part vii facilitating psychological growth and development chapter 22childrens psychological...
TRANSCRIPT
PART VIIPART VII
Facilitating Psychological Growth and Development
Facilitating Psychological Growth and DevelopmentChapter 22—Children’s Psychological
Development Through Sport
Chapter 23—Aggression in Sport
Chapter 24—Character Development and Sportspersonship
Chapter 22—Children’s Psychological Development Through Sport
Chapter 23—Aggression in Sport
Chapter 24—Character Development and Sportspersonship
CHAPTER 22CHAPTER 22
Children’s Psychological DevelopmentThrough Sport
Children’s Psychological DevelopmentThrough Sport
Session OutlineSession Outline
The Importance of Children’s Sport Psychology The Importance of Children’s Sport Psychology
Why a Psychology of the Young Athlete? Why a Psychology of the Young Athlete?
Why Children Participate in Sport Why Children Participate in Sport
Why Children Discontinue Participation in Sport
Why Children Discontinue Participation in Sport
Role of Friends in Youth Sport Role of Friends in Youth Sport
(continued)(continued)
Session OutlineSession Outline
Stress and Burnout in Children’s Competitive Sport
Stress and Burnout in Children’s Competitive Sport
Effective Coaching Practices for Young Athletes
Effective Coaching Practices for Young Athletes
Role of Parents Role of Parents
Some of the most important implications of sport psychology are found in the children’s sport arena, where participants are plentiful and are highly involved.
Some of the most important implications of sport psychology are found in the children’s sport arena, where participants are plentiful and are highly involved.
The Importance ofChildren’s Sport Psychology
The Importance ofChildren’s Sport Psychology
Why a Psychology ofthe Young Athlete?
Why a Psychology ofthe Young Athlete?
So many children are involved (an estimated 45 million in the United States).
So many children are involved (an estimated 45 million in the United States).
Children are intensely involved in youth sport. Children are intensely involved in youth sport.
Participation peaks at a critical developmental period in the child’s life (age 12).
Participation peaks at a critical developmental period in the child’s life (age 12).
Organized sport is not automatically beneficial; qualified, competent adult leadership is needed.
Organized sport is not automatically beneficial; qualified, competent adult leadership is needed.
Children have different reasons for participating in sport, and boys’ reasons vary from girls’.Children have different reasons for participating in sport, and boys’ reasons vary from girls’.
Why Children Participatein Youth Sport
Why Children Participatein Youth Sport
(See table 22.1 on p. 494 of text.)(See table 22.1 on p. 494 of text.)
Peak participation occurs between the ages of 10 and 13 years.
Peak participation occurs between the ages of 10 and 13 years.
Why Children DiscontinueParticipation in Sport
Why Children DiscontinueParticipation in Sport
For every 10 children who begin a sport season, 3 to 4 quit before the season ends.
For every 10 children who begin a sport season, 3 to 4 quit before the season ends.
Participation statisticsParticipation statistics
Major reason: “Other things to do” Major reason: “Other things to do”
Why Children DiscontinueParticipation in Sport
Why Children DiscontinueParticipation in Sport
Some negative reasons (e.g., “Not as good as I wanted to be”; “Boredom”; “Didn’t like the pressure”) cited by a significant minority of children
Some negative reasons (e.g., “Not as good as I wanted to be”; “Boredom”; “Didn’t like the pressure”) cited by a significant minority of children
Motives for withdrawalMotives for withdrawal
The Importance of Perceived CompetenceThe Importance of Perceived Competence
Children with low perceptions of their athletic abilities drop out or do not participate in sport, whereas children with high perceptions of their competence participate and persist.
Children with low perceptions of their athletic abilities drop out or do not participate in sport, whereas children with high perceptions of their competence participate and persist.
Why Children DiscontinueParticipation in Sport
Why Children DiscontinueParticipation in Sport
Why Children DiscontinueParticipation in Sport
Why Children DiscontinueParticipation in Sport
Why Children DiscontinueParticipation in Sport
Why Children DiscontinueParticipation in Sport
Sport-specific dropouts withdraw from a particular program, but enter other sports.
Sport-specific dropouts withdraw from a particular program, but enter other sports.
Sport-general dropouts withdraw from all sport participation.
Sport-general dropouts withdraw from all sport participation.
Sport-general dropouts are a special concern. Sport-general dropouts are a special concern.
Understand underlying motives for withdrawal.Understand underlying motives for withdrawal.KEY—KEY—
Why Children DiscontinueParticipation in Sport
Why Children DiscontinueParticipation in Sport
Most of the motives children have are intrinsic (e.g., to have fun, learn skills). Winning clearly is neither the only nor the most common motive for participation.
Most of the motives children have are intrinsic (e.g., to have fun, learn skills). Winning clearly is neither the only nor the most common motive for participation.
Why Children DiscontinueParticipation in Sport
Why Children DiscontinueParticipation in Sport
Most young athletes have multiple reasons for participation, not a single motive.
Most young athletes have multiple reasons for participation, not a single motive.
SummarySummary
(continued)(continued)
Although most children withdraw because of change of interests, a significant minority discontinue for negative reasons (e.g., lack of fun, pressure).
Although most children withdraw because of change of interests, a significant minority discontinue for negative reasons (e.g., lack of fun, pressure).
Why Children DiscontinueParticipation in Sport
Why Children DiscontinueParticipation in Sport
Underlying the descriptive motive (e.g., fun) is the child’s need to feel worthy.
Underlying the descriptive motive (e.g., fun) is the child’s need to feel worthy.
SummarySummary
Coaches can enhance motivation by structuring environments to meet specific needs.Coaches can enhance motivation by structuring environments to meet specific needs.
Strategies for StructuringSport Situations to Meet
the Needs of Young Athletes
Strategies for StructuringSport Situations to Meet
the Needs of Young Athletes
(See table 22.2 on p. 496 of text.)(See table 22.2 on p. 496 of text.)
Enhance perceived competence—teach young athletes to define success as exceeding their own goals, not simply winning.
Enhance perceived competence—teach young athletes to define success as exceeding their own goals, not simply winning.
Facilitating Motivationin Young Athletes
Facilitating Motivationin Young Athletes
Keep participation and withdrawal statistics. Keep participation and withdrawal statistics.
Implications for practiceImplications for practice
(continued)(continued)
When children discontinue, rigorously analyze why they are withdrawing from sport.
When children discontinue, rigorously analyze why they are withdrawing from sport.
Facilitating Motivationin Young Athletes
Facilitating Motivationin Young Athletes
Implications for practiceImplications for practice
Is the child interested in another sport? Is the child interested in another sport? Is withdrawal permanent or temporary? Is withdrawal permanent or temporary? Did the child have a say in the decision? Did the child have a say in the decision? What are effects on long-term welfare? What are effects on long-term welfare?
Positive Role of Friendsin Youth Sport
Positive Role of Friendsin Youth Sport
Companionship Companionship Spending time or “hanging out” together Spending time or “hanging out” together
(continued)(continued)
Pleasant play association Pleasant play association Enjoying being around one’s friends Enjoying being around one’s friends
Enhancement of self-esteem Enhancement of self-esteem Having friends say things or take actions that
boost one’s self-esteem Having friends say things or take actions that
boost one’s self-esteem
Positive Role of Friendsin Youth Sport
Positive Role of Friendsin Youth Sport
Help and guidance Help and guidance Providing assistance in learning sport skills as
well as general assistance, such as in school Providing assistance in learning sport skills as
well as general assistance, such as in school
(continued)(continued)
Prosocial behavior Prosocial behavior Saying and doing things that conform to social
convention, such as sharing or not saying negative things
Saying and doing things that conform to social convention, such as sharing or not saying negative things
Intimacy Intimacy Mutual feelings of close, personal bonds Mutual feelings of close, personal bonds
Positive Role of Friendsin Youth Sport
Positive Role of Friendsin Youth Sport
Emotional support Emotional support Expressions and feeling of concern for one
another; absence of conflicts (some friends do not argue, fight, or disagree)
Expressions and feeling of concern for one another; absence of conflicts (some friends do not argue, fight, or disagree)
Conflict resolution Conflict resolution Ability of friends to resolve conflicts Ability of friends to resolve conflicts
Attractive personal qualities Attractive personal qualities Positive characteristics such as personality or
physical features Positive characteristics such as personality or
physical features
Negative Role of Friendsin Youth Sport
Negative Role of Friendsin Youth Sport
Conflict (e.g., insults, arguments) Conflict (e.g., insults, arguments)
Unattractive personal qualities (e.g., self-centered)
Unattractive personal qualities (e.g., self-centered)
Betrayal Betrayal
Inaccessibility (lack of opportunity to interact) Inaccessibility (lack of opportunity to interact)
Peer relations affect motivation for physical activity.Peer relations affect motivation for physical activity.
KEY—KEY—
Role of Friends in Youth SportRole of Friends in Youth Sport
Role of Friends in Youth SportRole of Friends in Youth Sport
1.In sport settings, provide time for children to be with friends and to make new friends.1.In sport settings, provide time for children to be with friends and to make new friends.
2.Encourage positive peer reinforcement.2.Encourage positive peer reinforcement.
3.Emphasize teamwork, foster cohesion, and emphasize the pursuit of group “team” goals.3.Emphasize teamwork, foster cohesion, and emphasize the pursuit of group “team” goals.
Are young athletes placed under too much stress?
No, the vast majority of young athletes are not under excessive stress (less than 10% are).
Are young athletes placed under too much stress?
No, the vast majority of young athletes are not under excessive stress (less than 10% are).
Stress and Burnout inChildren’s Competitive Sport
Stress and Burnout inChildren’s Competitive Sport
Stress and Burnout inChildren’s Competitive Sport
Stress and Burnout inChildren’s Competitive Sport
Stress and Burnoutin Children’s Competitive Sport
Stress and Burnoutin Children’s Competitive Sport
High stress (state anxiety) levels are relatively rare, but affect 2.5 million children in specific situations.
High stress (state anxiety) levels are relatively rare, but affect 2.5 million children in specific situations.
Stress among elite junior competitors is caused by fear of failure and feelings of inadequacy.
Stress among elite junior competitors is caused by fear of failure and feelings of inadequacy.
Is state anxiety heightened in young athletes?Is state anxiety heightened in young athletes?
Children at risk for heightened state anxiety exhibit certain personal characteristics.
Children at risk for heightened state anxiety exhibit certain personal characteristics.
Excessive trait anxiety does not appear to be associated with youth sport participation.Excessive trait anxiety does not appear to be associated with youth sport participation.
KEY—KEY—
Stress and Burnoutin Children’s Competitive Sport
Stress and Burnoutin Children’s Competitive Sport
Personal Characteristics ofChildren at Risk for
Heightened State Anxiety
Personal Characteristics ofChildren at Risk for
Heightened State Anxiety
High trait anxiety High trait anxiety
Low self-esteem Low self-esteem
Low performance expectancies relative to team Low performance expectancies relative to team
Low self-performance expectations Low self-performance expectations
Frequent worries about failure Frequent worries about failure
(continued)(continued)
Personal Characteristics ofChildren at Risk for
Heightened State Anxiety
Personal Characteristics ofChildren at Risk for
Heightened State Anxiety
Frequent worries about adult expectations and evaluation by others.
Frequent worries about adult expectations and evaluation by others.
Less perceived fun Less perceived fun Less satisfaction with their performance,
regardless of winning or losing Less satisfaction with their performance,
regardless of winning or losing Perception that participation is important to
parents Perception that participation is important to
parents Outcome goal orientation and low perceived
ability Outcome goal orientation and low perceived
ability
Defeat Versus VictoryDefeat Versus Victory
Children experience more state anxiety after losing than after winning.Children experience more state anxiety after losing than after winning.
Situational Sources of StressSituational Sources of Stress
Event ImportanceEvent Importance
The more importance placed on a contest, the more state anxiety experienced by participants.The more importance placed on a contest, the more state anxiety experienced by participants.
Situational Sources of StressSituational Sources of Stress
Sport TypeSport Type
Children in individual sports experience more state anxiety than children in team sports.Children in individual sports experience more state anxiety than children in team sports.
Situational Sources of StressSituational Sources of Stress
Stress-Induced BurnoutStress-Induced Burnout
Burnout is a special case of sport withdrawal in which a young athlete discontinues sport involvement in response to chronic stress.
Burnout is a special case of sport withdrawal in which a young athlete discontinues sport involvement in response to chronic stress.
Characteristics of burnout include one-dimensional self-definitions and little or no control in decision making.
Characteristics of burnout include one-dimensional self-definitions and little or no control in decision making.
Factors Associated With Burnoutin Young Athletes
Factors Associated With Burnoutin Young Athletes
Very high self- and other-imposed expectations
Very high self- and other-imposed expectations
Win-at-all-costs attitude Win-at-all-costs attitude
Parental pressure Parental pressure
Long repetitive practices with little variety Long repetitive practices with little variety
Inconsistent coaching practices Inconsistent coaching practices
(continued)(continued)
Factors Associated With Burnoutin Young Athletes
Factors Associated With Burnoutin Young Athletes
Overuse injuries from excessive practice Overuse injuries from excessive practice
Excessive time demands Excessive time demands
High travel demands High travel demands
Love from others displayed on the basis of winning and losing
Love from others displayed on the basis of winning and losing
Perfectionism Perfectionism
Develop confidence and a constructive attitude toward mistakes.
Develop confidence and a constructive attitude toward mistakes.
Stress and Burnout inChildren’s Competitive Sport
Stress and Burnout inChildren’s Competitive Sport
Use concrete physical strategies (e.g., stress bag to put worries in).
Use concrete physical strategies (e.g., stress bag to put worries in).
Use fun strategies (e.g., jelly belly, spaghetti toes relaxation).
Use fun strategies (e.g., jelly belly, spaghetti toes relaxation).
Practical implicationsPractical implications
(continued)(continued)
Use simple strategies (e.g., change channels). Use simple strategies (e.g., change channels).
Stress and Burnout inChildren’s Competitive Sport
Stress and Burnout inChildren’s Competitive Sport
Vary approaches to the same exercise. Vary approaches to the same exercise.
Individualize approaches to the child’s interests.
Individualize approaches to the child’s interests.
Practical implicationsPractical implications
Remain positive and optimistic; use role models (e.g., Michael Jordan).
Remain positive and optimistic; use role models (e.g., Michael Jordan).
Entry or initial phase Entry or initial phase
Intensive Training andElite Sport for ChildrenIntensive Training andElite Sport for Children
Investment phase Investment phase
Elite performance excellence phase Elite performance excellence phase
Phases of athletic talent developmentPhases of athletic talent development
Excellence maintenance phase Excellence maintenance phase
Intensive Training andElite Sport for ChildrenIntensive Training andElite Sport for Children
Most champion athletes did not start out with champion aspirations in mind.
Most champion athletes did not start out with champion aspirations in mind.
Most champion athletes are exposed to active lifestyles and play multiple sports as children.
Most champion athletes are exposed to active lifestyles and play multiple sports as children.
Key findings:Key findings:
Champions must fall in love with the sport before pursuing intense involvement.
Champions must fall in love with the sport before pursuing intense involvement.
To optimize talent, young athletes should not spe-cialize in a single sport too early, and parents and coaches should emphasize fun and development.
To optimize talent, young athletes should not spe-cialize in a single sport too early, and parents and coaches should emphasize fun and development.
Children have special coaching needs, different from the needs of adults.Children have special coaching needs, different from the needs of adults.
KEY—KEY—
Effective Coaching Practicesfor Young Athletes
Effective Coaching Practicesfor Young Athletes
Smith, Smoll, and Curtis’ (1979) classic research notes that a coach’s instruction, reinforcement, and mistake-contingent instruction and encouragement correlate with a player’s self-esteem, motivation, and positive attitudes.
Smith, Smoll, and Curtis’ (1979) classic research notes that a coach’s instruction, reinforcement, and mistake-contingent instruction and encouragement correlate with a player’s self-esteem, motivation, and positive attitudes.
What the Research Says AboutCoaching Children
What the Research Says AboutCoaching Children
Learning a positive approach to coaching results in lower player dropout rates (5% compared with 26% for untrained coaches).
Learning a positive approach to coaching results in lower player dropout rates (5% compared with 26% for untrained coaches).
What the Research Says AboutCoaching Children
What the Research Says AboutCoaching Children
Effective Coaching Practicesfor Young Athletes
Effective Coaching Practicesfor Young Athletes
1.Catch kids doing things right and give them plenty of praise.1.Catch kids doing things right and give them plenty of praise.
2.Give praise sincerely.2.Give praise sincerely.
3.Develop realistic expectations.3.Develop realistic expectations.
4.Reward effort as much as outcome.4.Reward effort as much as outcome.
5.Focus on teaching and practicing skills (maximize participation and activity).5.Focus on teaching and practicing skills (maximize participation and activity).
(continued)(continued)
Implications for practiceImplications for practice
Effective Coaching Practicesfor Young Athletes
Effective Coaching Practicesfor Young Athletes
6.Modify skills and activities so they are developmentally appropriate.6.Modify skills and activities so they are developmentally appropriate.
7.Modify rules to maximize action and participation.7.Modify rules to maximize action and participation.
8.Reward correct technique, not just outcome.8.Reward correct technique, not just outcome.
9.Use a positive “sandwich” approach when you correct errors.9.Use a positive “sandwich” approach when you correct errors.
(continued)(continued)
Implications for practiceImplications for practice
Effective Coaching Practicesfor Young Athletes
Effective Coaching Practicesfor Young Athletes
10. Create an environment that reduces fear of trying new skills.
10. Create an environment that reduces fear of trying new skills.
11. Be enthusiastic.11. Be enthusiastic.
Implications for practiceImplications for practice
Parental RolesParental Roles
Parental enjoyment of physical activity is related to parental encouragement and a child’s perceived competence and participation.
Parental enjoyment of physical activity is related to parental encouragement and a child’s perceived competence and participation.
Parental support buffers the adverse stressful effects that youth players experience.
Parental support buffers the adverse stressful effects that youth players experience.
The goal orientations of parent and child are significantly related.
The goal orientations of parent and child are significantly related.
Parents can play a highly positive or a highly negative role in the youth sport experience.
Parents can play a highly positive or a highly negative role in the youth sport experience.
Parental RolesParental Roles
Appreciate the tricky business of parental support.
Appreciate the tricky business of parental support.
KEYS —KEYS —Educate parents about about parent
responsibilities and the sport parent code of conduct.
Educate parents about about parent responsibilities and the sport parent code of conduct.
Sport Parent ResponsibilitiesSport Parent Responsibilities
1.Encourage your children to play sports, but don’t pressure them. Let your child choose to play—and quit—if she or he wants.
1.Encourage your children to play sports, but don’t pressure them. Let your child choose to play—and quit—if she or he wants.
2.Understand what your child wants from sport and provide a supportive atmosphere for achieving those goals.
2.Understand what your child wants from sport and provide a supportive atmosphere for achieving those goals.
3.Set limits on your child’s participation in sport. You need to determine when your child is physically and emotionally ready to play and to ensure that conditions for playing are safe.
3.Set limits on your child’s participation in sport. You need to determine when your child is physically and emotionally ready to play and to ensure that conditions for playing are safe.
(continued)(continued)
Sport Parent ResponsibilitiesSport Parent Responsibilities
4.Make sure the coach is qualified to guide your child through the sport experience.4.Make sure the coach is qualified to guide your child through the sport experience.
5.Keep winning in perspective, and help your child do the same.5.Keep winning in perspective, and help your child do the same.
6.Help your child set realistic performance goals.6.Help your child set realistic performance goals.
(continued)(continued)
7.Help your child understand the valuable lessons sport can teach.7.Help your child understand the valuable lessons sport can teach.
8.Help your child meet his or her responsibilities to the team and the coach.8.Help your child meet his or her responsibilities to the team and the coach.
Sport Parent ResponsibilitiesSport Parent Responsibilities
9.Discipline your child appropriately when necessary.9.Discipline your child appropriately when necessary.
10. Turn your child over to the coach at practices and games—don’t meddle or coach from the stands.
10. Turn your child over to the coach at practices and games—don’t meddle or coach from the stands.
11. Supply the coach with information regarding any allergies or special health conditions your child has. Make sure your child takes any necessary medications to games and practices.
11. Supply the coach with information regarding any allergies or special health conditions your child has. Make sure your child takes any necessary medications to games and practices.
Sport Parent Code of ConductSport Parent Code of Conduct
1.Remain in the spectator area during games.1.Remain in the spectator area during games.
2.Don’t advise the coach on how to coach.2.Don’t advise the coach on how to coach.
3.Don’t make derogatory comments to coaches, officials, or parents of either team.3.Don’t make derogatory comments to coaches, officials, or parents of either team.
(continued)(continued)
4.Don’t try to coach your child during the contest.4.Don’t try to coach your child during the contest.
5.Don’t drink alcohol at contests or come to a contest having drunk too much.5.Don’t drink alcohol at contests or come to a contest having drunk too much.
Sport Parent Code of ConductSport Parent Code of Conduct
6.Cheer for your child’s team.6.Cheer for your child’s team.
7.Show interest, enthusiasm, and support for your child.7.Show interest, enthusiasm, and support for your child.
8.Be in control of your emotions.8.Be in control of your emotions.
9.Help when asked by coaches or officials.9.Help when asked by coaches or officials.
10. Thank coaches, officials, and other volunteers who conduct the event.
10. Thank coaches, officials, and other volunteers who conduct the event.