not provide reliable information regarding

the internal mental process. We can only guess about the

mental state of the individual on the basis of overt behavior

which may or may not be true. It becomes very difficult to

draw any conclusion in case of adults who can hide their actual

behavior in the presence of the observer.

• 2. Subjectivity of interpretation is another limitation of this

method. The observer may interpret his sensation of external

stimulus on the bias of his past experience. He may be biased

in his interpretation. It has also been found in some studies that

strong personal interests tend to make researcher see only

those things which he wants to see.

3. Observation is subject to two types of errors, sampling error

and observer error. The first error occurs because of

inadequacies of selecting situation to be observed. The

observer error may be due to knowledge and background of

the situation to be observed. Because some time the observer is

not familiar with the total situation and hence he may commit

error.

3. The Scientific Method

• Form of critical thinking based on careful

measurement and controlled observation.

The Scientific Method (cont)

• Six Basic Elements

– Observation

– Defining a problem

– Proposing a hypothesis (an educated guess that can be tested)

– Gathering evidence/testing the hypothesis

– Publishing results

– Building a theory

Some Terms

• Hypothesis testing: Scientifically testing the

predicted outcome of an experiment or an

educated guess about the relationship between

variables

• Operational definition: Defines a scientific

concept by stating specific actions or procedures

used to measure it

Experimental Method

The Scientific Method

• The approach used by psychologists to systematically acquire

knowledge and understanding about behavior and other

phenomena of interest.

1. Identifying questions of interest,2. Formulating an explanation, (Theories and Hypotheses)

3. Carrying out research designed to support or refute the explanation.

• Merits:

1. This method is the most systematic procedure of solving

problems. It provides reliable information.

2. it is a revisable method

3. it makes psychology a scientific study

4. It provides objective and precise information about the

problems.

5. it give observer easy approach to the mind of an individual

6. It provides innovative ideas for the further experimentation.

7. It enable us to control and direct human behaviour

8. it is applicable in educational, individual and social

problems

• Demerits:

1. It is arranged in a laboratory like situation. This situation is

artificially arranged. Behaviour is a natural phenomena and it

may change under artificial environment.

2. This method is time consuming and costly. Moreover it

requires specialized knowledge and skills.

3. Psychologists have criticized the fact that mostly the

experiments have conducted on rats, cats and dogs. The results

are conducted and then applied on human beings.

4. It some times interferes with the very thing that we are

trying to observe.

4 . Clinical Method

This method is primarily used to collect detailed information on

the behavior problems of maladjusted and deviant cases. The

main objective of this method is to study individual case or

cases of group to detect and diagnose their specific problems

and to suggest therapeutic measures to rehabilitate them in

their environment.

It involves the following steps;

1. Interview

2. Information gathering

3. A hypothesis formulate

4. Diagnoses are made

5. Planned a treatment programme

5. Case Study

Case study is in-depth study of the subject. It is the in-depth

analysis of a person, group, or phenomenon. A variety of

techniques are employed including personal

interviews, psychometric tests, direct observation, and archival

records. Case studies are most often used in psychology

in clinical research to describe the rare events and conditions

of the subject; case study is specially used in education

psychology. It deals in education the following problems;

Lack of interest in students

Aggressive behaviour in student

Day dreaming

Poor academic performance

Emotional problems

Social problems

Empathetic understanding

Find the problem

Establish rapport

Treatment

6. Correlation Method

The correlation method involves

systematically measuring the relationship

between two or more variables

Correlation Coefficient : +1.00 to -1.00

Positive Correlation

Negative Correlation

Correlational Method

7. Interview Method

Today, for psychological researches, mainly, interview method has become very

popular. In this method there is direct face to face contact between the investigator

and the subject. Here the interviewer or the investigator asks questions to the

subject and records the answers usually without the latter knowing it. In the words

of Fred N. Kerlinger, “The interview is perhaps the ubiquitous method of obtaining

information from people. It has been and is still being used in all kinds of practical

situations, eg. the lawyer obtains information from his client, the physian learns

about a patient; the administrative officer or professor determines the suitability of

students for schools, departments and curricula.

• Only recently, however, interview has been used

systematically for scientific purposes, both in the laboratory

and in the field. He also said that it is a face to face inter-

personal situation in which one person, the interviewer asks a

person being interviewed, the respondent, questions designed

to obtain answers pertinent to research problems” According

to P.V. Young, “Interviewing is not a simple way to

conversation between an interrogator and informant. Gestures,

glances, facial expressions and pauses often reveal subtle

feelings”

Objectives of Interview Method:

• The main objective of the interview method is to collect

information about unknown fact of the subject, his inner

feelings,

• Another objective is to make sure that the interviewer and the

subject know each other quite well, so that the collected data is

verified well,

• Interview method aims at providing an opportunity to the

investigator to observe the subject very closely; as a result, at

times, the subject can provide new ideas to the investigator

which help the latter in research work.

• Types of Interview Method:

There are different types of interview – focused interview

repeated interview, clinical interview, diagnostic interview,

research interview personal interview etc.

• Merits of the Interview Method: The merits of the

interview method are-

• High participation of the subject or respondent. The subject

answers the questions in a free manner. Illiterate as well as

children provide proper in-depth information as compared to

other methods like observation, questionnaire method etc.

• This method is very flexible as it becomes possible for the

interviewer to reframe, repeat and rephrase the questions as

suitable for the subject.

• The subject’s emotions can be studied well. It is often

observed that during an interview, the subject may become

emotional and get excited, and may express freely his fears,

anxieties, and complexes.

• Through the interview method the investigator may get to

know the cause of any behavior pattern of the subject, the

historical background of each incident.

• The data collected through the interview method is reliable.

The interviewer analyses and crosschecks the information

provided, to find out whether the data is correct or not.

• The interview method can be applied on all types of people-

literate or illiterate children and adults and at times also on

mentally unbalanced persons.

• In the interview method, the subject and investigator are face

to face with each other. Both discuss the problems and during

discussion views can be exchanged and this is desirable in

order to study every social problem along with the subject’s

own problems.

Demerits of the Interview Method : The demerits of the

interview methods are :-

It is a costly method. It involves a lot of traveling on the part

of the interviewer. It is also time consuming as the interviewer

has to physically locate a subject.

• A lot of planning is required. The investigator has to provide a

number of stimuli to get information from the subject, must

make careful observation of the latter’s behaviour patterns so

the interviewer must remember a number of things at the same

time. So the whole process becomes too strenuous.

• The subject may not reveal his true feelings and emotions.

• Sometimes the interviewer may have preconceived notions

which may not hold true during interview, but he is reluctant

to change his views. P.V. Young said that biased and prior

thinking may distort and invalidate the results of the whole

interview.

• The interviewer’s perception of things may clash with those of

the interviewee’s. Their beliefs and values may be totally

different. So the Investigator must be very proficient and must

have proper insight into human nature.

• There can be difficulty in persuading the subject to be

interviewed. The subject may tend to be bored during the

process and then the data obtained will not be valid

Goals of psychology

• 1. Describe: understanding human behavior must begin with

careful description of how people think, feel and act in specific

situations.

• 2. Explain: to know why people behave in certain manners.

We want explanation

• 3. predict : to predict people’s behavior. One will behave in

certain way in a certain set of circumstances.

• 4. control: we can change or influence people’s behavior once

we know what is in their mind.

Importance of psychology

• 1. understanding behavioral factors: behavior which promotes

health.

• 2. Effects of disease: disease effect psychological well- being.

• 3. preventing illness: psychologist changes behavior to prevent

illness.

• 4. critical analysis of health policy: scope of health psychology

• 5. Improves relationship between health team members.

• 6. managing pain

• 7. improving adherence to medical advice.

Relevance of Psychology to Nursing

Nursing and

Psychology

Understanding self

Understanding Patients

Understanding Others

• 1. Development and maturation: By understanding

developmental stage, nurses will not misidentify normal

process as diseases.

• 2. Learning and motivation: When nurses need to give

education, they know when, where, and what to do.

• 3. Personality and behavior :

• Expand nurse’s perception.

• Understanding patient’s reaction. Change negative behavior to

positive.

• Practice effective interaction.

• Helps nurses to deal with her own emotion when dealing with

patient.

• 4. Adaptation :

• Nurses help patients to adapt with their diseases, anxiety and

disability.

• Help nurses to understand and deal with patient's reaction.

• 5. Counseling:

• Counsel regarding healthy behavior and how to get rid of

stress.

• 6. Research:

• To explore more about human behavior.

• To improve quality of care.

`

9/29/2014 80