psychological distress between american indian and majority culture college students regarding the...

Psychological Distress Psychological Distress Between American Indian Between American Indian

and Majority Culture College and Majority Culture College Students Regarding the Use Students Regarding the Use

of the Fighting Sioux of the Fighting Sioux Nickname and LogoNickname and LogoBy Angela LaRocqueBy Angela LaRocque

IntroductionIntroduction The word “Indian” can trigger an array of The word “Indian” can trigger an array of

images.images. Unfortunately, society tends to focus on the Unfortunately, society tends to focus on the

stereotypic image of American Indians of the stereotypic image of American Indians of the past and ignore American Indians of the present past and ignore American Indians of the present and future.and future.

The subset of American society that most reflects The subset of American society that most reflects inaccuracies are professional, high school, and inaccuracies are professional, high school, and college athletic teams that choose to use college athletic teams that choose to use American Indians as mascots, nicknames and American Indians as mascots, nicknames and logos.logos.

The imagery is often bias, distorted, and The imagery is often bias, distorted, and misrepresented.misrepresented.

IntroductionIntroduction

American Indians often view American American Indians often view American Indian mascots, nicknames, and logos Indian mascots, nicknames, and logos as stereotypic, offensive and as stereotypic, offensive and dehumanizing.dehumanizing.

Many American Indian students Many American Indian students attending schools and universities attending schools and universities outside Indian communities are often outside Indian communities are often subjected to racial slurs and attacks subjected to racial slurs and attacks because of preconceived attitudes because of preconceived attitudes resulting from stereotypes (Hansen & resulting from stereotypes (Hansen & Rouse, 1987).Rouse, 1987).

IntroductionIntroduction Conflict exists over the use of American Conflict exists over the use of American

Indians as sport symbols.Indians as sport symbols. Controversy continues to exist about Controversy continues to exist about

whether the use of American Indians as whether the use of American Indians as mascots, nicknames, and logos is an actual mascots, nicknames, and logos is an actual honor to American Indian or a form of honor to American Indian or a form of racism.racism.

The teams and fans justify their use by The teams and fans justify their use by proclaiming their team is bringing tradition proclaiming their team is bringing tradition and honor to American Indians and that and honor to American Indians and that they should feel proud about the they should feel proud about the recognition that these mascots, nicknames, recognition that these mascots, nicknames, and logos bring (Davis, 1993).and logos bring (Davis, 1993).

Studies on American Indian Studies on American Indian Nicknames and LogosNicknames and Logos

Sigelman (1998) conducted an independent study Sigelman (1998) conducted an independent study on the Washington Redskins football team.on the Washington Redskins football team.

Results: No need to discontinue the use of the Results: No need to discontinue the use of the name. Supporters reported that the name was name. Supporters reported that the name was positive because it is associated with bravery, positive because it is associated with bravery, wisdom, spirituality, courage, and they failed to wisdom, spirituality, courage, and they failed to realize their depictions as racial stereotyping.realize their depictions as racial stereotyping.

Survey study was done by Fenelon (1999) regarding Survey study was done by Fenelon (1999) regarding the Cleveland Indians’ “Chief Wahoo.”the Cleveland Indians’ “Chief Wahoo.”

Results: Results: A distinctive split among ethnic A distinctive split among ethnic groups.groups.

-Caucasians wanted to keep the logo -Caucasians wanted to keep the logo at all costs at all costs despite protests by American despite protests by American Indians.Indians.

-African Americans remained neutral.-African Americans remained neutral.-American Indians wanted a change.-American Indians wanted a change.

Over 50% of Caucasians did not find Wahoo Over 50% of Caucasians did not find Wahoo offensive, did not empathize with American Indians, offensive, did not empathize with American Indians, and did not think the logo was stereotypic or racist.and did not think the logo was stereotypic or racist.

Effects of Stereotypes, Effects of Stereotypes, Discrimination, Prejudice, and Discrimination, Prejudice, and

RacismRacism Zakhar (1987) examined experiences of Zakhar (1987) examined experiences of

American Indians at a Midwestern American Indians at a Midwestern university. university.

Conclusions: American Indian students Conclusions: American Indian students were subjected to stereotyping and were subjected to stereotyping and racism from the beginning of their racism from the beginning of their elementary education through college. elementary education through college. They confronted racism on both a They confronted racism on both a personal level and at an institutional level.personal level and at an institutional level.

The racism inflicted both emotional and The racism inflicted both emotional and academic hardship.academic hardship.

Effects of Stereotypes, Effects of Stereotypes, Discrimination, Prejudice, and Discrimination, Prejudice, and

RacismRacism Huffman (1991) examined cultural, social, Huffman (1991) examined cultural, social,

economic, academic, and financial problems economic, academic, and financial problems among American Indian students at a among American Indian students at a Midwestern university. Midwestern university.

Results: American Indian students Results: American Indian students experienced racism in the form of verbal experienced racism in the form of verbal harassment. Remarks ranged from harassment. Remarks ranged from derogatory to general. derogatory to general.

Verbal remarks were in the form of name-Verbal remarks were in the form of name-calling and racial slurs stemming from calling and racial slurs stemming from common stereotypes held by non-Indians.common stereotypes held by non-Indians.

The University of North The University of North Dakota Nickname and Logo Dakota Nickname and Logo

ConflictConflict LaRocque (2001) conducted a study LaRocque (2001) conducted a study

examining the differences between non-examining the differences between non-Indian and American Indian college Indian and American Indian college students’ attitudes, beliefs, and students’ attitudes, beliefs, and reactions to the Fighting Sioux reactions to the Fighting Sioux nickname and logo at UND.nickname and logo at UND.

Participants filled out a survey on Participants filled out a survey on attitudes, beliefs, and reactions to the attitudes, beliefs, and reactions to the “Fighting Sioux” logo/nickname and its “Fighting Sioux” logo/nickname and its surrounding controversy.surrounding controversy.


ConflictConflict Results for the American Indians revealed:Results for the American Indians revealed:

the nickname did not honor UND or the the nickname did not honor UND or the Lakota/Dakota/Nakota people. Lakota/Dakota/Nakota people.

it was used in a disrespectful manner and that it it was used in a disrespectful manner and that it should be changed.should be changed.

historically and recently there has been an historically and recently there has been an atmosphere at UND that promotes discrimination.atmosphere at UND that promotes discrimination.

they have experienced discrimination.they have experienced discrimination. they felt their personal safety was threatened.they felt their personal safety was threatened. they have experienced cultural clashes from the they have experienced cultural clashes from the

controversy that lead to levels of tension in controversy that lead to levels of tension in classrooms.classrooms.

they have greater levels of stress and tension they have greater levels of stress and tension resulting from the nickname issue.resulting from the nickname issue.


ConflictConflict

Results for the non-Indians were the Results for the non-Indians were the complete opposite of the American complete opposite of the American Indian results.Indian results.

They were in support of its continued They were in support of its continued use and were not affected by the use and were not affected by the controversy surrounding its use.controversy surrounding its use.


ConflictConflict Jollie-Trottier (2002) examined differences Jollie-Trottier (2002) examined differences

between American Indians and Caucasians between American Indians and Caucasians in level of sport fan identification and in level of sport fan identification and sport fan motivation at UND. A question sport fan motivation at UND. A question regarding the continued use of the regarding the continued use of the nickname and logo was also asked. nickname and logo was also asked.

Results: Caucasian participants highly Results: Caucasian participants highly identified with the nickname and were identified with the nickname and were more likely to attend athletic events. They more likely to attend athletic events. They also did not support a name change.also did not support a name change.


ConflictConflict American Indians participants on the American Indians participants on the

other hand, did not identify with the other hand, did not identify with the nickname and were not likely to attend nickname and were not likely to attend athletic events.athletic events.

Many of the American Indian students Many of the American Indian students reported that they were sport fans, but reported that they were sport fans, but did not attend games because of the did not attend games because of the nickname and logo.nickname and logo.

They also reported that the nickname They also reported that the nickname was encouraging racism and supported was encouraging racism and supported a name change.a name change.

Purpose of Current StudyPurpose of Current Study

To investigate to what extent, if any, the To investigate to what extent, if any, the “Fighting Sioux” nickname and logo affects “Fighting Sioux” nickname and logo affects American Indian and Majority Culture college American Indian and Majority Culture college students emotionally.students emotionally.

The study compared American Indian and The study compared American Indian and Majority Culture students differences of Majority Culture students differences of emotional reactions and distress to 2 emotional reactions and distress to 2 different slide shows using images of the different slide shows using images of the “Fighting Sioux” nickname and logo found “Fighting Sioux” nickname and logo found around campus at UND.around campus at UND.

HypothesesHypotheses

American Indians will have more negative American Indians will have more negative affect as a result of viewing the neutral affect as a result of viewing the neutral images of the Fighting Sioux nickname/logo images of the Fighting Sioux nickname/logo than Majority Culture participants.than Majority Culture participants.

Majority Culture participants will experience Majority Culture participants will experience more negative affect as a result of viewing the more negative affect as a result of viewing the controversial images than American Indian controversial images than American Indian participants.participants.

American Indian participants will have higher American Indian participants will have higher levels of psychological distress than non-levels of psychological distress than non-Indian participants.Indian participants.

HypothesesHypotheses

The Orthogonal Theory of Biculturalism The Orthogonal Theory of Biculturalism was utilized to examine how the was utilized to examine how the nickname/logo affects bicultural, nickname/logo affects bicultural, traditional, assimilated and marginal traditional, assimilated and marginal American Indian students.American Indian students.

Traditional American Indian Traditional American Indian participants will have higher scores of participants will have higher scores of negative affect and psychological negative affect and psychological distress than Assimilated American distress than Assimilated American Indians after viewing the Neutral slide Indians after viewing the Neutral slide show.show.

MethodologyMethodology Participants: 36 Majority Culture and 33 Participants: 36 Majority Culture and 33

American Indian students attending UND.American Indian students attending UND. Materials: Research packet consisted of Materials: Research packet consisted of

1)informed consent form 2) a 1)informed consent form 2) a demographic questionnaire 3) three demographic questionnaire 3) three Multiple Affect Adjective Checklists Multiple Affect Adjective Checklists (MAACL-R) and 4) the Nickname and (MAACL-R) and 4) the Nickname and Logo Distress Scale (NLDS). American Logo Distress Scale (NLDS). American Indian participants also filled out the Indian participants also filled out the Northern Plains Biculturalism Inventory Northern Plains Biculturalism Inventory (NPBI).(NPBI).

MethodologyMethodology

Recruitment consisted of soliciting Recruitment consisted of soliciting students from psychology and Indian students from psychology and Indian studies classes, sending an e-mail studies classes, sending an e-mail message to American Indian students, message to American Indian students, and research assistants approaching and research assistants approaching American Indian students at the American Indian students at the American Indian Center.American Indian Center.

The study was conducted in a lab in The study was conducted in a lab in the Psychology building. Each the Psychology building. Each participant was run separately.participant was run separately.

MethodologyMethodology Participants read through the consent form and Participants read through the consent form and

signed it if they chose to participate-a copy was signed it if they chose to participate-a copy was also given to them. They were then given specific also given to them. They were then given specific instructions about the study.instructions about the study.

They first completed the demographic They first completed the demographic questionnaire and American Indians also filled out questionnaire and American Indians also filled out the NPBI. Participants then filled out the first the NPBI. Participants then filled out the first MAACL-R to establish a baseline for each MAACL-R to establish a baseline for each participant.participant.

They then viewed either the Neutral slide show or They then viewed either the Neutral slide show or the Controversial slide show. The slide shows the Controversial slide show. The slide shows were counterbalanced.were counterbalanced.

After viewing each slide show, participants were After viewing each slide show, participants were instructed to fill out the MAACL-R to measure if instructed to fill out the MAACL-R to measure if there was a change in emotional state.there was a change in emotional state.

MethodologyMethodology

After the last MAACL-R was completed, After the last MAACL-R was completed, they were then instructed to fill out the they were then instructed to fill out the Nickname and Logo Distress Scale. The Nickname and Logo Distress Scale. The study lasted approximately 45 minutes.study lasted approximately 45 minutes.

Upon completion of the study, each Upon completion of the study, each participant was thanked for their time participant was thanked for their time and were awarded either one hour of and were awarded either one hour of extra credit towards their class or five extra credit towards their class or five dollars for their participation.dollars for their participation.

ResultsResults

Pearson Product Moment correlations were Pearson Product Moment correlations were conducted to examine the relationships conducted to examine the relationships between variables and the NLDS as well as between variables and the NLDS as well as with the MAACL-R. with the MAACL-R. See handoutSee handout

Two (group) X 3 (MAACL-R) mixed factor Two (group) X 3 (MAACL-R) mixed factor ANOVA for each subscale of the MAACL-R.ANOVA for each subscale of the MAACL-R.

Independent t-tests to see if there were Independent t-tests to see if there were significant differences on mean scores on the significant differences on mean scores on the NLDS (American Indians vs Majority Culture, NLDS (American Indians vs Majority Culture, Traditional vs Assimilated).Traditional vs Assimilated).

ResultsResultsDescriptive Analyses for Entire SampleDescriptive Analyses for Entire Sample

N=69: 36 Majority Culture (19 females N=69: 36 Majority Culture (19 females & 17 males); 33 American Indian (19 & 17 males); 33 American Indian (19 females & 15 males).females & 15 males).

Mean age was 23.55 (SD=6.20).Mean age was 23.55 (SD=6.20). 32% were freshman, 22% were 32% were freshman, 22% were

sophomores, 17% juniors, 20% were sophomores, 17% juniors, 20% were seniors, and 9% were graduate students.seniors, and 9% were graduate students.

Majors: 15% psychology; 12% nursing; Majors: 15% psychology; 12% nursing; 10% elementary education, and 9% 10% elementary education, and 9% aviation.aviation.

Years attended UND: Mean length was Years attended UND: Mean length was 2.33 (SD=1.78).2.33 (SD=1.78).

ResultsResults Descriptive Statistics for Dysphoria Descriptive Statistics for Dysphoria

Composite ScaleComposite ScaleEthnic GroupEthnic Group MM SDSD NN

BaselineBaselineMajority CultureMajority Culture 43.4143.41 8.498.49 3636American IndiansAmerican Indians 47.3647.36 14.8514.85 3333TotalTotal 45.3045.30 12.0412.04 6969

NeutralNeutralMajority CultureMajority Culture 47.61*47.61* 13.4113.41 3636American IndiansAmerican Indians 67.48*67.48* 20.0520.05 3333TotalTotal 57.1157.11 19.5419.54 6969

ControversyControversyMajority CultureMajority Culture 67.19*67.19* 20.7220.72 3636American IndiansAmerican Indians 77.90*77.90* 21.0121.01 3333TotalTotal 72.3172.31 21.3921.39 6969

*=significant at *=significant at αα=.05=.05

ResultsResults Main effect of MAACL-RMain effect of MAACL-R

[F(2,67)=66, p=.000] [F(2,67)=66, p=.000] αα=.05=.05

MAACL-R *Ethnic MAACL-R *Ethnic GroupGroup InteractionInteraction

[F(2,67)=5.77, p=.000] [F(2,67)=5.77, p=.000] αα=.05=.05

Main effect of Ethnic Main effect of Ethnic GroupGroup

[F(1,67)=14.16, p=.000] [F(1,67)=14.16, p=.000] αα=.05=.05

ResultsResultsDescriptive Statistics for PASS Descriptive Statistics for PASS

Composite ScaleComposite Scale

Ethnic GroupEthnic Group MM SDSD NNBaselineBaseline

Majority CultureMajority Culture 5151 9.109.10 3636American IndiansAmerican Indians 51.4851.48 9.579.57 3333TotalTotal 51.2351.23 9.269.26 6969





[F(2,67)=49.94, p=.000] [F(2,67)=49.94, p=.000] αα=.05=.05


[F(2,67)=11.88, p=.000] [F(2,67)=11.88, p=.000] αα=.05=.05


[F(1,67)=14.16, p=.000] [F(1,67)=14.16, p=.000] αα=.05=.05

ResultsResultsDescriptive Statistics for Anxiety Descriptive Statistics for Anxiety

SubscaleSubscale

Ethnic GroupEthnic Group MM SDSD NN


NeutralNeutralMajority CultureMajority Culture 45.08*45.08* 10.1410.14 3636

American IndiansAmerican Indians 51.30*51.30* 12.4412.44 3333TotalTotal 48.0548.05 11.6511.65 6969

ControversyControversyMajority CultureMajority Culture 47.7747.77 8.838.83 3636American IndiansAmerican Indians 48.6648.66 7.997.99 3333TotalTotal 48.2048.20 8.398.39 6969



[F(2,67)=3.23, p<.043] [F(2,67)=3.23, p<.043] αα=.05=.05


[F(2,67)=2.20, p>.118] [F(2,67)=2.20, p>.118] αα=.05=.05


[F(1,67)=2.51, p>.117] [F(1,67)=2.51, p>.117] αα=.05=.05

ResultsResultsDescriptive Statistics for Depression Descriptive Statistics for Depression

SubscaleSubscale

Ethnic GroupEthnic Group MM SDSD NN

BaselineBaselineMajority CultureMajority Culture 45.3845.38 7.777.77 3636American IndiansAmerican Indians 48.4848.48 11.6411.64 3333

TotalTotal 46.8646.86 9.869.86 6969NeutralNeutral

Majority CultureMajority Culture 46.61*46.61* 7.837.83 3636American IndiansAmerican Indians 63.12*63.12* 20.4820.48 3333TotalTotal 54.5054.50 17.2617.26 6969



ResultsResults

Main effect of MAACL-RMain effect of MAACL-R

[F(2,67)=18.99, [F(2,67)=18.99, p=.000043] p=.000043] αα=.05=.05


[F(2,67)=7.51, p<.001] [F(2,67)=7.51, p<.001] αα=.05=.05


[F(1,67)=16.29, p=.000] [F(1,67)=16.29, p=.000] αα=.05=.05

ResultsResults Descriptive Statistics for Hostility Descriptive Statistics for Hostility

SubscaleSubscaleEthnic GroupEthnic Group MM SDSD NN



ControversyControversyMajority CultureMajority Culture 95.58*95.58* 48.4848.48 3636American IndiansAmerican Indians 111.09*111.09* 45.2845.283333TotalTotal 103103 47.2847.28 6969



[F(2,67)=70.13, [F(2,67)=70.13, p=.000043] p=.000043] αα=.05=.05


[F(2,67)=3.31, p<.039] [F(2,67)=3.31, p<.039] αα=.05=.05


[F(1,67)=44.84, p=.000] [F(1,67)=44.84, p=.000] αα=.05=.05

Results-Traditional vs Results-Traditional vs AssimilatedAssimilated

Scatter plot Scatter plot reflecting American reflecting American Indian participant’s Indian participant’s data points data points according to the according to the Orthogonal Theory Orthogonal Theory of Biculturalism.of Biculturalism.

Bicultural (n=4), Bicultural (n=4), Traditional (n=11), Traditional (n=11), Marginal (n=4), Marginal (n=4), Assimilated (n=10).Assimilated (n=10).

25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 45.00 50.00 55.00

AICI

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EA

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Cultural Affiliation

Bicultural

Traditional

Marginal

Assimilated

EACI=European American Cultural Affiliation

AICI=American Indian Cultural Affiliation

NPBI Subscale Scatterplot

Figure 9

Results-Repeated Measures Mixed Results-Repeated Measures Mixed DesignDesign

The results revealed that there was no significant The results revealed that there was no significant difference between the Traditional and difference between the Traditional and Assimilated American Indians on the Dysphoria Assimilated American Indians on the Dysphoria Composite Scale’s mean scores (negative affect).Composite Scale’s mean scores (negative affect).

1 2 3

MAACL

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Estimated Marginal Means of Dysphoric Composite Scale

1=Baseline

2=Neutral

3=Controversial

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Estimated Marginal Means of the Positive Attitude and Sensation Seeking Composite Scale

1=Baseline

2=Neutral

3=Controversial

ResultsResultsIndependent t-TestIndependent t-Test

An independent t-Test was conducted between An independent t-Test was conducted between American Indian and Majority Culture American Indian and Majority Culture participant’s mean scores on the Nickname and participant’s mean scores on the Nickname and Logo Distress Scale.Logo Distress Scale.

There was a statistically significant difference There was a statistically significant difference between the total scores [t(67)=-5.95, p=.000] at between the total scores [t(67)=-5.95, p=.000] at αα=.05.=.05.

American Indians had a mean score of American Indians had a mean score of 15(SD=5.6) and Majority Culture had a mean 15(SD=5.6) and Majority Culture had a mean score of 8.8 (SD=2.67) score of 8.8 (SD=2.67)

The higher mean score indicates that American The higher mean score indicates that American Indian participants had higher levels of distress Indian participants had higher levels of distress due to the “Fighting Sioux” nickname and logo.due to the “Fighting Sioux” nickname and logo.

Results-Traditional vs Results-Traditional vs AssimilatedAssimilatedIndependent t-TestIndependent t-Test

Traditional and Assimilated American Traditional and Assimilated American Indians did not differ in terms of Indians did not differ in terms of psychological distress from the psychological distress from the nickname/logo {t(19)=-2.01,p<.058}.nickname/logo {t(19)=-2.01,p<.058}.

Traditional (M=19.20, SD=4.61), Traditional (M=19.20, SD=4.61), Assimilated (M=14.72, SD=5.46).Assimilated (M=14.72, SD=5.46).

Because of the small number of Because of the small number of participants in each group, conclusions participants in each group, conclusions are hard to make.are hard to make.

DiscussionDiscussion Results supported the first hypotheses that Results supported the first hypotheses that

American Indian participants would have higher American Indian participants would have higher mean scores of negative affect than Majority mean scores of negative affect than Majority Culture participants after viewing the Neutral Culture participants after viewing the Neutral slide show.slide show.

In fact, the American Indian group’s mean score In fact, the American Indian group’s mean score after viewing the Neutral slide show was in the after viewing the Neutral slide show was in the range for experiencing range for experiencing moderate distressmoderate distress whereas the Majority Culture participants still whereas the Majority Culture participants still had scores in the had scores in the normal rangenormal range..

The supportive evidence for the current The supportive evidence for the current hypothesis becomes even clearer when the PASS hypothesis becomes even clearer when the PASS Composite Scale mean scores are examined.Composite Scale mean scores are examined.

DiscussionDiscussion The second hypothesis that Majority Culture The second hypothesis that Majority Culture

participants would have more negative affect participants would have more negative affect as a result of viewing the Controversial as a result of viewing the Controversial images of the “Fighting Sioux” nickname/logo images of the “Fighting Sioux” nickname/logo than American Indians was not supported. than American Indians was not supported.

Probably the most interesting result of the Probably the most interesting result of the study is the findings from the examination of study is the findings from the examination of the Hostility subscale. The findings indicate the Hostility subscale. The findings indicate that there was a significant difference that there was a significant difference between American Indian and Majority between American Indian and Majority Culture participants on Hostility mean scores Culture participants on Hostility mean scores after each slide. after each slide.

DiscussionDiscussion The American Indian group’s mean score after The American Indian group’s mean score after

the Neutral slide show put American Indians the Neutral slide show put American Indians in the extremely significant range for hostility in the extremely significant range for hostility and remained there after viewing the and remained there after viewing the Controversial slide show. Controversial slide show.

The Majority Culture participants mean score The Majority Culture participants mean score hit the extremely significant range after they hit the extremely significant range after they viewed the controversial slide show. viewed the controversial slide show.

The extremely high scores indicate proneness The extremely high scores indicate proneness to violence according to the MAACL-R manual.to violence according to the MAACL-R manual.

The findings suggest that the American Indian The findings suggest that the American Indian participants left the study feeling depressed, participants left the study feeling depressed, angry, and with a total loss of positive affect. angry, and with a total loss of positive affect.

DiscussionDiscussion Interestingly, American Indian participants Interestingly, American Indian participants

had higher baseline scores on the negative had higher baseline scores on the negative affect scales of the MAACL-R. affect scales of the MAACL-R.

Why? Why? Suggestions:Suggestions:

American Indian students could have initial American Indian students could have initial higher levels of distress due to being a minority higher levels of distress due to being a minority student in a predominately Caucasian university student in a predominately Caucasian university (Huffman, 1991; Zakhar 1987). (Huffman, 1991; Zakhar 1987).

American Indian students experience a level of American Indian students experience a level of discrimination, racism, and prejudice that affects discrimination, racism, and prejudice that affects their daily emotional state (LaRocque, 2001). their daily emotional state (LaRocque, 2001).

American Indians are a higher risk for American Indians are a higher risk for psychological instability due to historical trauma psychological instability due to historical trauma (Walker; 2001, Lester; 1999; Bryon1997). (Walker; 2001, Lester; 1999; Bryon1997).

DiscussionDiscussion American Indian students on campus may American Indian students on campus may

have higher levels of psychological distress have higher levels of psychological distress on a daily basis simply from seeing images of on a daily basis simply from seeing images of the “Fighting Sioux” nickname and logo. the “Fighting Sioux” nickname and logo.

Seeing images may also make them more Seeing images may also make them more prone to hostility and feelings of depression. prone to hostility and feelings of depression.

Controversial images contribute to even Controversial images contribute to even higher levels of negative affect and higher levels of negative affect and psychological distress. psychological distress.

Negative affect experienced at that level can Negative affect experienced at that level can contribute to American Indian students contribute to American Indian students having a hard time functioning in their daily having a hard time functioning in their daily living. living.

DiscussionDiscussion

Limitations Limitations

-the content of the controversial slide -the content of the controversial slide showshow

-the slide show may have had images -the slide show may have had images that that may have been offensive to one may have been offensive to one group and group and not the other. not the other.

-small amount of participants that were -small amount of participants that were Lakota/Dakota/Nakota. Lakota/Dakota/Nakota.

-participants were not randomly selected.-participants were not randomly selected.

ConclusionsConclusions

This study provides evidence that American This study provides evidence that American Indian students and Majority culture Indian students and Majority culture students are experiencing negative affect students are experiencing negative affect and psychological distress due to the and psychological distress due to the “Fighting Sioux” nickname/logo and its “Fighting Sioux” nickname/logo and its surrounding controversy but at different surrounding controversy but at different levels. levels.

This is without even considering the added This is without even considering the added hype that occurs when a controversial issue hype that occurs when a controversial issue is brought up on campus about the is brought up on campus about the “Fighting Sioux” nickname/logo. “Fighting Sioux” nickname/logo.

ConclusionsConclusions Although this study provided some significant Although this study provided some significant

results, further research regarding the effects of results, further research regarding the effects of American Indian stereotypical images is clearly American Indian stereotypical images is clearly needed. needed.

More specific and meaningful research needs to More specific and meaningful research needs to be done in this area, other than offering opinion be done in this area, other than offering opinion polls. polls.

More evidence needs to be obtained regarding More evidence needs to be obtained regarding the direct psychological impact of using the direct psychological impact of using American Indians as nickname, logos, and American Indians as nickname, logos, and mascots, not only on college campuses, but on a mascots, not only on college campuses, but on a national level as well. national level as well.


It is clear that this is a serious issue that It is clear that this is a serious issue that needs more attention since the findings needs more attention since the findings of the current study do not contribute to of the current study do not contribute to a healthy learning environment for a healthy learning environment for American Indian students. American Indian students.

If this problem is not addressed, this If this problem is not addressed, this issue will continue to contribute to the issue will continue to contribute to the many problems American Indians face many problems American Indians face and assist in hindering their and assist in hindering their psychological well-being. psychological well-being.


This study did not offer any potential This study did not offer any potential solutions to the “Fighting Sioux” solutions to the “Fighting Sioux” nickname/logo issue, but it did offer an area nickname/logo issue, but it did offer an area that needs to be addressed in regards to the that needs to be addressed in regards to the seriousness of how American Indian seriousness of how American Indian students are being affected. students are being affected.

Hopefully, this study will contribute to the Hopefully, this study will contribute to the issue by providing further research in this issue by providing further research in this area and by helping find a resolution to a area and by helping find a resolution to a long standing issue among schools, long standing issue among schools, universities, and professional athletic teams. universities, and professional athletic teams.

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