psychological science chapter overview · pdf filethinking critically. . with psychological...
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. .Thinking Critically WithPsychological Science
CHAPTER OVERViEW
Chapter 1 explains the limits of intuition and comfllOO sunse in reasoniog about behavior and mentalp-rocessesz To counteract otir human tendency towardtn f n- -orr :\ dR logists dop sLlCfltlflL f
tude that Is: based on curiosity, skepticism, humi1ityand critical thinking. Chapter 1 also explains howpsychologists, using the scientific method, employthe research strategies of description, correlation, andexperimentation in order to objectively describe, predict, and explain behavior,
The next section discusses how statistical reasoning is used to heip psychologists describe data and togeneralize from instances. To descrihe data, psychologists often rely on measures of central tendency suchas the mean, median, and mode, as weh as variationmeasures soch as the range and standard deviation,Statistical reasoning also helps psychologists determine wn;en it is safe to generalize from a sample tothe iaraer populat;on.
Chapter 1 concludes with a discussion. of severalquestions people often ask ahont psychology, including why animal research is relevant, whether laboratory experiments are ethical, whether behavior varieswith culture and gender, and whether psychology’sprinciples don’t have the potential for misuse.
Chapter 1 introduces a number of concepts andissues that will play an important role in later chapters. Pay particular attention to the strengths andweaknesses of descriphve and correlational researchIn addition, make sure that x on understand themeThod of expernnentat;on, especlallv the importanceof control conditions and; the ditference betweenindependent and:; depencfent variables. Pinally, von
r 1cfodio —fnu upo &ri
concerning populations; and samples. as well as theconcept t ‘co ticance in tcstnrv difa ionce
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18 (hapter I l hinking Critically With Psychological Science
Objective 1: Define hindsight bias, and explain how itcan make research findings seem like mere commonseflSC.
1. The tendency to percei\ e an outcome that has
occurred as heinu obvious and predictable is
Lalled thr
I his phenomenon is
(rare common) in
(hildren/adults both
children and adults).
2. Because it is (atter the
tact usually wrong), this tendency makes a
research findings seem like mere common sense.
Objective 2: Describe how o erconfidence contaminates our ci ervday judgments.
3. Our ci cry day thinking is also limited by
in what we think we knov.,
ii hich occurs because of our
______
to seek information that confirms our judgments.
4. Most people are
(better/n orse/equally wrong) in predicting their
social behas ior
Objective 3: 1 xplain how the scientific attitudeencourages critical thinking.
5. The scientific approach is characterized by’ the
attitude’- of
Sand
6 Scientific inquiry thus encourages reasoning that
cxamins assumptions, discerns hidden values,
r aluates c x deuce and assesses conclusions,
uh s ca’lca
Objectixe 4: Dccrihu hw psxchoiogicai theoriesguide scicntitie research.
to guide their tudy of
chasic raid mental processes. They make
and form
ii hich are
hac. d on nen
8. An explanation using an integrated set of princi
ples that organizes and predicts behaviors or
events is a Testable pre
dictions that allow a scientist to evaluate a theory
are called . These predic
tions gix e direction to
9. In order to prevent theoretical biases from in flu
encing scientific observations, research must be
reported preciseli—using clear
of all concepts—so that
others can the findings.
10. Ehe test of a useful theory is the extent to which it
effectively observations
and implies clear
11. Psychologists conduct research using
methods
and
methods.
Description (pp. 26—30)
If you do not kwthernningofanvofthfollowing words, phrases, or expressions in thecontext in which they appear in the text, referto page 40 for an explanation: Numbers arenumbing; Anecdotes are often more startling; a
L thimbleful; snapshot of the opinions.
Objective 5: Identify an advantage and a disadvantage of using case studies to study behavior and mental processes.
1. The research strategy in which one or more indi
viduals is studied in depth in order to reveal uni
versal principles of behavior is the
2. Although case studies can suggest
for further study, a poten
tial problem with this method is that any’ given
individual may he
Objective 6: Identify the adi antages and disad vantages of using surveys to study behavior and mentalprocesses, and explain the importance of wordingeffects and random sampling.
3. The method in which a group of people is ques
tioned about their attitudes or behavior is the
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20 Ci pte oCitar % th y tol otto C e
6. 3etau’, tii1 t ti mas b)th xi u cd n’ o it it at smi or hi tie tedw ticon ‘.rulk. lo
Ct (I for dt m study a t c it rciatit is )syd ologists
) i c itha ( t c o thu sinth’s
ihc 1)tt r I ) to his t r C N x the
Oil uo i ‘it
ottc ors.Object ye 10: Dt c ( c P 1 u or oreat ns 3. 1 c i cswxr n
tti itt) ft
7. \ trt xe ti I tutt d ‘ihtx r ci ur t e do s tnt pit
is a
8. People art r rc e t it tru i d ret Ii n in Objective 13 1 , u uh the doub e blind proce
that their bc iet . this ira r dine rnd random a gnmer t by d onfidence in- rxcar I lindi is
n tin ikin ieig ex lai many
jefets.4. Rest arthca a n etimes aive et rtair p trticipants a
Objective U: xplan th turn n ide to p scu Ioheat ext called acent o dc r randon ‘qn ces at d r p re tbt i behavior with that ot partich
pants w 1 o icc th e the at tual treatment. When9. Inott tr ccr m it ttnde u ‘st percuve ordi n
flc ‘ th kir t t a! inc ic rece” ng a treatment
pioouce rinults a10. Pattcr sate s caks r rardo sequ( ice occu- is sad to occur.
more less) often than peo ra. When neithe the subjects nor the person collectole exm et and they (do / .ing thi data knots s which cond t on a subject isdo ni) iy pear random. in thc researe icr s making use t the
Experimentation (pp 6 )9 -
It you k t C t know the near in of the I ilk aa d tI in t x v hex t appca 6 k i expirin e itn ust mx olve at cast two condi
hetc t page 0 o i xoi atior: tors:tte en dhion in
ah he xe it iental treatrit it’s bresent, and
thc Ito ntichiti
Objct’v 12 es tC
.1 e t
da C ‘qen
c dii -
Csti ur
t I ttirObjective 14: I x ah r t WIfe r e bctxsee i an indepert/c ta-i d tide x iabt.
2. P r ‘t dk a hi d t na t d
tt 8. e 11 r ar a atdi n npcr
i ti abc.
The measurabk factor that may changc as a result Objective 17: Desa be tI t tItendency, and tell rfrc r mol these manipulations is called thecores.
ra ‘nble.
9. lhc aim 01 an cxperim r t is to 3 thrcc r as ca(n variable,
the x anabic and and thealother
4. Ihemottrqu IF xplain at least one adi antagc )t tbc cxperiment as a tion is c 11 d nresearch r icthod
5, thc mear scir uted s
I
the
6. The median is thc a
percentile
7. 1% hen a distribntrc r is c F d
t
(mean median nodc
Statistical Reasoning (pp 39 44) extreme scores
It von do not knon the meaning ol ant of the Objective 18: Dt’stiibe V 1 51)
following words, phrases or expressions in thecontext in which they appear in the text, refer topages 40-41 for an cxplanation’ Off the top of 8. &r erages dciii ed Ii ) rthe head cstm ate, iatio’ial uic une coke’ gauges (high Ron) r anab lut rdata arc ‘niisy.
those ii ith
rariability
Objective 15: 1 xplain the inrportanc e ot statistical 9. The measnrcs of s a at onprinciples and gh e an exampic of their use in everyday hfe. an
1, Researchers use to help 10, The rangc is o r put d
the n see and interpret their obsc ix atrons
11. Th rryt t “tOblective 16’ 1 xp I ur bc r I ar gr p is ar misrepresent daia crudc uratc c
2 0 tic i it ii xc c,a r rOtlc r cxtrcr sc r
hcy i inst 12. fhc siardard dcthor i One simple way of (more ac ur itc Ic s c ‘
visually rcpresentrng data is to nse a hon than tbc ioi g IIt is dard de i itior
inportari )read tIe nct t ke into c r dnlrotethc e rsc i c ii I
d cng isl adbv
‘rcp ted I ti.
22 Chapter 1 Thinking Critically With Psychological Science
Objective 19: Identify three principles of making generalizations from samples.
13. It is safer to generalize from a
sample than trom a sample.
14. A erages are more reliable when they are based
on scores with (high low)
variability.
15. Small samples pros ide a
(more less) reliable basis for generalizing than
large samples.
Objective 20: Explain how psychologists decidewhether difterences are meaningful.
flexibly cope with
also cope flexibly with
stresses
2. Psychologists conduit experiments on simplified
beha iors in a laboratory environment in order to
gain o er the many vari
ables present in the “real world.” ln doing so,
they are able to test
ate in the real world.
of behavior that also oper
Objective 22: Discuss ‘a hether psychological researchcan be generalized across cultures and genders.
3. Culture refers to shared
16. lests of statistical are used
to estimate whether observed differences are
real —that is, to make sure that they are not sim
ply the result of variation.
The differences are probably real if the sample
averages are and the differ
ence between them is (rela
tively small/relatively large).
17. Statistical significance does not necessarily indi
cate the importance or sig
nificance of a difference or result.
Frequently Asked Questions AboutPsychology (pp.44- 50)
Objective 21: 1 xplain the value of simplitied laboratory conditions in disoering general principles otbehax ior.
1. In laboratory experiments, psychologists’ concern
is not with specific heha iors but with the under
lying theoretical . As an
example, researchers ha e found that people who
on to the next.
and
that one generation passes
4. Although specific attitudes and behaviors vary
across culture’, the underlying
are the same. For instance, throughout the world
people diagnosed with
exhibit the same malfunc
tion. Likewise, similarities between the
far outweigh differences.
Objective 23: Explain why psychologists study animals, and discuss the ethics of experimentation withboth animals and humans,
5. Many psychologists study animals because they
are fascinating. More important, they study ani
mals because of the (simi
larities differences) between humans and other
animals. These studies have led to treatments for
human and to a better
understanding of human functioning.
6. Some people question whether experiments with
They wonderanimals are
whether it is right to place the
of humans o er those of animals.
7. Opposition to animal experimentation also raises
the question of what should
protect the ‘a eli being of animals
If you do not kno’a the meaning of an of thefollowing words, phrases, or expressions in thecontext in which the appear in the text, refer topage 41 for an explanation: plunge Zn; lo underctand how a ornbustion eninc works . . .‘ screen’color ‘thefads.’
23
Dc sci F c ais of the ethical guidelines Ii r p’v PROGI p c arch.
“I
‘
r
r
Objc ti 24 Ic i Ion persoralvaluc cai rio rr s h rsts rcseirci md its apyncati n ar
u s hcl g potertialtor anifnla epccp e
S I t logists values (do b
do or) ir iluc net their theories, obserm abon / mmd 2 cip’cic ioniladvite
9 \th ug psc mologv a
(c n car r ot) be sed to nanipr latc people its
pnrpo’e is
iu ç I r inking c. it caliyj Inc mien point alien
questions scientih c bjec i i F
ty argum r’ that most scion ide co icepts aII s
m ey crstmucts,
is o)mca 5 ientsts
ag cc dicag cc m nhether there is h fact m b
i it arid ii psychoiogital princ pies that
icrte car r veal.
II F nkin0 ( ititadvl Peopit uho scrxc on juries b
pt ipit smmemtcases
d d mot represent thc pm atcr popu a on
c a tics kI
a dn ir
r riavdtt tad tmitr
ed )F
ts
24 (hap er 1 ‘1 hrnking Critically With Psychological Science
6. 1 o ensure that other researchers can repeat theiruc rk psychologists use:
a. cc ntrol groupsI,. random assignment.c dor bk-blind procedures.d o eraton I dLfinitions,
7. 1 ‘a scientific attitude of skepticism is based ontt belief that
a people are rarc hr andid in rer ealing theirthoughts.
b. mental processes can’t be studied objectir ely.c the scientist s intuition about behavior is usu
ally correctd. ideas need to be tested against observable evi
dence,
8, 14’hk h of tl followina is not a basic researchtechnique used by psychologists?
a. descriptionb replicationc. experimentationd. correlation
9, Psy hologists personal r alues:
a har e little influence on how their experimentsarc conducted,
b. do not influence the interpretation of experimental results because of the use of statisticaltechniques that guard against subjective bias,
c. can bias both scientific observation and interpretation of data,
d. has c little influence on investigatir e methodsb it a significant effect on interpretation.
10, It shoe size and IQ are negatir ely correlated,‘a hich of the following is true?
a, eopie with large feet tend to hare high lQs.b. I cc pie with small feet tend to have high IQsc Pr opl s ith small feet tend to hare low IQs.
rri predictable heced n a percon’c ‘hoe
11 V of h I I owing would he best for detern r , isle scr a col ol i upairs memorr?
a sr ctd c. surreyb at iralist c c bserr ation d. experiment
12 1 c et mca’ure attitude’ in a represent i s c subset or , of anito’ gr rp or
a puiatic r’ random sampleb c tr ‘a r p cxpe imentai group
e a gr p or trol groupd i anpe P01 latior
13. What is the mean of the following distribution ofscores: 2, 3, 7, 6, 1, 4, 9, 5, 8, 2?a,5 c,4,7b,4 d.3.7
14. What is the median of the following distributionof scores: 1, 3, 7 7, 2, 8, 4?
a. 1 c. 3b.2 d.4
15. lAhat is the mode of the following distribution: 8,2, 1, 1,3,7,6,2,0,2?
a. I c. 3b.2 d.7
16. In generalizing from a sample to the population,it is important that:a. the sample is representative of the population.b. the sample is large.c. the scores in the sample have lois variability.d. all of the abore are observed,
17. When a difference between two groups is “statistically significant,” this means that:a. the difference is statistically real but of little
practical significance.b. the difference is probably the result of sam
pling variation.c. the difference is not likely to be due to chance
variation.d. all of the above are true.
18. A lopsided set of scores that includes a number ofextreme or unusual r alues is said to be:
19. Juwan eagerly opened an online trading account,belier ing that his market savvy would allow himto pick stocks that would make him a rich daytrader, This belief best illustrates:a. the false consensus effect,b. illusory correlation,c. hindsight bias,d. overconfidence,
20. Which of the following is the measure of centraltendency that would be most affected by a fewextreme scores?
a. sy mmetricaLI,, normal,
c. skewed.d. dispersed.
a. meanb. range
c. mediand. mode
Wa I
Mde
It
thea rd tic rane he s rf tic dW e
1 Wi i
I t if
d nplct d during a final4 t t following questions after
i aid lie o r e anscrers forsaidl og ess hstl
3 Wuhs it tton lnele r r
a Ocr airwt usc lice
b. \Ilegatoi tcct a nlsInn e It
c. lie it athc Fit Itn n I es
nd Fir
e
fT
‘e t h i definitien or
It us
C’
b c n4 d’
6 atii dd at
st t3 i
I) f Ito
a heb i
C
g agt (
3 tI’
10 c u cur ttni i h an cur tv r11 r u aton I hird d a i c i cI if u ms ffet t oratic n 0 r r1 iiti tin j 1k cc it I i
I I u e elatior k reasoning hi I n t
L experim wt e Ptin cnerestn at n )t i
n false pu pitr )
ii
PROGRESS TEST 2
i
F
b
i
r ii if
Pre pJay te
)O hth t
al’,erie
ii ifCi n
Mi hip1 ( teat )i st o s
C
5 i
C nC
Co
t
C
5
a. mu rb or
2 y
P
cea h m thods does1 iers
it a Ii )Fserx stionp ir it
i fTP ) ffe toIt su4 s 41
ab
dci ci
26 Chapter 15’ ik ig C tically With ‘syci ologita Science
5, One reason escarche r’ basc the ‘r f ndi igs onrepresentatn c sam iles 5 to as c id t e false coinsensus effect. w ref reters to our tenUcncr to’
a. ot erestimatc t c cx ut t w er others shareour belief.
b. talsets perceh e a et ti rst ip betn ecu tisous cuts it hen none exists
c. underestimate errors in our judgment.d. make all or the above reaconing errors,
6. If hich or the fellow ing cc-f dew rihes the hindsight bias?
a. Es cuts seem more predictable hetore theehate oct erred,
b. Es cuts seem met e predictable after thet haveoccurred.
c. A persons intuition is usuattv corret.d. A perst ‘us in tuition i mualh not correct
7. The procedure designed to ensure that the experimental and control groups do not Jitter in antway that might affer t tne experiment’s resrdts iscalled:
a. variable controlling.b. random assignmentc, representatis e sampling.d. stratificat on.
8. lflnsory correlation refers to:
a. the perception that two negatix elf correlatedvariables are nositix clv correlated.
b. the perception of a correlation where there isnone.
c. an insignificant correlation.d. a correlation that equals I,).
9. In generalizing from a sample to the popolation,it A important that:
a. the sample he representath e.h. the ampie be nonrandem,c. the -ample ran he us’ largc.d. all of the chine he true.
10. 1 lie ‘ti euOh sf thec1abmshir Lsetweeu us
s is 0 us et its n tIl most i’kel be:
a. siciiifmcamii.b. psitnt’
C. negative.d. os erestimateti.
IL \khich ot the lollossir g is true according to thetext?
a. Bee iuse E bor hors e\periments are artificial,any a ne tes d scot ered cannot he appliedto es cry Ta, rehas mors.
b. \o psy e iological theors can he considered agood o e unfit it produces testable predie
c. l’sx chologx ‘s them mes reflect common sense.d. Pss choiogs has rest ties to other diciptines.
12. flhicb txpe or research isould allots von to determine is hether students’ college grades accuratelypredict later income?
a. cast’ studi c. experimentationb. naturalistic observation d. cmrrelation
13. In a test of the etfects ot air pollution. grnups ofstodents pertormed a reaction-time task in a polluted or air unpolluted room. lo ss’hat conditionxs crc students in the unpolluted room exposed2
a. experimental c. randomls assignedb. control d. dependent
14. In order to studs the effects of lighting on mood,Dr. v oper hart students nil out qoestioruraires inbright s lit ss dimly lit rooms. In this study, the‘ndependent s anabte consisted ot:
a. the number of students assigned to eachgroup.
b. the students responses to the questionnairec. the room ighhngd. the ublcet matter of the questions asked.
15. lNhh is t c mode of the fodoiving distribution ofscores. 2 2,4,4 4 II?
a. 2 c.b.4 d.6
16. IX hat A the mean cit the foliosvinu distribution ofscon’c:TH,s,lo, ii,4.5,O. 1,4?
a. ab. I’
17. XVI ,at is th’ n edman of the tollon mg d isti ihution.ii S ooi
a. h c. rb.7 d.c
IS. \Viikh or the oliosving is the measure ot sariaton that A Imost aftected hs exh’emne scores?
c. moderution d. range
a. iiieuib. ta d
Is I
19. 1 he set of scores that would likely be most representative of thc population from ix hich it wasdrawn would be a sample nun a relatively:
a. large standard deviatio rb. small standard des iation,c. large range.d. small range.
20. U a ditterei cc bc iv cucalls signihe rut ccontluded
a. lhe diffcrmcc s pa hahix rt a 1riOtb. [he ddfcir ncr is probaul’ n t a liable.c. Ihe ddfercnu could he clot tc cnipI’i \ i
ation
d. All or the ahovc can bu :tn5uJo.
hypothesistht’orxindependent x ariabledependent x arableexperimental couditioucontrol conditioncase studysu rvesrephcationrandom assignmentexperimentdouble blind
PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED
\nsn cc these questions the dcx before an exam as afinal che k on x our understanding of the chapter’sterms and corn epts
%iuItiple”CIioice Questions
1. ‘You decide to test your eiiet that men drinkmore sott drinks than xx omen by finding outwhether more sott drinks are consumed per daxin tile moo s dorm tE r the a omens dorm.your h iel is a(n r I x our researchpredit tion is a(n
Definitions or Descriptions
a. an iradepth obsert atonal ctudx o nc Ox n- mb. the x ariable being manipulate d 10 an Cr pci inixrtC. tile x ariahie being measured; in an c\rerrnontd. thu’ “treatmenLahsent’ eondton i’. or tape ii
m err te. testable propositionf. repeating an experu rent to see x heihei thi
results are obtainedg. the process in xshicl’ ieseareh partic
selected by chance t difteient p” rexperiment
h. an explanation usurg r b’got ‘d 1pies that organizes n I pri d ts ) r
1. the research strategy v5 dr tior more x ariables n char or are t cd
j. the ‘treatment prese oaditionment
k. the res°arch strate s n which a reprcsample of indixtidua’s is quectroned
L experimcntal procedure in u hih nei’heresearch participant nor thu tape rio a nte kn xwhich condition tile parti ipu’t i to
a. hvpothoks: thoorsb. theory, ha pothusisc. independent ‘ or ‘able: dope, i ‘‘‘ahabd. dependent yarabiu; iodcpoh or
2. \our ntomuote a ridra Log a
how mans hours the txpical ,,1lx qu uodent tu1ies each dcx She plans ho rta tr:f l’t co shin
naire to the memhur of icr s’O win. ‘ a ntout that her hnding xx di hu rc, x at in a
a. sin’ has not spt’ertiud an “dc1 to or ‘at r
b. she ha not speeitied a dupe ode ot iac. ‘nc sa n xii’ probaht or t he r cc
r hiy p t nohnatd of II I ons
x i ‘aorplcfi thu folios
Matching Items
Match each term with its detinition or description.
I’cnns
1.
3.4,
D.
6.I,
8.9,
10.ii,12
S
f
28 Chapter 1 Thinking Critically With Psychological Science
3. The concept of control is important in psychological research because:
a. without control over independent and dependent variables, researchers cannot describe,predict, or explain behavior,
b. experimental control allows researchers tostuds the influence of one or two independentvariables on a dependent variable while hold-in g other potential influences constant.
c. without experimental control, results cannothe genera liied from a sample to a population.
d. of all the above reasons.
4. Martina believes that high doses of caffeine slowa person’s reaction time. In order to test thisbelief, she has five friends each drink three 8-ounce cups of coffee and then measures theirreaction time on a learning task. What is wrongwith Martina’s research strategy?
a. No independent variable is specified.b. No dependent variable is specified., ‘I here is no control condition,d. There is no provision for replication of the
findings.
5. A researcher was interested in determiningwhether her students’ test performance could hepredicted from their proximity to the front of theclassroom. So she matched her students’ scoreson a math test with their seating position. Thisstudy is an example of:
a. experimentation.b. correlational research,c. a survey.d. naturalistic ohsenation.
6. Your best friend criticizes psychological researchfor being artificial and having no relevance tobehavior in real life. In defense of psychology’suse of laboratory experiments you point out that:
a. psychologists make e cry attempt to avoidartificiality bs setting up experiments thatclosely simulate real-world environments,
b. psychologists who conduct basic research arenot concerned with the applicability of theirfindings to the real world.
c. most psychological research is not conductedin a lahoratorx environment.
d. psychologists intentionally study behavior insimplified environments in order to gaingreater control over variables and to test general principles that help to explain mansheha\ iors.
7. A professor constructs a questionnaire to determine how students at the university feel aboutnuclear disarmament, Which of the followingtechniques should be used in order to survey arandom sample of the student body?
a. Every student should he sent the questionnaire.
b. Only students majoring in psychology shouldbe asked to complete the questionnaire.
c. Only students ii ing on campus should heasked to complete the questionnaire.
d. From an alphabetical listing of all students,every tenth (or fifteenth, e.g.) student shouldbe asked to complete the questionnaire.
8. If eating saturated fat and the likelihood of contracting cancer are positively correlated, which ofthe following is true?
a. Saturated fat causes cancer.b. People who are prone to develop cancer pre
fer foods containing saturated fat.c. A separate factor links the consumption of sat
urated fat to cancer.d None of the above is necessarily true.
9, 10 say that “psychology is a science” means that:
a. psychologists study only obserx able behaviors.
b. psychologists study thoughts and actions withan attitude of skepticism and derive their conclusions from direct observations.
c. psychological research should be free of valuejudgments.
d. all of the above are true.
10. Rashad, who is participating in a psychologyexperiment on the effects of alcohol on perception, is truthfully told by the experimenter that hehas been assigned to the “high-dose condition.”What is wrong with this experiment?
a. There is no control condition.b. Rashads expectations concerning the effects
of “high doses” of alcohol on perception mayinfluence hls performance.
c. Knowing that Rashad is in the “high-dose’condition ma v influence the experimenter’sinterpretations of Rashad s resu Its.
d. Both b. and c. are correct.
29
3. f in c rujon iii in anthropol g is critical of I xi x
p r ic I x,ic i r search because it often ignorc s kc i it nec of cuituie on thoughb and acu ins.
3 mo it nitth tt xc xerx littl cx idcncc that cultural d x c
t s a sianificant effcct on spec I leha -
o s nd itt tudcsb c’ archers assign participants t cxp xi
r ent i and ontrot onditmons in such a xi at
c ai I’ represen the u1tura dire si c f ulaticn undcr study Oi
r ossi ak for psx hologists to coc tr P brc cr p0 sibe xanable that riht mnlue c
r h at mcipantd c ‘r ien sy c citic thoughts and ac tior s x a
cr ss c rlturcs as the often do the ur derlyin ; p occsses are much the same
it i
tFc s enti ic athtudc of humdtx is I ased ) r tt eidea t iat da rcsca-chcrs must exaluate nexx idcas nd the
or c heetivetv rather than ac ept them 18 c ) of Yb nd hat
b scientih theories must be testable t oh s
c ir pie explanations of bchax mor niake betterti eui it s di de uinptex exptar atmui
d c ear hers must be prc pared to reject their bxi n lea in the tace of c o iflicting cx id mc
I i a cal
3 F hi h ) the fc Ilowing procedures is an cxar iple V s 1 1 nilv
Fe m1 i placebo’ I n
a h a tet of thc effects of i drug on me non a d n
va tcipa t s lcd to behcxc that a harmless d
U ic uabbx contains an actn e drugb. 3 pa ticipant in an experiment 3. led tc
hi ties e that i pill, which actually c )ntains an oa t x dri g is harnrless
c I r iciy nts ii an expermm’nt a c nit Iisiti f tr atmcntcordition sinclfe t
d Ne F r hc r a ticipants nor t xc exper i m ter
i x swi F trca1merte ndt ir , ncff i
4 c i i egh r pcst cr t
i f r rn
ascf t a
b F it vg e
Kro iF p cisle rc ci ri ceit
d F thc bnc r truc
mx Heft 11 anst ntrxia s t ics th omntngd i
ontI h t
c illd ia c
30 (hapter I Thinking Critically With Psychological Science
issay Question KEY TERMS1io has a theor that regular exercise can improvethinking. Help him design an experiment evaluating Writing Definitions
this theors ([se the space belou to list the points OU Using your own words, on a separate piece of papern ant to make, and organize them. Then x rite the write a brief definition or explanation of each of theesa\ on a separate piece of paper.) follow’ing.
1. hindsight bias
2. critical thinking
3. theory
4. hypothesis
5. operational definition
6. replication
7. case study
8. survey
9. false consensus effect
10. population
11. random sample
12. naturalistic observation
13. correlation
14. scatterplot
15. illusory correlation
16. experiment
17. doubleblind procedure
18. placebo effect
19. experimental condition
20. control condition
21. random assignment
22, independent variable
23. dependent variable
24. mode
25. mean
26. median
27. range
28. standard deviation
29. stathticai significance
30. culture
Answers 31
Cross-Check
As on learned in the Prologue
rev cv ir a id werlearning or
material art important to the
lea ‘ni ig arocc s. \fter you fLare
wrItten the deftntiom ot the key
terms ‘n his cFapter iou shouldcomplete the rossu ord puzzle to
ensurt tht r ou can ret erse theprmeacrc ropnize the teem,
gix en the derinition
ACROSS1. Scot tlatfa sattherOther
cc it’Ie, cutth p a distribution
r h It.7. tacplauatiun using an integrat
e I sat of ir dp es that orga
nizes at P predicts oehar iors
u er Zrts,9. \Iost trequentix occurring —
.<or in a distribution14. Descriptirt’ research strategy
in n nich one perso i is studied hi great depth.
15. M ‘asure U r ariation cumput-cc as the different e hetn een 22
tit ‘lngfest and lowest scores - ——
in a distrihuton,16. \4-’asure or central tendency conputed bi adding
die scorw n a distrrbutiou and dix iding hr the
nunroer of saores.19. Pcrccpt’on nt a or eIaton betu ecu two events
tr here none exists
20. Descuf tire icscarch tccnniqueinxrhich a repre
sentatx e, random amp1eot people is questioned
ak or I their aDt ides r f ci ax m irs
21. Depiction of the reationship hetxx een two sets of
tcoi s fv 0e n of a grapfcd cluster of dots.
22. Sample in . hi h cx err member tit the ponulauun
h s i qual h ic c I ire . ided
DOWN2. apr nniemLn wa htion ,r, .Inch mesearcl
p r’ apaUs arc n ‘I L th P depe idtnt
liar It hwn03. l”w cape o ient, lie xa-rnaoic being wan pulated
ai .d rested hr ti invr ctratum
4. Rsn’arch metned in rrui I’. heha-’ icr is obserxed
and worded in natur Ph Oct urring cituations
v. irhoot ant manipulation or rontrol.
5. \ pier n derinitiun o tf e procec ores isc d to
derhh, a - ‘aehie6 ave ,ra iup vi c riies jap ow,
P hal:4aa alt er Iuates er !dt’nce’ and
a S t( 2(0 0 5
8. The bias in ra hich we hehexe, after learning an
outcome, that we could hat e foreseen it.
10. Our tendency to oxerestmmate the extent to which
others chare our beliefs and behaviors.
11. Control procedure in which neither the experi
menter nor the research participants are aware of
which condition is in effect.12. Testable prediehon, often iniphed by a theory.
13. Measure that mdieatcs the extent to which one
factor predietN another taetor.
17. 1 xpermmental condition ux it hith the treatnient of
interest is withheld.
18. Who i a r starch part’r inant s t xneet itions
pi oduce the re”ults t’t an experiment, it is railed a
ofrc t
1- f--c---1
—H fff:
--
I L-
-- H -
_:4. it’
I 1
Ij
no’ —
.-,
I’
I 2(
ANSWERS
Chapter Review
The ,\eed for Psychological S fence
1. hhidbght bia” or r on’ both chiidrcn ard adults
2. after the tact
3. c u tidc cc I as
4. email- t i’u in
5. urlo—.ntx: skeptrisn; huni’itx
12 Chapter 1 Thinking Critically With Psychological Science
8. tiluorl; hi pothe’-es; research
9. ip ational definition%; replicate10. ortzanlzes; redictions
ii. dt muiptit c’ correlation’ experimental
Des ‘nption
1.
3 tic
it ording
1aisc cunensus effect
aniom population; doesare
8, sid
9. natural sue observation
0, d’s rib
ii. odaI; solitary; varies
cdi tcd
cx cut’ caused; explanation
llusor\ correlation8. uonrnn supersttnu
9, i ‘rid in etc its10. r “at do
tO.. Lit P’oichnletpir na r
7, %atecuarp r’ it tzon
1. :cs” etfect NtatiNtically’ tactorn
2 1; penn cuts’ manipulates holding constantI rn ol ing
3, h.hat iot; experimental’ effect
4. p ac he placebo eftec
S. doublet hod procedure
ii it I cut ili md tom issignumunt
Ill ci , d i r
ntotini’d e .o,cent horn ptec t them lit m harm cc dmation obtai cd mr p Ic
It fnlh explain tbe resutirt h
8. do
9. can; enlipht.’n
10. p str cd ii m’
11. det nut; lt’s
12 d. no im.,
p.,to ‘t i. t t 0 1
a sc m I P-iii.”
6. en al thir king
7. —Pentitu method; observations; theories; revised;bs r itions
a c study
hx pt’theses; atx pical
4,
3.
6.
Corn lotion
8. indepenc ci dcpei dci
9. maninubte. inuependuri rca—crc’ d’nd. it;cont 1 r bl
Expernnentadon ha inc 1d’ ionic I 4 rn a—tna theins esiigat’mr’ cc Pr ii o ho ‘I t let nt Lid iii Icy litvariabk s that m ph in a e I it r n itsalso permit the mx estlga 10’ 1.’ He. 0’ 0 ‘0 r, ,ittoland des ‘ipton m tic ci Ic 1’ 1 min hehas ior
Statistical Re isoni ig1. statistics
2. data ory ani ‘;l ii’ mp ‘ Ic mh P lip
3. modc, ni’dian’ mea
4. iuodc’
5. total um n nnL r
6. dtli
7. skexncd mci
8. lou;liigh
9. range stard Id’ tic
10. difference Imeum cem rhe (0cc-c nod hg’.-i stoIcs11. crude is
12, mote acenratc; take—
13. representati’
14. lou
15, less
16. sigmfica ice ma x e I al c 1 x in
17. practical
Fi’equeirtlii Asked Qnestzon
1. principles lab mr ton ‘A
2. cnnti nI; nc ral p nnc plc -
3. ideas hchax ions’ attitudes rr.o’ ‘cm s
4 princ ‘pies to n s- c d x o5 ,m.Jit: d’—e’sc
6. e tic t d u
1. con hated; predict; correlation coefticientcatterplots
3 p—tn eli correlated; negatively correlatedtc set
4. strength; it eakness; causation; cause-effect
Its is an ‘xample of a negative correlahon, As onetat ton Itmme spent studi ing) increases, the other factor(anx.eti levell decreases,
S.
6.
Answers 33
Progress Test i
A4u1tip1eCIzoice Questions
1. a. is the answer. In a ease stuciv one subject is
studied iu depth. (p. 26)b c e raarh zn p o toD1 5 ier
viexvedC Correlatious ideutify whether two tactors are
rota tedd tn an exuernuent au investigator manipulates
oue variable to observe its eiieci ou auother.
2. c. is the answer. Exert‘6so is the variable beingmanipuiateo in the urperiment. cp. 38)a. A control condition for this experiment would
6-e a roup ot oeople o,ot permitted to exercise.
b. An interveninguariable is a variable other than
those being manipulated that may influence
behavior.d. The dependent x ariable is the behavior mea
sured by the experimenteon-in this case, theeffects of exercise.
3. c. is the a.nswer. The control condition is that for
which the experimental treatment (the new drug)
is absent. (p. 37)a. A r’andon sample is a subset of a population in
which every person has an equal chance of being
seic’cted.b. Tb.e experbnenta[ condition is the group for
which the experimental treatment (the new drug)is present.
d. “Test group is an ambiguous term; both the
experimental and control group are tested.
4. d. is the answer. Cc. 24)a. hivpotbeses are testabie propositions.b. Dependent variables are factors that maychange in response to manipulated independentvarabies.c. Stafistical indexes may be used to test specificbvotheses (and therethre as indirect tests of theonesi. but daex are meren: mathematical tools,
not general principle’s, as are theories.
3. d. is the anso.’er. in this case, the children are hein.g olasenreo in their normal environment rather
than in a laboratory. (p. 29)a C lt P was , m efi wnsm s
nenveen two factors, The’ psychologist max later
want to determine whether there are correlahonsbetween. the variables studied un.der natural con
i:,,UIL,00s.
b. In a case study, one subject is studied in depth.
c A” oct , mu tim of oect se he nsvcnolo
&fiSt is not direr tb.’ controlling the variables hem.
studied.
6. d. is the ao.s‘xxer. (p 23)
7. ci. is the ans‘ wer, (p. 23)
8. b. is the answer. Replication is the repetition of anexperiment in order to do-‘fermine xi’hether its
findings are reliable, It is not a research method,
(p, 25)
9. c. is the ansxxer..
481a., b., & d. Psychologists’ personal valuesr can
influence all of these.
10. b. is th.e answer. (p. 31)a. & C, These answers would have been correcthad the queshon stated that there is a pnsiih’c’ cor
ml tim Ki cc C cm ‘t ‘‘ tQ w ‘ \
is probably’ no correlation at all!
Ii, d. is the answer. in an experiment, it would he
possible to manipuicite alcohol consumptioot and1observe the effects, if any, on memory. (p. 3Cca., b., & c. These answers are incorrect because
on’ to d wet co r ting b ‘ u C es 0r
est can a researcher uncover cause-effect relation
ships.
12. d. is the answer. i. 28)
a. A sample is a subset of a population.b. &. c. Control and experimental groups are used
in experimentation., not in survey’ research.
13, c. is the answer. The mean is the sum of scores
dh’ided by the number of scores. [(‘2 ± 3 + 7 6
÷l+4+9÷5+8+71/lO=47.lft3.411
14. d. is the answer. When the scores are put in orderl 2 4 ‘ ‘P 4jc mhrsnn pc.weult ph
ting the distribution Ln half. (p. 41;’
15. b. is the answer. The mode is the most frequently
occurring score. Becaus.e there are oo,ore “twos”
than any other numbc’r in the distribution, 2’ is. the
mode. (p. 41)
16. d. is. the answer. (pp. -i2—43;
17. c. is the answ’er. (p. 43)a. A statistically significant difference may or
max no,t he of practicrd importance.b. This is often the case when a difference is not
statishcall significant.
18. c. is the answer. (p. 41)
19, d. is the answer. (p. 22)a. This is the tendency’ to overeshmate the extent
to which. others share our beliefs.b. This is the false perception of a relahonship
between hvo ex’ents.c. 4’his is the’ tendency to believe, after ioarnin’p an
outcome, that one could harm foresc’en it.
20. a. is die answer. As an average, calculated by
thom’, ‘ sn,i ndscores. the mean could easily be affected by the
inclusion of a few extreme scores. (p. 411
34 Cnaçtci I ll.nP ng (‘nfl-ill3With Psychological science
b.T r .i,. . tic. & d. 1ie ;:‘rjiat.•% t.3i ..‘ oi’-: t.tfl
itt! \ I it i
L ‘ 6. h’p 42; 11. thp.41)2 rip -i 7. ‘ ip 12. mjp.28)
(f 8 13kp241 14.np 3)
3. t’jl .1, 10. ip 4)
P gre Tes
‘L Itipit hoic.. .lurst oils
1. d. ; Lit’ If arIaa ttIttt elati
‘1
2 d.is cans cr ( “‘
a., & L’. tii. duh1e-bIiad procedure is one is av tot a o% cper.’ne’ ‘to! and ii ntrol groups.-. k’ r’ n ni’’ us ar randoml assigned to
t c r ion ontrol groupd. e ens 4 i \L mat shelters are forced to kilt‘f’ time-. many dogs and cats as are used in?f%c3 -. .17’
4 1 itI ‘ii con on the companson group,
:n .‘ lcJ, d’.- .-xpcrniental tieatment (the treatintt.t t” It’ll .o..ti 35 al’si.nt.b. ‘‘ iLt)I i .1 di dl co-Served and measured
ii ab th xpeni icnto hc. el. mdent anabk, which is
be.jn’: tt.nin.1a’t.I
5. a. :— tflt ,.‘.,—t’ s ip >i
b.IF etc ‘‘1 ivc relafi rI t ) ‘I
6 It” :‘ •‘? Ota. ,“ •‘t mc n’a ‘- ttkted to lundsight rather
& 1 ii ‘rn sn ol hi ir
in rtt t txr a3 c .i t ti C . i at. the c. red intuition
‘r II em ‘tidi -.uhfrd’s are u’.ed in’ anid u arc 1 ind mh a’ssignecl to
ifftieices dat emere,a ‘mud temfr’mt[eexpen
2, , £. d ‘e.”W (4 .h’ -fl.’ t0nhi% des 1 itt” prcc..au•e’t I tl[’ ,., Lip’i tc t”4X mmciii’
8. b. is the insn r. (p
9. a. is the anssstr. ,p. 42)b. & c. large random sample aic n’on. ikel’, ti
berepresenttte ) ‘j. Ia t Ithc.yan dras
10. d. is the answer. Because is r in ‘.Psitive to drdniatic or unusual in ents. iv-’ rc espet ial!t likehto iwrcei e a dation hip I, s te ti em 14)a.,b.,&c.lhtitlt I ii ‘.
is no more ik h t, be s nice p0 e.negative than that be”s cen it s’- dr’m’tic tn ent...
11. b. is the answer. (p. 2a.ln tact thc a tific ilti o pen its irtanmtentionalattenijtb tea o trclderronment in which to tc’.t t icoret cat pr nciplethat are applicable to alt hehai it’r.c. Some pcvcli’Jogical than Ic’ go against whMtisc. consider ommc i sci t hut ‘.
many issues tIitps hot i at se afrom clear is h t the commo ‘t ‘en’s position isd. Psvchologt has alit a had ties tc other di-,...plinec, and in recent times. thee ties ha ‘
increasmg.
12. d is the answc r Con? itic srio ‘ On l c 1
factor can be predic ted from another p 3t’m;a. Because a tase “tudi focuses in c’eat detail onthe behavior of an mdii idu ii ifs p’ t’bobiv no•useful in showing cli h rdictrnpossibkb. \aturalistic. oh-en atton i, a mcthc’d of descnil,ing, rather than predicting. bcha’ ion.c. in e’perimental research ‘he effects ot nianipulated Indepindent sinia 1 s dep dianiablesaremeasur It )tc hci npeniment could help dc’tern’m’.te isls’thei IQ tc-.tpredict academic success.
13. b. is thc. ansisin flit intncinisii’chthc n’atn it i
iSiOsent p.,a. Students in the polluted r.experimental cenditi,,nC. Preu naN, ill & u lentvu rndmy si tassignr c. t is neti torather than a condititu”.d. The is ord .len n11, ‘it n tiin expernic’nt. conditionstal or c )ntrol
14. c. is thc ansiscn Ihc ghtir i’ il tact’ 1” ‘innmatnpulated. (p. ‘8’a. & d. The’-e’ anncr.. air inct’n, a 1% 0’-t fhe
usc a pitt f ti-c ‘q .r cr iii ‘i (1
“mica rc of entral tendenci.and mode git e equal it eighttounts only once and its
um ton
1, 11j;j tern
(Ink epenirnents tan ret calshtpv the other m thods can
ip (p 361
7. b. ,‘I’t .
nil t
it if’“i’ f
ond rn i’ he ol5 p )t
cm i’’uld ti. “ J
iii t h c ditiorr s otat ‘ m_, )ti.
fit ., kind of anab:e‘ithcrt’i, n’en
an Lu C
Answers 35
b. his ,nsn er s tIn dependent not the inclepein
dent vanahie.
16 th r. is er I re m n is the sum at the
o es ha icied hs the univ bet of scores () 10as p 31)
1. c. i the isis X\ hen the scores are put in order8 °, A) 8 is at the h)th penentile
tilig he dAtrjbution in halt, (p. 31)
18. d. is the ansn er. Since the rance is the difference
be veen the highest and Ion est scores, it is Ad r t aftet dby ext une sores (p 41)a. & c. e nuan an I mode are measures at centrei tendenci, not at ariation.Ii, iThe nanj ard dci ]atjon is less atfected than ther n ,e c use vs hen it is calc Iated, the deviatio u cv ii scare tram the mean is computed.
JrlsX\ en Averages dens ed tram scaresx ariahihtv tend to he more reliable estithe populations tro n vs hich they areus a and c. are ncorrect. Because the
des iatian n a more accurate estimate ofthan the range. d. s incorrect. (p. 43)
d, the unsuci dittorerace tncit Is statisticallys icCi t Is a true difference rather than anapaarent difietence due to (actors such as samphng ariatiota. and it is reliable. (p. 43)
Psychology Applied
A’ t 1, 1 -(ho, c Questions
c. & d. tndepeuderjt and deiaendant s ariables are
Th rin rta1 t ‘atu cuts md I chc iors, respecti s y I 1 A m I predictions r a As olve such
.u ahl s hut are not themsels cc those s ariahies.
2. c i- tue iflii en. 3 he members of one ororitv a e
ik is te ‘ran iron nter sts, tr A, a cI attitudest s as is a 81 oful
pendent s ariablec. In a sense, survey questionsare independent variables, and the answers, dependent sariables.
3. b.isthearswe p.38)a. Although the descriptive methods of case studICs, sums es s, naturalistic observation, and correlational research do not involve control of variables, they nc vertheless enable researchers todescribe and predict behavior.
X\ hetlier or not a sample is representatix of a
popultion. rather thati control over variables,determines wne tlrer results can he generalizedfrom a sample to a population.
4. c. is the ansu em. In order to determine the effects
of cafteine on reaction time, Martina needs tomeasure reaction time in a control, or comparison, group that does not receive caffeine, (p. 37)
a. Caffeine is the independent s aniable,b. Reaction time is the dependent variable.
d \\hether or not Martina’s experiment can hereplicated is determined by the precision with
vs hich he reports her piocedures, which is not anaspect at research strategy.
5. b. is tire answer. pp. 30—31)a. this is not an experiment because the re
searcher is not manipulating the independentariable tseating position); she is merely measur
ing whether variation in this factor predicts test
performance.c. If thc study were based entirely on students’self-reported responses, this would be a survey.d. This study goes beyond naturalistic observa
tion, isnich mereh describes behas ion as it
occurs, to determine if test scares can be predict
ed from students’ seating position.
6. d. is the answer. (p. 45
7. d. ‘s the Lmsvser. Selecting every tenth person
vs ould pr )bablv result in a representative sample
of the e itire population at students at the unis ersit, (p.2ia. it vs oaid In di tflL ut, if not rmposihie, to sur
s e em ci st dcrit u campus.h. I sx c a ogs students are not representatim e ofthe entire strident population.
c. Thi’ dflsi\ c’S is incorn-c t for the same reason asI h s vs ould constitute a biased sample.
8. d. i5 (1w ansi’ en. (pp 3o 32a. C orrelation dan.”- not impis causality.b. Again, a positis a’ .orre1a (ion simply means that
Ac tactc s ttnd to increasc’ or decrease together;(irA er e aLa hi8 5 ift implied.
c. A sem.rjtetactr’ mac or nias not he ins oh ed.I hat tI e tx’u h,,tors ac correlated does not imply
a ‘epai’ te (a nor. Acre i rar, fin example, be a
19. b. is timevsltir ionmat’s ad r ass n.-tandar dvariahiliti
Matm .zzng items1.
.2)
2. hp.24)3, hI8 384 c 38)
i (p. 3)
6. Li (p. 37)7. i(p26)8. k (p 27)
9. t(p.25)10. pip.37)11. i (p 36)12. 1 (p. 37)
I. b. n the nwer. A general belief such a th, one
a n’w,as ;ithe1A orgaibze. c\piain. and gener
a c s cAt s a led m pA escs) uch
a Tic i’s uc sof drin s A vs in
Li its 75.
a. & h. Ln(ike t”pa’ianients. nirm er ho not cpu v
L A ecI maP ruIat’ mdc u’rdeut and de
36 Chapter 1 Thinking Critically With Psychological Science
direct causal relationship between the two factorsthemselves.
9. b. is the answer. Psychology is a science becausepsychologists use the scientific method andapproach the study of behavior and mentalprocesses xvi th attitudes of curiosity, skepticism,and humility. (p. 23)a. Psychologists study both overt (observable)behaviors and covert thoughts and feelings.c. Psvchoiogis ts’ values definitely do influencetheir research.
10. d. is the answer, (p. 37)a. The low-dose comparison group is the controlgroup
11. d. is the answer. (p. 46)a. In fact, just the opposite is true.b. Actually, psychological experiments tend touse the most readily available people, often whiteNorth American college students.c. Although this may be true, psychologicalexperiments remain important because they helpexplain underlying processes of human behavioreverywhere. Therefore, d. is a much better response than c.
12. d. is the answer. (p. 23)a. This follows from the attitude of skepticism,rather than humility.b. & c. Although both of these are true of the scientific method, neither has anything to do withhumility.
13. a. is the answer. (p. 37)b. Use of a placebo tests whether the behavior ofa research participant, who mistakenly believesthat a treatment (such as a drug) is in effect, is thesame as it would be if the treatment were actuallypresent.c. & d. These are examples of blind anddon b1ebimd control procedures.
14. c. is the answer. if height and weight are positiveiv correlated, increased height is associated withincreased weight. Thus, one can predict a person’s weight from his or her height. (p. 30)a. Correlation does not imply causality.b. This situation depicts a negative correlationbetween height and weight.
15. d. is the answer. A small or large standard deviation indicates whether a distribution is homogeneous or variable. (p. 42)a., b., & c. These statistics would not give anyinformation regarding the consistency of performance.
1 6. c. is the answer. A correlation that is perceivedbut doesn’t actually exist, as in the example, isknown as an illusory correlation, (p. 33)
a. Statistical significance is a statement of howlikely it is that an obtained result occurred bychance.b. Overconfidence is the tendency to think we aremore right than we actually are.d. Hindsight bias is the tendency to believe, afterlearning an outcome, that one would have fcreseen it.
17. d. is the answer. (pp. 41, 42)18. c. is the answer. (p. 41)
a. The mean is computed as the sum of the scoresdivided by the number of scores.b. The median is the midmost score in a distribution.d. The range is the difference between the highestand lowest scores in a distribution,
19. a. is the answer. The mean is strongly influencedby extreme scores. In this example, the meanwould change from $25,000 to (75,000 + 25,000 +
25,000 + 25,000 + 25,000)/S = $35,000. (p. 41)b. & c. Both the median and the mode wouldremain $25,000, even with the addition of the fifthfamily’s income.d. The standard deviation is a measure of variation, not central tendency.
20. b. is the answer. (p. 43)a. If the difference between the sample means isnot significant, then the groups probably do notdiffer in the measured ability.c. When a result is not significant it means thatthe observed difference is unreliable.
Essay Question
Elio’s hypothesis is that daily aerobic exercise for onemonth will improve memory. Exercise is the independent variable. The dependent variable is memory.Exercise could be manipulated by having people inan experimental group jog for 30 minutes each day.Memor could be measured by comparing the number of words they recall from a test list studied beforethe exercise experiment begins, and again afterward.A control group that does not exercise is needed sothat any improvement in the experimental group’smemory can he attributed to exercise, and not tosome other factor, such as the passage of one month’stime or familiarity with the memory test. The controlgroup should engage in some nonexercise activity forthe same amount of time each day that the experimental group exercises. The participants should herandomly selected from the population at large, andthen randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups.
Ansners 37
Key Terms
Writng Definitions
1. Hi ds’gI I bias re c s to tfe tendencx to behese,alt lea nog, an ouhoinc that one is mild hai eforeseen it also called the I knezi’-it-aii ah’ng
ea”x ‘r’ tp. 2b2. Critical think’ng is are ut reaso ring that exam
russ ass mph i is, d scerns nidden x alues, evaluate— ci idcnm, and assesses concuusions (p. 24i
3. A theory is an explanation using an integrated —et
ot in p es t r it on antics and predicts behasuo’ inc cots p 24
4. \ hypothesis is a testable prediction, otten im
plied he a theory; testing the hr pothesis helps sci
entists t) test the theory. (p D5)
Lx iph’ Th order to test his theory ot why peoplecontorm, Solomon Asch formulated the testable
hypothesis that an mdii idnai would he morehkely to go along v ith the majority opinion of a
largc group than is ill that of a smaller group.
5. A operational definition is a precise statement
of the procedures (operations) nsed to define
research uriahlos (p 25)
6 Replication is the prc cess of repeating an experiunent, otten with ditterent participants and in dif—
terent eutuanons, to. seC whether the basic finding
generalizes to other people and circumstances. (p)
7. The case study is an ohserx atuon technique in
n hich one person is5tudied in great depth, often
with the inteuhou of revealing universal principles (p 26)
8. The surrey is a te’.huique tor ascertaining the
self-reported attitudes or behar iors of a represen
tab e. random sample of people ‘p. 2’
9, 1 false consensus effect is the tendency toor erestimate the cntcnt to n hich others share our
hA lets ,nd hehar ior’.. up. 251
10 ‘\ oopulatior ins sts c ( 11 the members )f a
npfc g ucd .28
II, A random sample “ ‘n.e that rs renre’.entatir e
tiecaasc ci err member of the populatuon ha’. an
eq at ‘.h i cc c being inch ded p 28)
12 \atrahst,c oo3ervatuon ‘c4ohe3ob3rrung andreLc’rding hehax ior in natnralh occurring situa
0’ n— v. ithout tm ung to manipulate and control
thc situ t in p 29
13 C dat on u in snrc th xt it to whic rtx’, o not, e — rr toeturer and Au’. ot hon wellither faLt”r predt R the other The rot ntiation
coetficient is a statistical measure ot the retahonship; it can be positive or negatir e. (p. 301
Ea,unuvle; if there i’. a positive correlation betweenair teunpcrature and ice cream sales, the is armer
(higher) it is, the more ice cream is sold lf there isa negative correlation hetri ceo air temperature
and sales of cocoa. the cooler (lower) it is, theunore cocoa is sold.
14. A scatterplot is a depiction of the relationshiphenr eeuu two aniahies hr uneons of a graphedcluster ot dots. (p. 311
15. Illusory correlation is the perception of a rela
tionship is here none exists. (p. 33)
16. .\n experiment A a research method in which aresearcher directlx manipulates one or nrore factors (independent raniables) in order to observe
their effect on some behar ion or mental process(the depend curt variable); experiments thereforemake it possible to establish cacuse-effect relation
ships. tp. 3o)
17. A double-blind procedure is an experimentalprocedure in is hich neither the experimenter northe research participants are aware of which con
dition is in eftect. It is used to prevent experi
menters’ and parhcipants’ expectations fromintluencmg tire results of an experiment. (p. 37)
18. I’he placebo effect occurs when the resu Its of anexperinrent are caused by a parhcipant’s expectations about what is really going on. (p. 37)
19. The experimental condition of an experiment isone in which participants are exposed to the independent variable being studied. cp. 37)
Example; In the study of the effects ot a new
drug on reaction time, participants in the experimental condition would actuaih receive thedrug being tested.
20. The control condition of an experiment is one inis huch the tre atment of interest, tin independent
variable, is xi ithheid so that comparison to the
experinrental condition can he made. p. 37u
f is ‘Ic 1 is control condition for r experiment
testing IF t efle ts ot a new drug on rc actuon time
xreuld he a group ot parhcipants giren a placebo
hnactir e drug or .-ugar piiiiinstead of the drug
being tested.
21. Random assignment is the procedure of assign
irrg participants to the experinrental and control
conditions hr chance in order to minimize preex
isting differences betrveen those assigned to the
different groups. (p. 371
38 Chapter 1 Thinking Critically With Psychological Science
2 [hr independent variable of an experiment is theioctor being manipulated and tested h the in etigator. p. 381
Era a 31L In the studi of the etfects of a neis drugcu r action tunc the drug is the independentvariable.
23. i be dependent variable of an experiment is thefacrer being measured by the mx estigator. (p. 3S
I a ‘ ‘: In the study ot the effects of a nexx drugon rca non ume, the participants reacuon time isthe dependent variable.
24. 1 he mode is the most frequently occurring scorein a distribution; it is the simplest measure of central t ndency to determine, p 41)
25 1 hc mean is the arithmetic ax erage. the measureot central tendency computed by adding the.score in a distribution and dii iding by the number ot scores (p. 41)
26. The median another measure of central tendencx, is the score that falls at the 50th percentile,cutting a distribution in half, (p. 31)I vaniole’: When the mean of a distribution isaffected hr a tew extreme scores, the mediani’ the more appropriate measure of central tendency
27. The range is a measure of variation computed asthe difference between the highest and lowestscores m a distribution. fp. 42)
28 he standard deviation is a computed measure ofnx much scores in a distribution deviate around
I FOCUS ON FOC4BULARYAND LAVGUAGE
Pi I to n’iuc’du tlu’ir cccii a’ees, millions turn topsx chologv.’ In order to alleviate or fix (rcrncdic)
tr ir miseri, anxiety grief, pain, and sutferingpcoplc seek help from “psx.cholog .‘
i w h) gx is in quotes because Mx ers rs ants toon’ that not cx err thing you thrnk Ot as “p’.r -
chok ‘gu” is part ot cientiiic psvchoiogvo
d for Psychological Sciencc
I) helps Oiii?iOt sense from nonsense.means to separate out and was originallx
used to describe the separation of chaft (dust, etc.)r r i t grains of wheat. The scientific method
ort out or separate I ainnema), good ideas fromhoc) ene
ene people think psi chologv merck ,c7,ii
at pc c he alrcadx know and clrcs is it am ii)c c c criticize ps ci ologv, saving that itUrt ‘. a,, C) cC rmon wnsc or xvha’’,
the inca i. B misc L c ci c ccthe dkrrihutmen, it S ,, mccc ccc ‘in’ .saie ofx a notion than the cci ‘ccc. p 3.2
29. Statistical sigr ifica e i xrcsul s h s hc tages for hr c saml xc lscdifference rarhem P an wa;h io
chance fat tow, I cN ‘it sia’msil
help rcsearc[ e s d Ic ix ‘ mhgencr h c fri r
30. Culture i tIm’ c nc ‘,‘ haxtudes. and traditi,.n— sharoct hrpeople arid rranurcttcd n. “nthe ncxi (p. 1’
Cross-Check
ohm ious h cxc 3plainly, the critic suggc es’
information into the spw aha, ccuiarx of the dcmp1inc 1 fr’c -
makcs it xc tIc r xxitt ericthis rtci n is aintu t’ ins [out r ott ‘
(thex can icc .2 0:’
Rip ,h2Ih”a ear. itis’
arc icr t.x sk tldc in the cc an-c cf tIe i ccctirst —hoot an a’”a, thcn d’ ‘ci F ,r.
arrow C in the .n ‘itt r ‘cc’ i’w
appear to bc cccx cur \1 uto illustrat’ hc xx e uall i1i i p/a mo/c;’. 1 ,.ai ‘‘1 u tarc shrexxd Ic’!O( and ‘m, s,’ t
predict outc ‘mac ‘hat ‘r ;,z
Pa ‘ ‘ i a
Ii )tL I
eEc a i
c
ii tilo
C is ,‘ttIa’, “cIIe or
‘-cncat;m’rc’
ACROSS1. median7 theory9. mode
14. case stud’,15. range16. mean
19. mllusc20. sun cx
21. scatterptot22. random
DOW’st’t hut I
3m
4. na c 1isti, c’iOc’1’J,i’Yi.t
6. critical ttx,nccirmg8 hi ‘glm
10 t ad, Ic”h 3
12, IrT.ci’e-ms
13. cor’ ac
17 co
aai- s th
‘‘Psc’rin t,’c,1’-
1’, , “Exams
I.[ Em’
)
‘a x i ike.
1’Ii
ci -
ii
‘F‘
fi miii’
Ic,”
i ‘ 4, 4, 1’
I ai4t’
aakm 1/’ 1’’ I
Focus on X ocabuiars and Linguage 39
expressions adorn remount 105 e has e opposite
tn aniras. 1 be iirst one sucgosts that is hen couples
arc p P * t:f e e ess Pkir U think
atoitc hr ai of cc ,t a.x enther are
tegethen Flit second saving maxes the paint that
being eparaLd lactic, inrea—es the teehngs of
lovtth ci san i.t F ‘U fOt fAir).
P r pie ho e tr d tha the rest ts of a studi sup
port the tint txprt ssion (eat or 4t c’iit ci “n;idi see
Lii— as torn non sens Pt Opie tom that the
is s o t t s r d p ss on Es c ‘iakrs
tic itt. i. ncr -; 10 i also sa this is oft iouslv true.
there is cicarlr a problem here; reh ing on omrnon
sen e t i lea it npost condo ‘ons
hag. 21 or i tni P i in tel us that ft ni//a Ito
died- cic’,,it. . 2 hi— expression and others are
haed n. mont sual tnserx atlons hut are often
ixrcr e Icr nat e, s it rue ti at the better von
Lnr w so neo e 121 ct/ia ifwl, be n ore likeh it is thatvon xviii dislike th0 person Liar e n’ircaipti? in fact.
research sho r s t at the opposite is probably true.
(f 0 n xt ia h i d again viii c npnasize the fact
that our common ense anti intuition do not aixi anpros ide us with reliable ci idence.
P g dra cc inc I Us meins to stop
gr g t class irid to Ii xc v )ar r ne rc m red from
th class fist,
Pa ‘22 ‘add sPa ‘iOn am . . Lack/ask, origi
raly it n c do ic’mr i rightness or to bedud ,f,,’dn—fcr us 2/cHaos Ott forecasts that are usu—
ailv n rong. As \lr er— notes rho—c xi ho made them
ti ose v ho r red endcd tr be r x erconfident about
th i a i r fore dl a’ tuur . Along irith hind
siout bras, fun n’s erconfideice often leads us tooverestimate our intuit;ons.
1 2 idc ,‘ alsi cc s hrst a/aid /iczdcdit, j ‘1,, , Ice! ,ndt•. here me, ns to he practical,
unsonipruinIinc. 1’. ltd. or ur’sxvaved hr senti
m t A sr ‘itt n ‘I ho “s’ heir gy, is guided
h e tr sir It a , she aF ut
r’ata,c a 2 /1*.
• L!/ Tb “abeliefinsumcthingat rd p son ucs
o t (hId or lift after Li ath,an—n end hr science and
pio td it dispros ‘d; it atic ass U trust and
ca,f,Jo,’co alone •.
nbc “• 0,’ , j//’ This comes
2 ii’ U n’
1, a cc t55 I IV ra tst irif ihe dt sseni ir,,,!,it;:,g; f’s Irs tog
it (nltzng). I iken we, many que—tiens, or tat it nh.ex
appear to make little sense ‘Li -o:: t°;c’ a-. can
be tested usir g t it sd ntitic itt d
Pae 2.:... aunt ! ! . Tn itn a a bight alert sni
roto ding a tgurc or an eh1ect. Some he it’\ C tiiat
humans has e auras v ‘nth nI, t iost w itf ‘xt a sea
sory abihhcs sa set F c nn ia i it fa d
proposed a snnple test of this cloies. ho. rn2 ods
who w alleged to have this niagisai pen Ot i’,;,ei ‘
has taken [hr tes
I c 23’ More often, 0uen role gctes cc I ti4
idnts to the ‘nacuiai,i of fornotten clatms. , , , The useot scienttir inqtsits can get ti I ot n d spose tO
(ic/n fain) nr n sensi it conrrp s C u ni g /n
to the large stack oi pde ftncu in. u or r’dicu Otis Iclaims no longer remembered.
Page 23’ In the anemia of romp ‘tin id° s . . \n st’a
is an area where gar ies, sport at d ccl i etit’ ns
take piace. Msers is suggesthg tint in an area
(arena) where there is a contest bet xx ecu idoas katie
ptting ideis), ske pt’ca testrn, ca hci dis mc thc
truth.
Page 23; , , , thee so UOu/’i Ac ,i’ar-c r,p’ tdcac, This
means that we has e tt gis e up m x ‘ rid ot our
ideas if they are shcxsn to hr ‘a r fs aLl the
a’am’sc ret’ then a Tb e have to he liunnhle (s.c., has e
hurnilitvv
Page 23. ‘a nat is a/ POtts ght s ea 1x ‘a P
phrase used as a maxim or puidi ig princip em c ‘as
from the fact that for most of the tinst half mO thr’
tirentietli century psi chologi osed aniniai- in its
research (especialix ‘n thr s udi of I i u ‘H e i
became a sr mhol ot this research, and its hehar ion
or performance in cxpetiinents dem.onstnated th,o
truth. If thr truth as st oxen hr the no is c tnanx to
the predict o i or hyrotl ts’s, n ire i ) te
hi,unlale about it anti Irs another it as
Psçc 24’ Tb e all x ion ‘atnre tbo gb ‘‘o /on pn / l’i ih n is
al cads ho tie ‘ ‘ • ,e” enamid to sonic extent dereitnint’s, vhct n’and actoalls see n dis or nr Ie chute P s
tu rift r Ci 5 • t
n hat v e can see.
itise neactio s r spot ses (
tluiroc determd ii g r hether i
silnplv on a suhjoctir’ opinion’
dote (a sIt ‘IS 51 ‘i’et’”O toiL 01
s ide it
i cc; .,fljs ‘cc., to itt” itt
i e —
ho s r at he r herton exatneitu aaniI hotcs lot e s’ i’! ‘nh
prst I C, it
‘‘It
I t‘I
hlist 5
t ugi’t
•;sit ‘etaAt resE ed
on csPa’cst 4’ntd-i
h ‘Hontl smor
i’i nn’aii’’
r’os t’’ rime qn’aiits
I r i ‘ç ‘a y Wilt I cchologicaI SCent’
Ia yi ii i aìtitr a ni est ihhshed dear perp’r ( ‘tba sLientifiL
ir a ‘d . a J nqi’tr have ir deed disc rediifd t. a ‘. ,a’ am anpu tar presumptions.
a r it r1 ‘ip and\ Mi L I nt nemo tes Ibis isc’ impa P a a’cc.Iitcd 1: Idea that hid
a n - : rcatae’ tan he arcurately and reLI I a F rt t and ompkte in
c a t t a! If Op onaCRalloi sost a a at - oh toe aCe shoir o er and c’ver again.
licscri;’tion
‘it ap oa r helps u -itt reahtvat i(a , r tin a) attitude can
Ian real ft1m rahat is not and takean, a Inn, limitst ot our helief,
t n id mi nor scnse.
i a, a ,iL’n , and tar toteI F arc aftc i or ear helmed
‘t’ed p,,nlasil hr the sometimesin-’ Pti -orrate u’--’ of —ta t/StlLS and numbers. X\ e arer o ‘a I ag encd (-P ‘at) by the strange
1 i at )
A- n-n hotogat Cordon Ailport ii934, p. 0)
Za,-3i bi ot [dramatic] tact, we rush1 a s a a ib’ it tliimblcis
i-ti 1 a tame wh ch nts our tIn top ot the01 r-nm and used while sen ing to pushdi ‘in no n tIc m iterial and a tub is a vera
r r ‘ I F poif is sating that\i rrforrnator, (a fI,iitjh,cfal)
\ cr1 as—oniptions Kc;ien/Ii:a‘a ta I)
a mm ran pled people, dran n‘a atm pror tde a remarkablu
rae r’prnions ot a nation. A ,,1r’r it a d te ptures
i’i. ma. it i al\c am mcnt in time. ita a’
- na ‘a Ar ;at ‘rr-’’—retiiaaan ‘to ai’r is z q -ii tl o the
I) t of t s tic
‘i1 i it I s s ii hat the tuft tS/r
-i—’--’- —, iF hen Inviting at an arrar of data-t- a at ama sort e h-’ height and
r s P c lit icult(‘I ill a 1 i IL, ips \Ist. Statistical‘-‘I ill tviCtlr 0 oetfir w,1t ann the stat
p -l at air nh th ont led
tnakc It ee might ii t see its Muer note n scm -
tines naed tattsti ‘da cFront ot us.
Page H: It —omeone fl’p -1 a a a m run n ‘ricO )t
the follon i H sequent t s c d t I m i
nould he most likels: 11111K II ‘r I I 111 II cmIll IHHI till Photo5-a aa’ mean— rhi on ing or to-—ing the conr into the air a id of rotA rg v hich sidfaangnp ibcnittr d a c tusnalh has tire nnprint u 1 th tae I -‘ a rn-aj0c goson on it---- eg.. the president or the qoeen—----is calledI aid (II) and tat ot er s Jo s dh Ito it. hr thewar. all of the aho e s e c - rr r I kIyhot orost people pick Ill lEt PH. 1 ,ken i—n ant ,eno-,of fire playing cards ie.g -- a hndge or poker Iiand na game of card ) is )nst a lrkeh s r c tf r I nd
I’age IF: - ait baints - - hut aa;dc - - In this cot1—text, ‘WoK and “cold’ do not reter to temperature.Here being Irot (or hau ing P ‘tar -- i can don pii eli arid domg n eli tOO N a tI F iii a 1streaK I tax ing a run ot poor 1u 5 n and —tteak-J he crucial point, htm ever. ‘— that orrr ntoition -
about sequences of ci er t (- eak r’ cal’ pa’terns) otten deceh s us ii c r1 r cot seq m ‘nec -
often are trot rairat n t’ thins rh-x shmrdd he, andthus, they don”t ap’car to be reaiiu rtnd”nu IF henwe think we’re doing mci ( o P e -eoften not, we are mereh roti or ret mterp cliicertanr sequences t,t’”aki found n anu random -
data.
Experinwnta P on
Papa 30: Let’s Rerun’. Recap is an ah-btex manna of in
pitulat’, ii hich means to r peat ir or m brie lsnmmmrize Myets ,umrm mm ft ps t rptaut point— u each seti’ln of ne hapter.
tatfstfca1 Reasoning
Pap at I Of thu - ‘i: ‘ I I / -
a alP u utl hr ii ‘ tnat Pa
a toa dat and no ihc -
guess I tIc Pg mc tr r -
nnf-I, and these grim—es d -iu it or, —eat tim P anature of things ithe’m’ttep ‘a —i’ -‘J - - if- i ,-Oid CLa -
seqoentit an dceei c ‘it - I r oh I h1urea gcneied tin mao r r ci tolate, such as lii patent or t pea cot if - -o0
:auiu!’ei t and. n hen ‘apeated -‘ I’ b- ther maci entnallt be b lie I ta bt a r t p
arc u i/ I ° Cu /“ -
31,p -ii tit eau - thu 0ota’m C-h ol rmpi. Ii ‘0 ‘
came re the Or a’ I’’ th trt a at
in S
‘u ‘c
C, - - -- -
sod, -
i
Iant’votnit’ u ire
p,-eo 10,
-te it’ P to o-A
I Ha - a- of
n-ui
-ri_ti I
I’ --
-- I
Corn Ito
a
“Li-i —
tI ds
-I • LI 0
01 - a
a- I a--,Xinuh
‘ tisti
i—n”nhrgr pt tn
Focus on Vocabulary and tanguage 41
c inc I bntish pu ‘Ic, I P most people er err’n n’ru i’ak less than the mean. Incomes are notnoin;ai;x d-tributed then do nor follow a hell
s t ‘ed rr e r hen j tted ; a frequency distribute t ncasr e c entral tcndenct tha r
ic me (nthr mdc a;eragc) is tither the medimuP’ scete in the middle) or the mode dde most treucentlv ocurnng scorer in \lvers’ example, haltft per a nut for P percent ot all the ntcnev
r c r tr ccu;tr (1IHI in m zkr)’inthis
r r c t en .ca’’ disttihutoi therefore, most pt opleearn heion -at erage xmges.
P i’ it ‘standard deviation] better çaiper i titer s on are packed together or dispersed,bcc us use nformation ron; caP score Dabte
I Al. I be iriost onituonlv used statistic tor measuring (pu4i’p I how much scores ditter trout oneanother itheir variation) is the standard deviation(5) n’ th’s formula, each store is compared torhc mca thc r ‘suIt is art index of hon spread out(d,ct’’ cJ) the scores are. A relativeh small SD indicates that niost of the scores are eloe to the a; erage;a relati; eh large SD indicates that they are muchtore’ a table
Pt c 4 Data are IIoIsi/. Dift rences betweengroups rc,y siritplv he due to random (:/Iancc; ;‘aria
tiens (Sit tnat:’it) in those particular samples. Whend ta hat c a great deal of variability, they are said tobc n n hrch may hunt our ability to generaliveno u I c n to the larger population. In order todetermine it difterenes are reliable, we should hesure that (a) samplcs arc ranciont and mepresentatn e,
(b coms in tfe sampie are similar to each other
Rn c Ion satiability), and (c) a large number ofh
jects or obser; ations are included, if these principlesare followed, we can confidently make inferences
about the differences between groups.
Irequentlzj Asked Questions Ibout Psychology
Pa’Ce 45: , . ‘t(ai$L’ 1:1. in this context, plitIiye in meansto mo; e ahead quiclcix with tire discussion. (Simi
lark, when yori dire into a 5w ‘mming pooi [plunge
in] you dc so quickly.) Before going on with the discussion of psr chotog; fp rIiIgiIlg it), Myers addresses some important issues and questions.
Page 4cr Jo understand how a combustion engine
works you w ould do better to study a lawn mower’s
engine than a Mw ccdes . A Mrredes is a very complexluxurs ear, and a lawn moa’er (a machine for cutting
grass in the gardeni has a vert simple engine. Tounder$and the principles underlying bothmachines it is easier to stud; the simpler one. Like
wise, when try ing to understand the nervous svstent. it is better to strtdt a simple one (e.g., a sea
slug) than a complex one Ia hunran).
Page 48: . . most universities today screen research
proposals throagh an etni a’nntif fee. . . . Lthies corn
tn/I fees (groups of people concerned with moralhehat ior and acceptable standards of conduct) subject research proposals to rigorous tests (screen thetn)
to ensure that they are fair and reasonable and that
they do not harm the particrpants’ welt-being.
Pap’ 48: Values can also € lot “the facts.” Our values
what we believe is right and true) can influence(eolei) our oPen atious, interpretations, and conclu
sions (‘the tacts”).
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