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College of Education
School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 – 2016/2017
PSYC 335
Developmental Psychology I
Session 7 – Development in infancy-Part I
Lecturer: Dr. Joana Salifu Yendork Department of Psychology
Contact Information: [email protected]
godsonug.wordpress.com/blog
Session Overview
Slide 2
• The period of infancy cover the day of birth until the
individual is between 18-24 months depending on the
literature you consult. During this stage, there are changes in
the physical, cognitive and socio-emotional domains of development. This session provides overview of the
significant changes that occur in the physical and cognitive
domains of development during the infancy stage.
Session Outline
Slide 3
The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows:
• Physical development: Patterns of physical growth
• Physical development: Physical growth and development
• Physical development: Motor development
• Physical development: Other physical development
• Cognitive development
Reading List
Slide 4
• Read Chapter 4 of Developmental Psychology: Childhood and
adolescence, Shaffer & Kipp (2014); and Chapters 4 & 5 of Development through the lifespan, Berk (2006)
Topic One
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT:
Slide 5
PATTERNS OF PHYSICAL GROWTH
Physical development: Patterns of physical growth
• Infancy: birth to 18-24 months
• 1. Cephalocaudal pattern –
• Sequences in which early growth occurs from top to bottom
• A large part of total body is occupied by head during prenatal development and early infancy – E.g., the top parts of the head—the eyes and brain—grow
faster than the lower parts, such as the jaw.
• Motor development also proceed according to the cephalocaudal principle. – E.g., infants can use their hands long before they can crawl or
walk Slide 6
Physical development: Patterns of physical growth
Slide 7
• 2. Proximodistal pattern
• Sequence in which growth starts at center of body and moves toward the extremities
– Eg. Infants use their whole hands before they can control several fingers
• 3. Simple to complex: sequence of mastery of skills progresses from simple task to complex ones
– Eg. Eating with finger/spoon and fork
Topic Two
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT: PHYSICAL
Slide 8
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Physical development: Physical
growth and development
• Weight: – First several days, infants lose 5-7% of body weight, before
adjusting to feeding by sucking, swallowing and digesting
– Gain 5-6 oz per week during first month
– Double birth weight by 4 months
– By age 1, they are 3 times their birth weight
• Height: – Grow about 1 inch/month
– By age 1, they are 1.5 their birth length
– Growth slow down in 2 year
• By 2 years, infants weigh 26-32 pounds (11.3-14.5 Kg), 32-35 inches tall
Slide 9
Physical development: Physical growth
and development
Slide 10
• Brain development
• Brain undergo rapid growth and remarkable changes • At ďiƌth, the ŶeǁďoƌŶ’s ďƌaiŶ is aďout Ϯ5 peƌĐeŶt of
its adult weight.
• Most brain cell connections are made in 1st years
• By the second birthday, the brain is about 75 percent of its adult weight.
• Right hemisphere (negative emotions, intense emotions, creativity) has growth spurt in first 1½ years, and is dominant for first 3 years.
Physical development: Physical growth
and development
Slide 11
• Brain development • Brain grows in sequential fashion from bottom to top, or
from least complex part (brainstem) to more complex area (cortex).
• From bottom up: – Brainstem – impulses and reflexes. – Cerebellum – behind brainstem: coordinate and regulate muscular
activities – Midbrain – top of brainstem: movement and balance – Limbic – central part of the brain: emotions and memory – Cortex – top laLJeƌ: ͞EdžeĐutiǀ e ĐoŶtƌol͟-includes language, decision
making, planning – Cerebral cortex: least developed at birth and keeps developing
through adolescence. More sensitive to experiences than other parts of the brain
Abstract thought Concrete thought Logic/Reasoning
Affiliation
Attachment Contextual Memory
Sexual Behavior Emotional Reactivity Arousal Appetite/Satiety
Motor Regulation
Blood Pressure
Sleep
Temperature
Heart Rate
Breathing
FOREBRAIN Cortex
“Executive Center”
MIDBRAIN Limbic
“Emotional Center”
HINDBRAIN Cerebellum &
Brainstem “Alarm Center”
Physical development: Physical growth
and development
Slide 13
• Brain Development: Windows of Opportunity
• Periods when particular experiences are especially important or when some skills are more easily developed.
– By age 2 – emotional control
– By age 2 – social attachment
– By age 5 – motor development
– Birth to 10 years – language skills
– Birth to 4 years – visual development
– Birth to 4 years – math and logic skills
– 3 to 10 years – music
Brain Development: Windows of Opportunity
Slide 14
Physical development: Physical growth
and development
Slide 15
• Early Experience and the Brain
• Are the effects of deprived environments reversible?
• The aŶsǁ eƌ is ͞YES͟
• The brain demonstrates both flexibility/plasticity and resilience – Plasticity refers to the ability of the brain to modify its own structure
and function following changes within the body or in the external environment
• Before birth genes determine basic nerve connections
• After birth, environmental experiences determines brain development – Eg., sights, sounds, smells, touches, language, and eye contact help
shape the ďƌaiŶ’s Ŷeuƌal ĐoŶŶeĐtioŶs
Physical development: Physical growth
and development
Slide 16
• Two basic needs of the developing brain
• Safety: – PƌoteĐt ďaďLJ’s head fƌoŵ falls aŶd otheƌ iŶjuƌies ďeĐause of
ongoing development
– And infants head should not be shaken
• Shaken baby syndrome – brain swelling and bleeding
• Positive Experiences – Positive child-caregiver relationship
– Nutrition
– Mental health services for parents
– Prevention of abuse and neglect
Topic Three
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT: MOTOR
Slide 17
DEVELOPMENT
Physical development: Motor
development • How do infants develop motor skills; which skills develop at what
time?
• Dynamic systems theory (Thelen, 1989)
• Movement is produced from the interaction of multiple sub-systems within the person, task and environment
• All sub-systems spontaneously self-organize and interact to produce efficient movement solution for each task
• No sub-system is most important
• Critical change in one sub-system can cause the whole system to shift, resulting in a new motor behaviour
Slide 18
Physical development: Motor development
Slide 19
• Dynamic systems theory • Person:
– Infant must be able to perceive and be motivated to reach out. – use their perceptions to fine-tune their movements – the development of the nervous system – the ďodLJ’s phLJsiĐal pƌopeƌties – infant change movement patterns to fit new task by exploring and
selecting possible movement options – MasteƌiŶg a ŵotoƌ skill ƌeƋuiƌes the iŶfaŶt’s aĐtiǀ e effoƌts
• Task: goal to achieve (eg. Picking a favourite toy) • Environment:
– possibilities for movement, – the environmental support for the skill
Gross motor skills
Slide 20
• Skills that involve large-ŵusĐle aĐtiǀ i ties, suĐh as ŵoǀ iŶg oŶe’s arms, walking, sitting, standing
• Require posture control, lacking in newborns – Within few weeks, infant can lift head while on stomach
– 2 months: sit while supported in lap or infant seat;
– 6-7 months: sit up independently;
– 8 months: pull self to standing position while holding on to support
– 10-12 months - can stand alone
• First year: ability to walk easily – Timing of reaching this milestone can vary by 2-4 months
– Some infants do not follow the standard sequence of motor accomplishments, eg., some babies never crawl
Gross motor skills
Slide 21
• Second year: more skilled in motor activities and
mobile
– pull a toy attached to string
– use hands and legs to climb steps
– walk quickly
– run a short distance
– balance on feet while squatting
– walk backward without losing balance
– stand and throw a ball
– jump in place
Gross motor skills
Slide 22
Gross motor skills
Slide 23
Fine motor skills
Slide 24
• Involve finely tuned movements and those that requires finger dexterity, eg., grasp a toy, use spoon, button shirt
• Reaching and grasping marks the onset of significant achievement in fine motor skills – Palmer grasp: grasping with the whole hand – pincer grasp: grasping with thumb and forefinger
• Grasping varies based on size, shape, and texture, as well as the size of their oǁŶ haŶds ƌelatiǀ e to the oďjeĐt’s size
• Perceptual-motor coordination necessary for grasping • Use of perceptual systems vary with age
– 4 months – rely more on touch to grasp – 8 months – use vision more often as cue
• Experience influences grasping skills – E.g., IŶfaŶts ǁ h o had pƌaĐtiĐe ǁ ith ͞stiĐkLJ ŵitteŶs ͟ leaƌŶed gƌaspiŶg skills sooŶeƌ.
• Exercising gross motor skills and fine motor skills is important and helpful.
Fine motor skills
Slide 25
Topic Four
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT: OTHER
Slide 26
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Other physical development
• Sight improves rapidly – Blurry at first, within week can focus on object 7-10 inches away
• 1 month, focus on objects 3 feet away
– By 3 ½ months, vision almost as good as an adult
– Prefer patterns with high contrast and faces
• alternating stripes
• Prefer color red
• Develop hand-eye coordination: Move hands and fingers in relation to what is seen – 3-4 months: reach for what they see
• Essential for eating, catching a ball, coloring, tying shoes
• Depth perception improves – 2nd month: recognize that object is three-dimensional and not flat
Slide 27
Other physical development
Slide 28
• Hearing develops before birth
– At birth, can tell general direction sound is coming from
– Prefer human voice
• soothing voice calms
• loud voice alarms
• Smell and taste
– WithiŶ ϭϬ daLJs ĐaŶ tell ŵoŵ’s sŵell
– Can distinguish taste by 2 weeks old
• show preference for sweet taste
– Learn about world by using mouth
Other physical development
Slide 29
• Voice: – Cry becomes softer as lungs mature – Physical growth of throat muscles, tongue, lips, teeth, and
vocal cords
– Tongue and mouth interior change making speech development possible
• Teeth: – Begin to develop in 6th week of pregnancy
• Primary teeth begin to appear between 6-7 months of age
• Complete set by 20 months (1 year, 8 months)
Topic Five
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Slide 30
Cognitive development
• Carefully observed children and used information to
formulate his theory
• Believed that children actively construct their own cognitive worlds
• Both quantity and quality of knowledge increase
• Believed that cognitive development occurs in an orderly and gradual manner
• All children pass through a series of four universal stages in a fixed order
• Movement through stages occurs with physical maturation
and experience with environment
Slide 31
Cognitive development
Slide 32
• To construct knowledge, children use concepts such as schemes, assimilation, accommodation, organization, equilibrium, and equilibration
• Schemes – mental structures or mental representations used for organizing knowledge – Schemes become more sophisticated as motor capabilities
advance
– Infants actively use physical responses (sucking, grasping, looking)
– Toddlers and older children use mental schemes (cognitive activities-problem-solving) for organizing experiences.
Cognitive development
Slide 33
• Piaget theorize that children use and adapt their schemas through assimilation and accommodation
• Assimilation – use existing schemes to handle new information – E.g. calling all four-legged animals dogs
• Accommodation – adjust existing schemes to handle new information – E.g, learning to differentiate between a dog and other animals
• Organization – grouping isolated behaviors and thoughts into higher order more smoothly functioning cognitive system
Cognitive development
Slide 34
• To understand the world, children experience cognitive conflict, or disequilibrium – Experience of counterexamples of existing schemes and with inconsistencies – Eg. pouring water from a short and wide container into a tall and narrow
container changes the amount of water
• Internal search for equilibrium creates motivation for change
• Equilibration: mechanism by which children shift from one stage of thought to the next
• The child assimilates and accommodates, adjust old schemes, develop new schemes, and organize and reorganize the old and new schemes. – End product is a new way of thinking/cognitive change
• Sensori-motor, pre-operational, concrete operational and formal operational stages
Sensorimotor stage
Slide 35
• Spans from birth to 2 years
• Teƌŵed ͞sensorimotor͟ ďeĐause iŶfaŶts ĐoŶstƌuĐt aŶ understanding of the world by coordinating sensory
experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with
physical, motoric actions
• Can be broken into six substages
– At the beginning of this stage, newborns have little more
than reflexes
– At the stage, 2-year-olds can produce complex
sensorimotor patterns
Sensorimotor stage
Slide 36
Sensorimotor sub-stages
Slide 37
• 1)simple reflexes: birth to 1 months;
– Various reflexes to interact with the world
– Reflexive behaviors, eg., rooting and sucking, are used to
coordinate sensation and action
• 2)first habits and primary circular reactions:1-4 months
– Infants coordinate actions using 2 schemes, ie., habits and primary circular reactions
• Habit is scheme based on reflex separated from triggering stimulus (sucking)
– Eg., Infants in this substage might suck even when no bottle is
present
Sensorimotor sub-stages
Slide 38
• A circular reaction is an activity that permits the
construction of cognitive schemes through repetition of a
chance motor event
• Primary circular reaction is repetitive action based on
trying to reproduce event first occurring by chance
• Habits and circular reactions are repeated the same way each time
• The iŶfaŶt’s oǁ Ŷ ďodLJ ƌeŵaiŶs the iŶfaŶt’s ĐeŶteƌ of attention and no outward pull by environmental events
Sensorimotor sub-stages
Slide 39
• 3)secondary circular reactions: 4-8 months
– actions are repeated because of its consequences
• Infants become more object oriented and move beyond preoccupation with the self
• IŶfaŶt’s sĐheŵes aƌe Ŷot iŶteŶtioŶal ďut theLJ aƌe repeated because of their consequences
– Eg., shake rattle to reproduce sound;
• Vocalisation increases
• Infants also begin to imitate simple actions of others
Sensorimotor sub-stages
Slide 40
• 4) coordinated secondary circular reactions: 8-12
months
– Infants employ goal-directed behaviours
• Combine and coordinate several schemes to generate a
single act to solve a problem
• Actions become more outwardly-directed
• Changes involve the coordination of actions and
intentions.
• Development of object permanence, the realization that people and objects exist even when they cannot be seen
Sensorimotor sub-stages
Slide 41
• 5)tertiary circular reactions:12-18 months
– deliberate variation of actions to bring desired consequences
• Beginnings of novelty and curiosity;
• Interested in properties of objects and things they can do to objects (fall, spin, slide, hit another object);
Sensorimotor sub-stages
Slide 42
• 6) internalized schemes/beginning of thought 18-24 months; – Capacity for mental representation, ie., internal image of a past event or
object
• Gain ability to pretend and deferred imitation (an act of a person who is no longer present is imitated by children who have witnessed a similar act)
• Infants develop ability to use primitive symbols – Primitive Symbol is an internalized sensory image or word that
represents an event/concrete objects;
• Permit the infant to think about concrete events without actually seeing or touching them
• Allow the infant to manipulate and transform the represented events in simple ways
Sensorimotor sub-stages
Slide 43
Sample Question
Slide 44
• Describe the six sub-stages of Piaget’s seŶsoƌLJ ŵotoƌ stage of cognitive development.
References
• Thelen, E. (1989). Self-organization in developmental processes: Can systems approaches work. In M. Gunnar & E. Thelen (Eds.), Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology: Vol. 22. Systems and development (pp. 77–117). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Slide 45