PsychologyUNIT 1, Module 1: Cognitive Psychology – Memory

Models of Memory

Why do Psychologists use models?

Enables predictions about behaviour. To help generate hypotheses for further work. Is a representation of how something works.

The multi-store model

Atkinson and Shiffrin Structural Linear Stores = Sensory store, STM and LTM –

they differ in encoding, capacity and duration.

3 Processes = 1)Attention, 2)Coding and 3)Rehearsal

STM and LTM are unitary passive stores.

Differences between STM and LTM

STM LTMDuration Less that 18 sec without rehearsal –

P & PExtremely long

P & P = nonsense trigrams, e.g. BCB 371.

Bahrick – asked Ps to name faces from high school yearbook. 48 years on, still 70% accurate. Findings = Ps remembered 90%

when 3sec interval. 2% with 18sec interval.Nairne found 96secs. Info remains in STM for longer unless new info. replaces it.

Capacity 7+/- 2 - Miller UnlimitedChunking increases capacityLarge chunks decrease capacity – Simon.

Encoding Acoustic – Baddeley Mainly semantic - BaddeleyBaddeley = Ps difficulty in remembering acoustically similar words in STM but not LTMSome visual encoding when given visual task and no verbal rehearsal allowed– Brandimore

PsychologyEvidence for three separate memory stores

The sensory store – Sperlingi. Ps saw grid of digits and letters

ii. 3 rows, each with a diff toneiii. Asked to recall one row or all 12 items when tone was playediv. Recall poorer for whole thingv. Shows info decays rapidly in sensory store.

The Serial Position Effect – Glanzer & Curtisi. Ps remember words from start of list (primary effect)

ii. Ps remember words from end of list (recency effect)iii. Primary = words rehearsed and enter LTMiv. Recency = these words are in STM when you recallv. Words at end displace words in middle

Areas of brain associated with STM and LTMi. PET scans and fMRI scans

ii. Prefrontal cortex is active when tasks involve STM.iii. Hippocampus active when LTM is engaged.

Case Studiesi. HM = had hippocampus removed. Could not from new long term memories but could remember

things before surgery. Suggests LTM is memory “gateway” where new memories have to pass in order to be remembered.

Evaluation of the multi-store model

STRENGTHSo See aboveo Clear predictions about memory – easy for psychologists to test ito Provides account of structure and processo Differences in STM and LTM

WEAKNESSESo Oversimplifiedo Not unitary stores - KF had brain damage and had difficulty with verbal info. but not visual info.

Therefore STM not unitaryo Schachter – suggested 4 Long term memory stores:

1. Semantic memory2. Episodic memory3. Procedural memory4. Perpetual representation system

o Amnesia patients have procedural memories and PRS but not the other two. o Levels of Processing – Craik and Lockhart. Not amount of rehearsal but how deeply you process info. o Too much focus on rehearsal – cannot explain how we remember smells or “flashbulb memories”o LTM influences how info. goes into STM, (STM not involved first) e.g. washing clothes expt.

Sensory Memory

PsychologyThe Working Memory Model

Baddeley & Hitch STM only

ii.

Evidence supporting the Working Memory Model

Dual Tasks – Baddeley & Hitchi. 2 tasks, 1st with CE, 2nd with AP

ii. Slower when using same store at the same time.iii. No difference when using two diff stores at the same time

Evidence for Central Executive – Bunge et ali. fMRI showed same brain areas active in either dual or single task but more activation in dual task.

ii. Supports CE as CE activity should increase in dual task. Evidence for phonological loop and articulatory process

i. PL explains word length effectii. PL holds info you can say in 2 secs – so hard to remember a list of long words.

iii. Long words can’t be rehearsed as they don’t fit.iv. Words length effect disappears if person given articulatory suppression task as it means you can’t

rehearse short words more quickly than longer ones. Evidence for visual – spatial sketchpad

i. Hard to track a moving light with a pointer whilst describing angles on a letter but not hard when performing verbal task (also supports dual task)

Evidence for episodic bufferi. Recall better for related words than unrelated words. Shows immediate memory store for items

neither phonological nor visual but draw on LTM.

Evidence from brain damaged patientsi. KF - no problem with long term learning but aspects of immediate memory impaired.

- STM forgetting of auditory info. was greater than of visual. - Also forgetting was greater of verbal material (digits) but not meaningful sounds (phone ring)

– damage of PL

Directs attention to particular tasks.

Limited capacity

For spatial tasks.Phonological store = words you hear (inner ear)

Articulatory process = words seen (inner voice) maintenance rehearsal.

Limited capacity.

Added later.

General store that holds info. relating to VSSP and PL.

Integrates info. from CE to PL, VSSK and LTM.

PsychologyEvaluation of the Working Memory Model

STRENGTHSo See previous pageo Emphasizes process more than MSM.o Better explanation as has components.

WEAKNESSESo Central executive – what is it? Description is too vague and doesn’t really explain anything.

- Probably more components to CE.- E.g. EVR had cerebral tumour removed. He could perform well on reasons tests

so suggest CE intact, but then had poor decision making skill, suggesting CE not intact.

o Evidence from brain damaged patients – cannot make “before and after” comparisons, so not clear whether changes are caused by the damage. Also brain damage can be traumatic which may change behaviour itself. And brain these cases are unique so can’t really generalise.

PsychologyMemory in Everyday Life

Eyewitness Memory

Encoding – this can be partial and distorted (crimes happen quickly and unexpectedly) Retention (storage) – after a period of time info can get lost or modified. Forgetting. Retrieval - nature of questioning or retrieval cues can affect accuracy

Studies of the accuracy of EWT

Broken glass study – Loftuso Tested misleading informationo 3 groups – 1st = smashed, 2nd = hit and 3rd = control.o One week later, asked 10 Qs, including critical Q: “Did you see any broken glass?” (no glass in film)o Results :

Verb conditionSmashed Hit Control

YES 16 7 6NO 34 43 44

o However, Yuille & Cutshall looked at EWT in real life and in an armed robbery; EWT was accurate even with 2 misleading qs.

Shoplifting Study – Listo Tested how SCHEMA (stored knowledge) affects memory.o List drew up list of elements in shoplifiting scenario and people rated them on how likely they would

occur. o She showed Ps 8 videos showing diff shoplifting incidents. o Week later they had to recall what they saw. o Results = more likely to recall high probability events. Some recalled high probability events that did

not occur.o Conclusion = SCHEMA affect EWT – therefore not reliable.

War of the ghosts - Bartletto Tested how SCHEMA (stored knowledge) affects memory.o Students asked to read story about ghostso Week later they had to recall story.o Their recall was modified and rationalised to make it more relatable to their knowledge.

Graduate Office Study – Brewer & Treyenso Tested how SCHEMA (stored knowledge) affects memory.o Ps asked to wait in office like room for 35 secso Asked to recall items in that roomo Correctly recalled items consistent with SCHEMA, e.g. tableo Also recalled items not present e.g. telephone.

PsychologyHow does anxiety influence EWT?

Study Method/Design Procedure Findings Commentary

Deffenbacher

o Meta-analysiso Observationalo Non-

experimental

o Meta- analysis of 18 studies between 1974 – 1997.

o Tried to see if high levels of anxiety had an effect on recall.

o High levels of stress did make witnesses less accurate in their EWTs.

o AO2 – studied lab expts so lack ecological validity.

o C&H contradicted findings. o D suggested it was due to

the “Yerkes-Dodson Law” – performance increases up to an optimum point and then declines with further increase. It is curvilinear.

Christianson & Hubinette

o Natural experiment

o Observational

o Survey - 110 people who witnessed 22 bank robberies.

o Some bystanders and some directly threatened.

o Threatened (most anxiety) = more detail & accuracy.

o Still true 15 months later.

o Can be argued that this doesn’t fit into “Yerkes-Dodson Law” as the people threatened DID experience high levels of anxiety.

Loftus

o Field experiment

o Independent measures design

o Ps overheard argument in adjoining room.

o Two conditions: 1st = man leaving with pen and greasy hands 2nd = man leaving with knife and blood on hands

o Condition 1 = 49% accurate identification of man.

o Condition 2 = 33% accurate

o “Weapon focus effect”o Explains poor recall in violent

crimes.o AO2 =BUT in C1 51% still got

it wrong so EWT is still inaccurate.

o AO2 =FE so offers more reliable results - real life situation.

o AO2 =But FE studies vary so can be hard to compare.

PsychologyHow does age influence EWT?

Study Method/Design Procedure Findings Commentary

Parker & Carranza

o Lab expto Independent

measures design

o Primary skl and college students

o Compared ability to identify target individual following a slide sequence of a mock crime.

o Child higher rate of choosing.

o Children more likely to make errors.

o AO2 = lacked EV – no real emotion

o Ps may have met demand characteristics

Poole & Lindsay

o Lab expt o Children 3-8o Saw science

demonstration. Parents read them story with SC elements in it.

o Children asked to talk about SD

o Then asked where they got info from

o Incorporated story with original memory

o O. children revised and realised. Y. children didn’t

o Y. Children not reliable. o AO2 = young children

may not have understood task.

o AO2 = children have short attention span.

o Strength – parents there so can monitor events (consent.)

Yarmey

o Lab expt o Elderly and young adults

o Asked qs about staged event

o 80% of EP failed to mention attacker had knife in hand

o 20% of young people

o EP not reliable o HOWEVER, another

study by Yarmey showed no diff in accuracy (but less confident). Asked Ps about woman they spoke to 15 mins earlier.

Anastasi & Rhodes

o Lab expt o (18-25) (35-45) (55-78)

o Shown 24 photos from 3 diff age groups.

o Rated them in attractiveness.

o Short filter activityo Shown 48 photos and

asked recall.

o Correct recognition rates higher in young and middle.

o But all better in identifying photos from same age group.

o “Own age bias”o Many individual

differences that can change outcome of results.

Psychology

The Cognitive Interview

Created because standard interviews had: closed and direct Qs (limited detail), witnesses were interrupted, and qs not asked in order leading to disrupted memories.

Fisher & Geiselman 4 distinct components

CR context reinstatement – mentally go back to crime scene and recreate memory and feelingsRE Report everything – whether they think its relevant or notCP recall from changed perspective – POV of other witnessesRO recall in reverse order – alternative way through timeline to try and obtain info from diff routes

CR and RE use retrieval cues. Tulving researched that people remember things more when they are in the same mood that an event happened – “Encoding Specificity Principle”

CP and RO used as observed info. can be retrieved from diff routes so more productive vary route questioning.

Research into the effectiveness of the Cognitive Interview

Köhnken – meta-analysis of 53 studies showed 34% increase in accuracy when using CI compared to standard.

Milne & Bull – tested 4 components separately. Most useful were CR and RE. All 4 together produced higher recall. Recall similar to standard when only using one component.

Evaluation of the Cognitive Interview

Kebbel – survey of policeman asking them about CI. They said:o useful but not always correcto CI requires more time than availableo CR and RE used the most

Different police forces use diff versions The enhanced version (with additional cognitive techniques proving witness’s mental image of event) of the

CI requires even more training in interviewers and demands more on them.

Psychology

Strategies for Memory Improvement

Method What is it? How it works/ psychological theory

Acronym

o Verbal mnemonico Word/sentence formed from

initial letters of other words. o E.g. ROYGBIV used to remembers

colours of the rainbow.

o Organises material into things that are more distinctive

o Organisation means things are easier and quicker to remember

o Creates link or associations that help recall

o Elaborates infoo Use of retrieval cues

Acrostic

o Verbal mnemonico Poem/sentence where the first

letter in each word forms the item to be remembered

o E.g. Many Vile Earthlings Munch Jam Sandwiches Under Newspaper Piles to remember the planets.

o See acronym

Peg Word System

o Visual mnemonic o Forming mental images of the

words you need to remember by “hanging” it on one of the “pegs”, e.g. if you needed to remember eggs, you would form a mental image of eggs in a bun for “one is bun”

o Use of elaborative rehearsal – makes things more memorable

o Use of retrieval cueso Words encoded as word AND as

an image – dual coding hypothesis (increases likelihood of retrieval)

Method of Loci

o Visual mnemonic o Requires the learner to associate

the info to be memorised with different places “landmarks” (usually a route) in the order to be recalled.

o See peg word systemo Tulving’s encoding specificity

principle – memory better if retrieval context is like encoding context.

Mind Maps/Spider diagrams

o Visual mnemonic o Making notes of info in a

drawing, using colours etc.o Main topic in centre, brancheso Add visual cues

o See peg word systemo Use of colours forms mental

image and better elaborative rehearsal.

Psychology

PsychologyUNIT 1, Module 2: Developmental Psychology – Early Social Development

Attachment - long lasting 2 way emotional tie

LearningTheory

All behaviour is learned rather than inborn Classical Conditioning

o Learning through associationo Food (unconditioned stimulus) produces a sense of pleasure (unconditioned response). The person

who feeds the infant (conditioned stimulus) becomes associated with the food. Mother eventually produces pleasure associated with food, so pleasure is now a conditioned response.

o Association between individual and sense of pleasure is the attachment. Operant conditioning

o Learning though rewardso Infant cries when hungry. Gets food (primary reinforcement) from the mother (secondary

reinforcement). Infant will cry again when it is hungry.o Mother also being reinforced for stopping the child crying which is a negative reinforcement

(unpleasant stimulus). Mother will repeat this action to remove unpleasant stimulus. o Attachment occurs because infant seeks the person who can supply the reward.

Evaluation of the Learning Theory

STRENGTHSo Provides adequate explanation – we do learn through association and reinforcemento But food may not be reinforcer; it is the attention from caregiver.

WEAKNESSESo Strong psychological evidence that feeding has nothing to do with attachment - Harlow’s monkeys. o Schaffer & Emerson – observed 60 babies from Glasgow working-class homes for a year. Not

attached to person who fed them but the person who was most responsive and interactive.

Social Learning Theory

Theory that develops learning theory Children learn behaviour through observation and imitation of other people who act as role models. Role modelling: parents show child affectionate behaviours which the child imitates. Direct instruction: parents teach child to reciprocate affection e.g. “give me a kiss goodbye” Social facilitation: parents watch and help child carry out attachment behaviours, e.g. playing with friend or

siblings.

Evaluation of the Social Learning Theory

STRENGTHS o Takes into account the importance of parents as role models.o Doesn’t deny importance of innate influence (but focuses on social)

WEAKNESSESo Does not explain why attachments are so emotionally intense.

PsychologyBowlby’s Evolutionary Theory of Attachment

1. Attachment is adaptive and innate- Promotes survival- Innate drive to become attached to a caregiver

2. Social Releasers- Smiling, crying etc. makes caregivers respond “Dance of Interaction”- Care giving is also adaptive – also promotes survival

3. Critical/Sensitive Period- Certain time when infants are most sensitive to form attachments.- As time goes on it becomes harder to form attachments

4. Monotropy/Hierarchy- Primary attachment – person who responds most sensitively to social releasers. - Secondary attachments form hierarchy – still important in development

5. Internal Working Model- Based on their relationshop with their primary caregiver- Infant develops ideas about how and what they expect relationships to be

6. Continuity Hypothesis- IWM leads to this- Link between early attachment relationship and later emotional behaviour- Securely attached children will go on to be socially and emotionally competent.

Evaluation of Bowlby’s Evolutionary Theory of Attachment

STRENGTHSo Adaptive = imprinting in goslings (Lorenz)o Sensitive period = Hodges & Tizard found children who didn’t form attachments had problems with

peers. o Universality = Tronick et al - African tribe showed that even though infants were breastfed by diff

women (but slept with their mothers at night) they still showed primary attachment in mother.o Monotropy and Hierarchy = Schaffer & Emerson found that infants maintained one primary

attachment. Also Tronick study. o Continuity hypothesis = Hazan and Shaver “Love Quiz”.

WEAKNESSESo Some psychologists e.g. Rutter think that all attachment figures are equally important. For example

Grossman & Grossman - key role for fathers in attachment. And relationships with siblings are important in negotiating with peers. (But this is not far from what Bowly intended, he thought other attachments were important too, but central one was key.)

o Temperament hypothesis (Kagan) –. Some may have an innate friendly personality leading to have secure relationships. Evidence = twins have same temperamental differences. And Belsky & Rovine found babies with calm temperaments were more likely to be secure.

PsychologyTypes of Attachment

Mary Ainsworth constructed the Strange Situation. Tested “Separation Anxiety” and “Stranger Anxiety”

Episodes (3 mins long) Behaviour assessed1. Parent and infant play -2. Parent sits while infant plays Secure base3. Stranger enters and talks to parent Stranger anxiety4. Parent leaves, infant left with stranger Separation anxiety5. Parent returns, stranger leaves Reunion behaviour6. Parent leaves, infant alone Separation anxiety7. Stranger enters Stranger anxiety8. Parent returns Reunion behaviour

Group of people recorded what children were doing ever 15 secs. Also scored them on scale of 1-7 on diff behaviours, e.g. contact-seeking behaviours. Ainsworth combined data from several studies and discovered 3 types of attachment:

o Secure attachment – 60%o Insecure – avoidant attachment – 22%o Insecure – resistant (ambivalent) attachment – 12%

Main and Solomon also proposed “insecure – disorganised (disinhibited attachment) “

Evaluation of the Strange Situation and Types of Attachment

STRENGTHSo Reliable as almost perfect agreement when rating exploratory behaviouro Takes a short period of timeo Easy to replicateo Looks at a whole range of measures to assess attachmento Reliable as repeated many timeso Good Predictive Validity – Hazan and Shaver “Love Quiz”

WEAKNESSESo May not be valid- studying relationship not attachment. Relationship with father may be diff, but

bowlby would argue that this doesn’t matter as its not primary attachment.o Ethical issues for distress on infantso Lab expt – lack EV – Bronfenbrenner measured attachments at home and they were less strongo Predictive validity = correlational

Factors influencing Attachment Type

Ainsworth suggested: o SECURE = mothers are sensitive, accepting, cooperative and accessibleo INSECURE – RESISTANT = mothers are more unresponsive to crying, less affectionate, tended to be

occupied whilst looking after child. Didn’t know how to look after the child well.o INSECURE – AVOIDANT = mothers are more unresponsive to crying, less affectionate, more rejecting,

paid less attention. Slade et al suggested maternal reflective functioning (understanding what someone else is thinking and

feeling) was what established attachment type.

PsychologyCultural Variations in Attachment

Cross cultural similarities:o Ainsworth Uganda Study – infants use mothers as safe base, and mothers of secure are more

sensitiveo Tronick et al African Tribe Studyo Fox studied infants in the Kibbutz system – children cared for in communal homes by metaplot

(nurses). Appeared to be equally attached to both caregivers but showed stronger reunion behaviours with mothers.

Cross cultural differences:o Grossman & Grossman - German infants classified as insecurely attached. However this is due to

differences in German culture which involve keeping interpersonal distance between parents and children and where they teach children to be independent.

o Takahashi – Japanese infants had high rates of insecure-resistant attachments (32%). Japanese infants rarely experience separation with mothers or experience isolation with strangers. Emphasis on close family relationships.

These studies show that despite some differences, strongest attachments are still formed with the mother.

Van IJzendoorn and Krooenberg did a meta-analysis to study inter-cultural differences and intra-cultural differences:

o Secure most commono Then insecure-avoidant (except Israel and Japan)o Found that intra-cultural differences 1.5 times greater than inter-culturalo Overall meta-analysis shows global patterns to be similar and secure is the “best” for healthy social

and emotional development.

Evaluation of Cultural Variations in Attachment – Criticisms on Research

Rothbaum et al argued that attachment theory is limited to only western cultures, e.g. in Japan:o sensitivity is promoting dependence not independence, o competence is being able inhibit your emotions not being able to explore and regulate one’s

emotions, o and being group-orientated is more important than being self-orientated.

Rothbaum et al suggested a set of indigenous theories should be made. HOWEVER Rothbaum talked about the differences inter-culturally but there are many subcultures where

there are larger differences – study in Tokyo had similar findings to the West but a rural sample found an overrepresentation of insecure-resistant.

Van IJzendoorn & Kroonenberg suggested media was the cause for cross-cultural similarities. Issue in cross-cultural research with indigenous researchers as they may be from diff cultures. Issue with “tools” used – use of intelligence tests and observational methods (i.e. strange situation) are

related to cultural assumptions of the test designer. This is decribed as “imposed etic”. This results in children appearing to be insecure though they may be secure, e.g. in Japan.

PsychologyDisruption of Attachment

Deprivation – separation, bond disruption. Short term effects of separation:

o PDD Model = Protest – Despair – Detachment

o Case Study of 2 year old goes to hospital: R&R used camera to record observations of Laura who was admitted for 8days. She alternates between periods of calm and distress. Visited occasionally by parents but begs to go home. She has to deal with disappointment of staying. Laura’s struggle is hard to watch.

o Case study of Jane, Lucy, Thomas and Kate: All under 3 and placed in foster care with Robertsons as mothers were in hospital Robertsons gave high level substitute emotional care and kept routines similar Fathers visited to maintain emotional links Kate went to visit mother and was settle after this Children adjusted well Showed some sign of distress, e.g. Thomas rejected cuddles Did not reject mothers when reunited Some reluctant to part with foster mother.

o Case study of John: Placed in residential nursery for nine days whilst mother having baby Father visited regularly First few days was normal Gradually he tries to get attention from nurses but cannot compete with more assertive

children John fails to find people who will respond and finds comfort in oversized teddy bear Gradually breaks down and refused food and drink, stops playing and cries a lot Gives up getting attention and nurses always change shift (no constant care) First week greet father happily, second week he just sits quietly On ninth day when mother come, John struggles and screams. For many months after he still has outbursts towards his mother.

Long Term Effects of Separation:o Extreme clinginesso Detachmento Child more demanding

Effects depend on:

o Durationo Child (personality)o Ageo Sex

o Whether routine is maintainedo Good emotional substitute careo Type of attachment

Psychologyo Overprotective relationships with

mothers o Easier if multiple attachments

PsychologyFailure to form an Attachment

Privation – when a bond is never formed, e.g. with institutionalised children

Tizard & Hodgeso Longitudinal Studyo Independent measures (and matched pairs)o Self report method – questionnaires, interviews, assessment scaleso 3 groups: 1st = adopted children, 2nd = restored children, 3rd = remain institutionalised (also matched

companions in status, relationships, sex etc.)o Assessed at regular intervals up to age of 16o Findings:

Ex – institutionalised more “adult-orientated” than control group Also less popular Less likely to have special friend Restored group had bad relationships with siblings Restored had more problems with peers – more quarrelsome and attention seeking

(disinhibited attachment) 20/21 adopted formed secure attachments to parents by 8 years old

o Therefore early privation has negative effect on relationships. Supports sensitive period. o Evaluation:

High subject attrition rates Can’t be sure that children suffered privation in institution Good as used a range of research methods to collect info. – triangulation Ethical issues as sensitive area of family relationships. Result in bias results as problem families may have dropped out.

Ruttero Longitudinal Studyo Orphans in Romania adopted by Britisho Orphans compared with adopted babies in UK before 6 monthso 58 adoptees < 6 moths

59 adoptess >6 moths48 adoptees between 2-4 years

o Assessed at 4,6,11o Used triangulation – interviews, observationso Findings:

At 6, evidence of disinhibited attachment, especially in late adoptees At 6, <6 months showed same emotional development as British At 11, DA persisted – 56% adoptees

o Evaluation: See Tizard & Hodges Didn’t know quality of care in Romania

Psychology Genie

o Found when 13 ½o Couldn’t speak or stand properlyo Taught how to speak etc.o Discovered late but findings inconclusive. – Maybe she couldn’t recover as she was brain damaged

like her father said not because of privation. o Can’t generalise

Czech twinso Found when 7o Couldn’t talko Cared for by two sisters and by 14 had near normal intellectual and social functioningo By 20 had higher than average IQo Good relationships with foster family and went on to form positive romantic relationshipso BUT can’t generalise, they had each other (formed attachments to each other) etc.

Effects of Privation and Institutionalisation

Attachment disorder:o Inhibited – shy, withdrawn, unable to cope sociallyo Disinhibited – over-friendly and attention seekingo Generally no preferred attachment figure and inability to interact or relate with others.

Poor parenting – Quinton et al found that ex-institutionalised women in their 20s were experiencing difficulties in parenting.

Deprivation Dwarfism – being physically small can be from lack of emotional care not malnourishment. Girl has a malformation and mother never cuddled her in fear of dislodging tube. At 8 months girl was physically stunted and went to hospital for treatment, she was given no change in her diet but given care and soon changed back to normal size. Gardner suggests, emotional disturbance could affect the production of hormones.

PsychologyAttachment in Everyday Life

The Impact of Day-care

Negative effects on social development:

Study Method/Design Sample Findings Explanations/commentaryNICHD (National institute of child health and human development)

o Longitudinalo 1991 -

o 1000 children from diverse families from 10 diff locations

o America

o At 5, more time spent in day-care, the more disobedient, assertive and aggressive child was.

o Children in full time day-care 3x more likely to show behaviour problems.

o Belsky (2007) assessed children after primary education and found link between day-care and aggressiveness.

o Low quality day-care showed poor social development

o Friedmen said 83% children who spent 10-30 hours did NOT show levels of aggressions

o Mother’s sensitivity = better indicator of behaviour problems.

o Higher maternal education and income predicted lower problem behaviours

o 2006 data suggests children’s development more affected home factors

Violato & Russel

o Meta-analysis

o 88 studies o Regular day-care for more than 20 hours a week had negative effect on socio-developmental behaviour.

o cannot show that day-care causes aggression, just that they are linked

Belsky & Rovine

o o Infants receiving < 20 hours day -care per week before 1 years.

o More likely to be insecurely attached.

o Lead us to expect children in day care to be less successful in peer relations

o cannot show that day-care causes aggression, just that they are linked -

Positive effects on social development:

Study Method/Design Sample Findings Explanations/commentaryClarke – Stewert

-

o 150 children who had experienced diff kinds of daycare

o Children who attended nurseries had better social development then children who stayed at home with mothers,

o Encourages social relationships with peers

o Provides social stimulationo Mother’s provide better

care as they are less depressed being with their kids all the time

EPPE(effective provision of pre-school education project)

o Longitudinal o 3000 pre-school children in the UK

o Increased independence and sociability in children who attended daycare.

o Allows development of social strategies

Field o Amount of time spent in day-care correlates positively to no. of

o Could negotiate better with peers (Clarke Stewert)

Psychologyfriends made at school

Mediating factors of Day-Care

Quality of careo If substitute emotional care is provided then there will be no ill effectso High child-to-staff ratios and staff turnover means children will be looked after strangers who they

cannot form secondary attachments to – NICHD shows low quality care results in poor social development

o Even so, carers do not have the same interest and commitment so this can result in poor social development

Individual Differenceso Some find day-care harder to cope e.g. shyo Insecurely attached children may find it hardero NICHD found children with mothers who lacked responsiveness did less well in day-care (on the

other hand Egeland and Hiester found the opposite – insecurely attached might have got the care they needed).

Child’s age and number of hourso Gregg et al found children under 18 months had more negative effectso But Clarke Stewert et al found no diff between children spending a lot of time in day-care (30 hours a

week) compared with less time (10 hours a week).

The Implications of Research into Attachment and Day-care

Attachment Research:o Substitute emotional care when children go to temporary careo Maintaining routineso Allowing frequent visits to parentso Babies are adopted within first week of birth to allow attachments in sensitive period.

Day-Care Research:o Low child-to-staff ratios – gives consistent care and children get enough attentiono Minimal staff turnover – maintains attachments and stops feelings of deprivation or anxietyo Sensitive emotional care – high sensitive care means happy and secure childreno Qualified staff – EPPE found higher qualifications lead to better social development

Availability of high quality care:o In UK it’s legal standards must be meto Day-care nurseries are inspected by Ofstedo UK government initiated the Sure Start programme that aims to deliver the best start in life for every

child. Success of this initiative is the focus of the NESS project which is studying the outcomes of the Sure Start Programme.