proximate analysis of jatropha curcas

8/16/2019 Proximate Analysis of Jatropha curcas

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1. INTRODUCTION

The production and consumption of petroleum oil increases

constantly; nowadays consumption is about 75 million barrels of

crude oil daily and in the coming years it will increase by 7%

annually. About 36% of world energy comes from petroleum oil and

22% from gas. This dependence on fossil fuels has many

disadantages! for e"ample increasing pollution and increasing

costs. To reduce the use of petroleum oil as fuel! alternatie

energies need to be deeloped; biofuels! biogas and bioethanol are

now the most promising alternaties in energy generation. #iodiesel

is produced in some countries and used e$ciently either alone or in

blends with mineral diesel in cars and transport ehicles.

n line with the enironmental! public health and economic

worries! the demand for cheap and alternatie renewable natural

energy resources has risen. &ne such alternatie being loo'ed at

today is biodiesel. #iodiesel is produced by chemically reacting a

egetable oil or animal fat with an alcohol such as methanol or

mono(al'yl esters of long chain fatty acids deried from a renewable

lipid stoc' )*a and2 +anna! ,---; an /erpen! 2005; 1ang et al.!

2006. t is also biodegradable and nonto"ic and typically produces

about 60% less net carbon dio"ide )&2 emissions than petroleum(

based diesel )#iodiesel! 2007.

&ne source of oil is 4atropha curcas .#eing an agricultural

country! the hilippines must ma"imie the resources that it has

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been richly endowed. 4atropha can be grown in arious areas in the

country since it can be planted on any 'ind of soil and grows well

under tropical and subtropical climate. 4. curcas has been found as a

highly promising biodiesel source because of its ubiuity! hardiness

and the uality and uantity of the oil that can be e"tracted from its

seeds )/inwal et al! 2005.

t is a plant with many attributes! multiple uses and

considerable potential. The plant can be used to preent and8or

control erosion! to reclaim land! grown as a lie fence! especially to

contain or e"clude farm animals and be planted as a commercial

crop. t is a natie of tropical America! but now thries in many parts

of the tropics and sub(tropics in Africa8Asia )/ubit et a.! ,---;

9umar and :harma! 200; &penshaw! 2000; *art


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=epartment of *indanao :tate @niersity /eneral :antos ity. To

date! three of these hae yet to be characteried. This paper aims to

proide the pro"imate composition and free fatty acid content of

three )3 4. curcas proenances from Asian and *e"ican origin. This

will be done to ealuate the properties of 4. curcasB industrial

application and as a good source of biofuel.

1.1 Objectives

This study sought toC

a =etermine the pro"imate composition of Jatropha curcas

seeds ;

b =etermine the free fatty acid content of Jatropha curcas

oil from 3 diDerent proenances;

c ompare the properties of 3 Jatropha curcas oils from

other oils accepted for potential uses as biodiesel and

for other industrial applications

1.2 Signifcance o the Study

The unstable supply of oil and triggered seeral countries to

deelop alternatie sources of energy such as wind! nuclear and

geothermal power(generating facilities )+orton! ,-73. +oweer! for

oil(dependent countries that do not hae established power(

generating facilities cutting bac' on oil consumption is di$cult. The

potential solution for these countries is the use of biodiesel.

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The use of biodiesel is being highly promoted because of its

social! economic and enironmental impact. #iodiesel has attracted

signiEcant attention because of its renewability! biodegradability

and for being a cleaner substitute to petrodiesel )Antolin et al!

2002. The production of feedstoc' will generate employment and

additional income among those that will be inoled. dle lands not

planted with other crops or forest trees can be used )illancio 2006.

=omestic production of curcas oil will also result to a decreased

dependence on oil imports and thereby saing the hard(earned

reenue of the people.

Fntrepreneurs who desire to understand the J. curcas industry

and the current and future business opportunities in this mar'et!

and companies in the biofuel industry will beneEt most from this

study. And also! inestment ban's and Enancial inestment

companies 'een on funding entures in the biofuel industry will be

proided with aluable information from this study.

This study ealuated three diDerent proenances of Jatropha

curcas from Asian and *e"ican origin to determine pro"imate

analysis and fatty acid proEle. These properties were ealuated for

potential use as a biodiesel and for other industrial purposes.

1. Sco!e and "i#itation

The study focused on the characteriation of 3 4atropha curcas

proenances coming from Asian and *e"ican origins. Gree fatty acid

content and pro"imate composition were determined such as the

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crude fat! crude protein! carbohydrate! crude Eber! ash! and

moisture. The moisture! ash! crude Eber and crude fat analysis of

4atropha curcasB seed 'ernels were conducted in F Hesearch and

analytical ?aboratory! Alabel! :arangani roince. Gor the crude

protein analysis and free fatty acid content! samples were analyed

in =&:T Hegion I.

II. R$%I$& O' R$"(T$D "IT$R(TUR$

2.1 Jatropha curcas

2.1.1 Ta)ono#y and botanica* desc+i!tion

4atropha is a drought(resistant tropical bush or small tree from

the family of Fuphorbioceae. t has a productie life span of 35 to 50

years. #otanist arl on ?inne Erst classiEed and named the plant in

,753. +e named it 4atropha curcas; 4atropha coming from the /ree'

words JKatrosL meaning doctor and JtropheL meaning nutrition. The

name was brought about by the many uses of 4atropha as a

medicinal plant. ommonly 'nown as physic nut or purging nut!

4atropha is a non(edible oil(yielding perennial shrub that has green

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leaes with a length and width of 6 cm to ,5 cm! and can reach a

height of up to 5 meters.

The genus 4atropha contains appro"imately ,70 'nown

species. t was spread as a aluable plant in Africa and Asia by

ortuguese traders )@nited Mation! ,--6. t is multipurpose and

deciduous! reported to be cultiated in drier sites of central and

western ndia. 4atropha usually grows below ,>00 meters of

eleation from sea leel and reuires a minimum rainfall of 250mm!

with an optimum rainfall between -00(,200mm )#oswell 2003. The

plant shows articulated growth! with amorphological discontinuity at

each increment. The branches contain late". Mormally! Ee roots are

formed from seedlings! one central and four peripheral. A tap root is

not usually formed by egetatiely propagated plants. ?eaes Ee to

seen lobed! hypostomatic and stomata are of paracytic

)Hubiaceous type )9umar et al 200.

The trees are deciduous! shedding the leaes in dry season.

Glowering occurs during the wet season and two Nowering pea's are

often seen. n permanently humid regions! Nowering occurs

throughout the year. The plant is monoecious and Nowers are

unise"ual; occasionally hermaphrodite Nowers occur )=ehgan and

1ebster! ,-7-. A Nower is formed terminally! indiidually! with

female Nowers )tricarpellary! syncarpous with trilocular oary

usually slightly larger and occurs in the hot seasons. n conditions

where continuous growth occurs! an unbalance of pistillate or

staminate Nower production results in a higher number of female

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Nowers. Ten stamens are arranged in two distinct whorls of Ee each

in a single column in the androecium! and in close pro"imity to each

other. n the gynoecium! the three slender styles are connate to

about two(thirds of their length! dilating to massie bifurcate stigma

)=ehgan and 1ebster! ,-7-. Fach inNorescence yields a bunch of

appro"imately ,0 or more ooid fruits. 1ith good rainfall conditions

nursery plants may bear fruits after the Erst rainy season! and

directly sown plants after the second rainy season. Three! bialed

cocci is formed after the seeds mature and the Neshy e"ocarp dries.

The seeds mature about 3> months after Nowering. @nder optimal

conditions! Katropha usually Nowers about 3 to 6 months after the

seeds hae been sown. The time from Nower induction to fruit

maturation is -0 days. The female Nowers produce fruits that are

Erst green! and turn yellow when ripening. ?ater the yellow fruit hull

turns brown nd blac' when they dry )The 4atropha +andboo'C Grom

ultiation to Application. 20,0.

#ecause of the ast semi(wild distribution of 4. curcas in

diDerent parts of the world there should be a considerable amount

of genetic ariation among the species. +oweer! su$cient

information on such aspect is lac'ing and so far! only few records

e"ist of proenance trials made to e"amine the genetic information.

/enetic factors are strong determinants of seed uality and

potential. f the nature of these arious proenances would be

'nown! it could proide elaborate criteria for selection of prominent

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traits in both laboratory and nursery for better performances in the

Eeld )+eller! ,--6; /inwal et al.! 200>

2.1.2 ,ossib*e Uses

All parts of 4.curcas plant hae their own uses. ?i'e many

other 4atropha species! 4. curcas is a succulent tree that sheds its

leaes during the dry season. t is well adapted to arid and semi(arid

conditions and often used for erosion control. The leaes are used in

traditional medicine against coughs or as antiseptics after birth! and

the branches are chewing stic's )/Obit et al! ,---. The late"

produced from the branches is useful for wound healing and others

medical uses.

Fach fruit contains 2(3 oblong blac' seeds which can produce

oil. The seed 'ernel oil contained 30(50% )w8w oil )*a''ar et al.

,--7. These seeds contain iscous oil! which can be used for

manufacture of candles and soap! in cosmetics industry! as a

diesel8para$n substitute or e"tender. This latter use has important

implications for meeting the demand for rural energy serices and

also e"ploring practical substitutes for fossil fuels to counter

greenhouse gas accumulation in the atmosphere. These

characteristics along with its ersatility ma'e it of ital importance

to deeloping countries )9umar and :harma! 200.

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2.2 ,+o)i#ate (na*ysis

The etymology of Ppro"imateP is the ?atin word pro"imatus!

meaning Pto come nearP or PcloseP. +ence! many of the pro"imate

analyses are prefaced by the word PcrudeP! i.e.! crude protein! Eber!

fat! carbohydrate! ash! and moisture reported as the percentage

composition of the product

)httpC88www.aescl.missouri.edu8ro".html .

/ubit et al reported that analysis of 4atropha curcas

seeds shows that it contains; moisture 6.62; protein ,.2; fat 3.0;

carbohydrates ,7.30; Ebre ,5.50; and ash >.5% )/ubit et al! ,---.

The oil content is 35 to >0% in the seeds and 50 to 60% in the

'ernel )/ubit et al! ,---. The oil contains 2,% saturated fatty

acids and 7-% unsaturated fatty acids )/ubit et al! ,---. t has

also been found that there are some chemicals element in the seeds

which possess poisonous and purgatie properties and render the oil

non edible for human consumption. t is also been stated that

technologies are now aailable! whereby it could be possible to

conert 4atropha oil into an

edible oil which could proe to be a boon for deeloping countries

)/ubit et al! ,---. The oil is obtained from decorticates seeds by

e"pression or solent e"traction and is 'nown in trade as 4atropha.

n general! the oil is reported to be mi"ed with groundnut oil for

adulteration. This indicates the possibilities of obtaining edible oil

from 4atropha oil base )/ubit et al! ,---.

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2.2.1 -oistu+e and (sh Content

*oisture content is a factor in the uality control of biodiesels.

A recent contribution to the literature )+e et al.! 2007 notes the

paucity of information on the moisture content of biodiesels. t is

well 'nown that biodiesels hae higher moisture contents than

mineral diesels and as biodieselsB usage increases moisture content

will become an increasingly important factor in their uality control.

Ash is a measure of the amount of metals contained in the

fuel. +igh concentrations of these materials can cause inKector tip

plugging! combustion deposits and inKection system wear. The ash

content is important for the heating alue!

as heating alue decreases with increasing ash content. Ash content

for bio(fuels is typically lower than for most coals! and sulphur

content is much lower than for many fossil fuels.

The ash content is determined by ignition of a 'nown weight

of the food at 600Q until all carbon has been remoed. The residue

is the ash and is ta'en to represent the inorganic constituents of the

oil )A&A! ,--5.

2.2.2 C+ude ,+otein

The total protein content is estimated as total nitrogen )e.g.

the 9Keldahl method after digestion! salt neutraliation and titration

of the ammonia released against standard acid. A conersion factor

is applied to calculate the total protein. rotein contains about ,6%

Mitrogen. t is not the only thing in food containing Mitrogen! but

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normally it is the main one. rude rotein is simply the percentage

of Mitrogen multiplied by 6.25.

The protein content 4atropha oil ca'e may be used as raw

material for plastics and synthetics Ebres. t would also be

adantageous to ma'e use of 4atropha oil as hydraulic oil )/ubit et

al! ,---. 4atropha oil ca'e is rich in nitrogen! phosphorous and

potassium and can be used as organic manure. This indicated the

potential of this plant in initiating the process of reduction of surplus

liestoc' maintain by the rural fol' in ndia! mainly for the purpose

of obtaining cow (dung as manure.

4atropha oil ca'es can! hopefully! replace synthetic fertiliers by

underta'ing plantations of 4atropha curcas on wastelands! 4atropha

curcas leaes proide plentiful organic matter and increase the

microbial actiity including earthworms which is an indication of

ecological improement of site )/ubit et al! ,---. The oil ca'e is

rich in protein but contains some to"ic principle and as such it is

considered unEt for use as cattle feed. #ut it is reported that the

poisonous principle appears to e"ist in the alcohol soluble fraction of

the oil. 1ith suitable research it could be possible to conert the

nonedible oil(ca'e into protein rich cattle and poultry feed on a

massie scale )/ubit et al! ,---.

2.2. C+ude 'ibe+

Giber )indigestible carbohydrates stimulates the actiity of

bowels! combines heay metals! cholesterol! bilious acids! and

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remoes them from the organism! and obesity and een cancer.

According to data! up to ,3(,> %of crude Eber is found in seeds

)Tare' et al.! 200,. rude Eber contains cellulose! lignin and

hemicelluloses! but not necessarily all of these are present in a

sample )A&A ,->. There are seeral methods of Eber analysis!

among other methods of crude Eber! detergent method and the

enymatic methods each hae adantages and disadantages.

2.2. C+ude 'at

Gats! usually of animal origin contain saturated fatty acids!

which accounts for its being solid at room temperature. +oweer!

oils! or unsaturated fats! mostly from plant sources! contain

unsaturated fatty acids that are not able to close pac'ing due to

bends or J'in'sL in their molecules.)+olme and ec'! ,-3Gats are

used to describe those lipids that are solid at a speciEc

temperature. rude fat content is estimated by e"tracting a ground

feed sample with diethyl ether )Association of &$cial Analytical

hemists! ,->. The ether soluble components )ether e"tract may

include true fats and oils! fatty acid esters! compound lipids and fat(

soluble itamins or proitamins such as the carotenoids! all of which

may hae nutritional alue. +oweer! ether e"tract may also contain

signiEcant concentrations of indigestible wa"es! resins and essential

oils. There are seeral methods used for the crude fat analysisC

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ontinuous :olent e"traction or the /oldEsch e"traction and the

:o"hlet *ethod )#.9.9.9 4inadasa! 20,0.

&il content of Katropha 'ernel was found higher than linseed!

soybean! and palm 'ernel which is 33.33%! ,.35% and >>.6%!

respectiely )/unstone! ,-->. +igh oil content of 4atropha urcas

indicated that 4atropha urcas are suitable as non(edible egetable

oil feedstoc' in oleochemical industries )biodiesel! fatty acids! soap!

fatty nitrogenous deriaties! surfactants and detergents! etc.

urrently! 4atropha urcas can produce 2000 liter8ha oil per annual

)Aam et al.! 2005.

2.2./ Ca+bohyd+ates

Total carbohydrate consists of sugars )mono and

oligosaccharides and polysaccharides )starch and the non(starch

polysaccharides; pectin! soluble and insoluble dietary Ebre! e.g.

cellulose and hemicellulose.

n a ,--0 report! total carbohydrate was calculated as the

residue by diDerence from the total of fat! protein! moisture8solids!

ash! and Eber alues. A reiew of collaboratie studies of these

parameters was made to determine the li'ely precision of the

process. The procedure was Kudged as haing poor precision among

laboratories and high ariability. Fen so! the Jby diDerenceL

method was used in 2002 for the pro"imate analysis of Migerian oil

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seed!and *enees et al.! 200> aerred that most composition

databases contain total carbohydrate data calculated by the

diDerence method.

2. 'ats and Oi*s

Gats and oils are members of the lipid family. ?ipids may either

be a solid or liuid at room temperature! depending on their

structure and composition. Mormally! JoilL refers to a lipid that is

liuid at room temperature! while JfatL refers to a lipid that is solid

or semi(solid at room temperature. Gats and oils primarily consist of

esters of glycerol )mono(! di(! and triglycerides and low to

moderate contents of free fatty acids )carbo"ylic acids. &ther

compounds such as phospholipids! polypeptides! sterols! water

odorants and other impurities can be found in crude oils and fats.

The structures of mono(! di(! and triglycerides )*/s! =/s! and T/s

consists of glycerol )a bac'bone of carbon! hydrogen! and o"ygen

esteriEced with fatty acids )chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms

with a carbo"ylic acid group at one end! Gree fatty acids )GGAs can

can contain >(2> carbon atoms with some degree of unsaturation

)typically ,(3 ( double bonds. Gats hae more saturated fatty

acids! the compositional building bloc's! than oils! which gie rise to

a higher melting point and higher iscosity of the former.

onseuently! biodiesel produced from saturated fats hae a higher

cloud and gel points than those made from unsaturated oils! ma'ing

the former unsuitable to use in cold climates. Good(grade egetable

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oils! containing a low GGA leel! are currently used for commercial

biodiesel production. Although waste greases such as yellow grease

and brown grease! containing a GGA leel of ,5% and 33%

respectiely! are considered as the attractie feedstoc's for

biodiesel synthesis because of its wide aailability and low cost

compared to food(grade egetable oils.

2. '+ee 'atty (cid 0''(

&ne measure of fat uality is the free fatty acid )GGA content.

Gats are normally composed of three fatty acids lin'ed to glycerol

ia ester bonds. GGA are produced when those fatty acids are freed

by hydrolysis. Therefore the presence of high leels of GGA indicates

the fat was e"posed to water! acids! and8or enymes. Gats should be

processed to contain as low a moisture leel as is feasible so that

hydrolysis does not occur during subseuent storage.

An important consideration in the feedstoc' selection for

biodiesel production is the content of free fatty acid )GGA in the oil.

To be used as a feedstoc'! the 4& should contain a low percentage

of GGA so that the oil can directly be utilied in a transesteriEcation

reaction with methanol in the presence of an al'aline catalyst

) Ahari et al 2003 .

n the biodiesel production! to obtain 4atropha curcas methyl

esters )4*F! the Katropha curcas oil )4& was subKected to a

chemical reaction termed transesteriEcation. n that reaction! the

4& was reacted in the presence of an al'aline catalyst with

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methanol to gie the corresponding methyl esters. #erchmans and

+irata reported that the al'aline base catalyed transesteriEcation

depended on seeral basic ariables. &ne of them was the leel of

GGA in the feedstoc' should be less than ,%. Therefore! to be used

as a feedstoc' in biodiesel production! the 4& should contain a low

percentage of free fatty acids )GGA so that the oil can directly be

utilied in a transesteriEcation reaction with alcohol as an e"cess

reactant in the presence of an al'aline catalyst. &therwise! the

saponiEcation shall occur and the separation of products shall be

e"ceedingly di$cult! and as a result! the yield of biodiesel product

would be low. :ome researchers also )*archetti and Frrau

reported that if the feedstoc' has a high amount of free fatty acids!

much higher than the ma"imum amount suitable to be used with

basic homogeneous catalyst! high amount of soap would be

produced simultaneously with the transesteriEcation reaction.

Therefore! to aoid this reaction! alternatie technology should be

used for e"ample with a homogeneous acid catalyst! solid resins!

and enymes or in supercritical process. hung et al. stated that

due to the corrosion problem! these homogeneous catalyst(based

processes inoled elaborate process steps for remoal of GGA and

water from the feedstoc' and catalyst from the products.

n many cases! Katropha curcas oil )4& uality deteriorates

gradually due to improper handling and inappropriate storage

condition. t was 'nown that improper handling of the oil would

cause the moisture content of the 4& to increase. n addition!

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e"posing the oil to open atmospheric air and sunlight for long time

would cause the concentration of GGA to increase signiEcantly. The

GGA content of the oil would ary and depend on the uality of

feedstoc'. Gurthermore! other researchers hae wor'ed with raw

materials haing higher GGA leels using alternatie processes!

which included pretreatment step to reduce the GGA of these raw

materials.

ncreased leels of GGA in fats hae been shown to reduce the

digestibility and thus energy content of fats. &n the aerage! each

increase of ,0 percentage units in GGA results in a corresponding

reduction in digestible energy of ,.3 and ,.5 percentage units in

weanling and growing pigs! respectiely! )owles! et al. ,--5.

4ournal of Animal :cience 6,C,>-. A common source of egetable

fat used in blended feed fats is acidulated soapstoc'. This by(

product of edible oil reEning has ery high GGA since it was

intimately e"posed to water and acid during its production. +igh

leels of GGA should be considered when estimating energy content

of fats for feeding. The acidity of fats is also often e"pressed

directly in terms of percent Gree Gatty Acids )GGA. The assumption

usually made in the calculation is that the acids hae a molecular

weight eual to that of an oleic acid. t was 'nown that improper

handling of crude Jatropha curcas oil )4& would cause the water

content increase. n addition! e"posing the oil to open air and

sunlight for long time would aDect the concentration of GGA increase

signiEcantly to high leel of GGA aboe ,%. The GGA amount of 4&

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will

ary and depend on the uality of feedstoc'. The GGA and moisture

contents hae signiEcant eDects on the transesteriEcation of

glycerides with alcohol using catalyst )/oodrum! 2002. The high

GGA content )R,% w8w will happen soap formation and the

separation of products will be e"ceedingly di$cult! and as a result!

it has low yield of biodiesel product. The acid(catalyedesteriEcation

of the oil is an alternatie )rabbe et al.! 200,! but it is much

slower than the base(catalyed trans(esteriEcation reaction.

Therefore! an alternatie process such as a two(step process was

inestigated for feedstoc' haing the high GGA content )/hadge and

Haheman! 2005; elK'oic S et al.! 2006

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. -$TODO"O34

.1 Seed Sa#!*es

+ereunder is the list of the three )3 4atropha curcas

proenances that were entrusted to the researcher by the :cience

=epartment of *indanao :tate @niersity /eneral :antos ity.

ndicated are the names and the country of origin.

Na#e Count+y

,. Tubao(hil#io hilippines

2. ndia(=, ndia

3! *e"ican(hil#io *e"ico

.2 Seed Co**ection and Sa#!*e ,+e!a+ation

The seed samples of 3 Jatropha curcas proenances were

collected within the :cience department area of *:@(/:! Gatima.

ollected samples were air(dried for 7 days and stored in sealed

glass containers. The hard seed coat was remoed by pounding in a

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mortar and pestle. The collected 'ernels were then puleried using

a 1aring blender.

. ,+o)i#ate (na*ysis

..1 -oistu+e and (sh Content

The moisture content of 4atropha curcas )after drying were

measured using the ?4,6 *oisture Analyer! *etler Toledo. The

moisture free samples were ignited at 550o in a mue furnace

until a uniformly grayish to white or reddish to blue residue is

acuired. 1ith this process! water and other olatile components

were aporied while the organic constituents are eoled as other

form of o"ides and until weight is constant

..2 C+ude 'at

=etermination of crude fat percentage was done through

so"hlet method. The so"hlet apparatus was set up with anhydrous

diethyl ether! appro"imately ,75 m? )the empty Nas' was dried to

constant weight in an oen before using for the e"traction. The

samples )2g were remoed after e"traction and air dried to remoe

the e"cess ether. The Elter paper with the sample was dried in an

oen at ,050 until the weight is constant. The weight of the Elter

paper and the samples were then recorded. Total percentage of fat

was calculated using the formulaC

% rude Gat U orrected weight of the fat " ,00

1eight of the dry sample

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.. C+ude fbe+

Analysis of crude Eber was done using manual Eltration

method. The defatted sample was boiled in 0.6> M +2:&> and then in

,.56 M Ma&+ to eliminate soluble components. #etween successions

the sample was washed with boiling water seeral times then Enally

with ethanol! for the ignition process! the sample was placed in a

gooch crucible with asbestos matting. gnition was done at 550o for

20 minutes to o"idie all carbonaceous materials leaing only the

Ebers. The sample was cooled! placed in a dessicator and weighed.

%rude Giber U 1eight of crucible V 550o " ,00 1eight of dry sample

.. C+ude !+otein and '+ee 'atty (cid Co#!osition

:amples were sent to =&:T Hegion I to determine its free

fatty acid contents and crude protein analysis.

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. R$SU"TS (ND DISCUSSION

The pro"imate composition )crude protein! crude Eber! crude

fat! carbohydrate! ash! and moisture of three 4. curcas proenances

seed 'ernels of diDerent origins are shown in Table ,. t shows the

mean aerage composition of three proenances of Jatropha curcas.

Hesults on the moisture content is comparable to the moisture

content reported by Akintayo, 2004 which is 5.5>% for J. curcas. The

percent ash of 4. curcas seeds! ndia =,! Tubao( hilbio! *e"ican

hilbio are >.-2%! >.57% and >.5,% respectiely. This indicates that

low ash content of these proenances can be a good source of

biodiesel stated by A&A! ,-> . The seeds are ery rich in fat

content with Tubao(hil#io haing the highest alue of 37.03% and

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*e"ican(hilbio haing the least alue of 35.6%. These seeds can

be good sources of egetable oil for human consumption and for

industrial applications such as in cosmetics and the food industry as

mentioned by slam et al.

The alues of the rude protein for the three samples are

,6.7,%! ,6.6>%!,5.7% respectiely! with ndia =, haing the

highest and Tubao(hil#io haing the least. +oweer these three

arieties 4atropha curcas can be said to be considerably low in

protein and cannot compete faorably with some other good

sources of protein that were reported to contain 2.>% and 3,.5%

protein respectiely by ) Amoo et al., 2004. The crude Ebre contents

of these seeds are considerably high within the range of ,2.-3% (

,3.%. This alue is comparably much higher with the crude Eber

reported for Jatropha catharica ),.60%.

arbohydrate constitutes a maKor class of naturally occurring

organic compounds. They are essential for the maintenance of plant

and animal life and also proide raw materials for many industries.

arbohydrate contents of *e"ican(hilbio )2,.52%! Tubao(hil#io

)2,.,% and ndia =, ),-.35% obsered is lower to the

carbohydrate content reported for 4. curcas of Fgyptian origin with

30.,,% but higher than the carbohydrate content of 4. carthica

)6.>5%.

The data reealed that the alues between the chemical

compositions of J. curcas are relatiely close to each other )Gigure ,

23


24/51

which mean that there are slight diDerences between the chemical

compositions of seeds from diDerent proenances used in the study.

Tab*e 15 ,+o)i#ate Co#!osition 06 o Th+ee Jatropha curcas

,+ovenances

Co#!osition Tubao7

,hibio

India D1 -e)ican7

,hibio

-oistu+e 6.6 6.3 5.6-

24


25/51

(sh >.57 >.-2 >.>,

C+ude at 37.03 36.76 35.6

C+ude fbe+ ,2.-3 ,3. ,3.3

C+ude !+otein ,5.7 ,6.7, ,6.6>

Ca+bohyd+ates 2,., ,-.35 2,.52

'igu+e 1 Resu*ts o !+o)i#ate co#!osition o th+ee Jatropha

curcas ,+ovenances

.1 '+ee 'atty (cid Content in 8at+o!ha cu+cas oi*

As reported by #erchmans and +irata! an important

consideration in the feedstoc' selection for biodiesel production is

the content of free fatty acid )GGA in the oil. Therefore! to be used

as a feedstoc' in biodiesel production! the Jatropha curcas &il

should contain a low percentage of free fatty acids )GGA not higher

25


26/51

than ,% so that the oil can directly be utilied in a

transesteriEcation reaction with alcohol as an e"cess reactant in the

presence of an al'aline catalyst. &therwise! the saponiEcation shall

occur and the separation of products shall be e"ceedingly di$cult!

and as a result! the yield of biodiesel product would be low.

Gigure 2 shows that Tubao( hilbio has 0.,6% of free fatty acid!

*e"ican(hilbio has ,.03% and ndia(=, has 0.,-% alue of GGA.

#ased on these results! the Tubao(hilbio proenance would yield

the highest amount of biodiesel and would reuire the less energy if

utilied in a transesteriEcation reaction. The *e"ican(hilbio

proenance howeer e"ceeded the ,% GGA standard! this indicates

that the oil from this proenance would reuire processing such as

esteriEcation to neutralie and remoe the GGA )Agbogun ,-3.

26


27/51

'igu+e 2. '+ee 'atty (cid o 8at+o!ha cu+cas ,+ovenances o

(sian and -e)ican o+igin

. Statistica* (na*ysis

The researchers wished to assess if the magnitude of the

diDerences among sample mean measurements )in terms of

moisture! ash! fat! Eber! protein and carbohydrates and free fatty

acid are large enough to entail reKection of euality of population

means. +ence! a hypothesis testing procedure called Analysis of

ariance was conducted at 5% leel of signiEcance.

#ased on sample results! there is not enough eidence to

conclude that there is a signiEcant diDerence in the population

means of the proenances tested for ash! crude fat! crude Eber and

crude protein. There

'igu+e 2 One7&ay (na*ysis o %a+iance 9ith :;7 -.220 5.,>32 :igniEcantly diDerent

Ash 0.06-0 >.3,2> 5.,>32Mot signiEcantly

diDerent

rude Gat 0.3- ,.,066 5.,>32Mot signiEcantly

diDerent

rude Giber 0.,3-3 2.763 5.,>32Mot signiEcantly

diDerent

27


28/51

rude rotein 0.2,3- 2.0,62 5.,>32Mot signiEcantly

diDerent

arbohydrates 0.3336 ,.3253 5.,>32Mot signiEcantly

diDerent'+ee 'atty (cid 0.005- -.053 >.066, :igniEcantly diDerent

/. SU--(R4> CONC"USION (ND

R$CO--$ND(TIONS

Grom the results of the study the following are the summary!

conclusion and recommendation which answer our main obKectie.

a. The three arieties of J. curcas are closely related in terms of

moisture! ash! crude Eber! crude protein! carbohydrates and

crude fat contents. :tatistically! there is no signiEcant

diDerence among the three proenances in terms of ash!

28


29/51

crude Eber crude protein! carbohydrates and crude fat

howeer the moisture content slightly diDers.

b. The free fatty acid alues of the three 4atropha curcas

proenances did not e"ceed the ,% standard which means it

can be a good source of biodiesel.

c. #ased on the result of the study the following ealuation were

madeC

J. curcas is a multipurpose species with many attributes and

considerable potential. The present results demonstrated the

chemical composition of J. curcas to 'now its prospectie industrial

applications especially in the oil industry. The three arieties of

Jatropha curcas seeds are closely related in pro"imate compositions.

Grom the results of this study the seeds of the diDerent proenances

are a good source of carbohydrate! crude protein! and crude fat. The

plant can be used for medicinal purposes! in cosmetics based on its

pro"imate composition which determines its potential for industrial

applications )slam et al. #ecause of its high crude fat content! it

can be concluded that it can possibly be a good source of oil which

can be conerted into biodiesel. The oil from its seeds is the most

aluable product since it can be conerted into biodiesel. #iodiesel

has become more attractie as an alternatie to fossil diesel

because of its enironmental beneEts and the fact that it is made

from renewable resources. J. curcas ?. is a promising source of

biodiesel since its seeds contain high amount of oil and the species

29


30/51

has good agronomic traits. :ince the seeds of the diDerent

proenances of J.curcas which are currently underutilied8

une"plored in most regions of the world further studies should be

conducted about its chemical composition )e.g. to"icity leels

because! in this study the phase Wcrude rotein! crude fat! crude

EberW does not say anything about the uality of the said

composition. *oreoer! there is still lac' of scientiEc eidence to

support claims related to Jatropha high oil yield production

particularly at large scale. #ut still 4atropha deseres as much

attention as it can receie worldwide so that as many people as

possible can beneEt from the obious adantages.

"IT$R(TUR$ CIT$D

30


31/51

• Adebowale! 9.&. and .&. Adedire. 2006. hemical

composition and insecticidal properties of the underutilied

4atropha curcas seed oil. Afr. 4. #iotechnol.! 5C -0,(-06.

• #erchmans! +.4. and +irata :. 2007.#iodiesel production from

crude Jatropha curcas ?. seed oil with a high content of free

fatty acids. #ioresource Technology -- )200 ,7,6,72,

• ha'rabarti! *.+. and H. Ahmad. 200. TransesteriEcation

studies on castor oil as a Erst step towards its use in biodiesel

production. a'. 4. #ot.! >0C ,,53(,,57.

• hitra! .! . en'atachalam and A. :ampathraKan. 2005.

&ptimisation of e"perimental conditions for biodiesel

production from al'ali(catalysed transesteriEcation of 4atropha

curcus oil.

• A:AF! egetable oil fuelsC roceedings of the international

conference on plant and egetable; ,-2

• Goidl M! Goidl /! :anche *! *ittelbach *! +ac'el :. 4atropha

curcas ?. as a source for the production of biofuel in

Micaragua. #ioresour Technol ,--6; 5C772

• /oering F! :chwab A1! =augherty *4! ryde F+! +ea'in A4.

Guel properties of eleen oils. Trans A:AF ,-2;25C,>723.

9lass! =. ?. #iomass for Henewable Fnergy! Guels! and

hemicals. Academic ress! ?ondon. ,--! p. 335

31


32/51

• /ubit! /.*.! *ittelbach! *.! Trabi! *.! ,---. F"ploitation of

tropical oil seed plant 4atropha curcas ?. #ioresource

Technology 67! 732

• +oufang! ?u.! ?. Xingying! Y. +ui! X. Xang! *. hen and #.

?iang. 200-. roduction of biodiesel from 4atropha curcas ?.

oil. omp. hem. Fng.! 33C ,0-,(,0-6

• *a''ar! +..:.! Aderibigbe! A.&.! #ec'er! 9.! ,--.

omparatie ealuation of non(to"ic and to"ic arieties of

4atropha curcas for chemical composition! digestibility! protein

degradability and to"ic factors. Good hemistry 62! 2072,5

• arawira 1. 20,0. #iodiesel production from 4atropha curcasC A

reiew Technol.! ol. 5),>! pp. ,7-6(,0

• Hashid! @.! G. Anwar! T.*. Ansari! *. Arif and *. Ahmad. 200-a.

&ptimiation of al'aline transesteriEcation of rice bran oil for

biodiesel production using response surface methodology. 4

hem. Technol. #iotechnol.! >C ,36>(,370

• :onntag M&. :tructure and composition of fats and oils. nC

:wern =! editor. >th ed.! #aileyBs industrial oil and fat

products! ol. ,! >th ed. Mew Xor'C 4ohn 1iley and :ons; ,-7-.

p. ,

• 1ang! .:. *.F. Tat and 4.. /erpen. 2005. The production of

fatty acid isopropyl esters and their uses as a diesel fuel. 4.

Am. &il hem. :oc.! 2C >5(>-. )Heceied for publication 7

*arch 200-

32


33/51

33


34/51

(!!endi) (

,+ocedu+es

Sa#!*e !+e!a+ation

(sh and -oistu+e Dete+#ination

Fuipment8 Apparatus

• ?4,6 *oisture Analyer Z)*etler Toledo

• :et drying time to A@T&. ress FMTFH

• :et drying to ,,0o. ress FMTFH.

• &pen drying coer. *ount aluminum pan on the pan

support.

• Tare. =istribute the sample eenly on the pan. lose the dryer.

• ress :TAHT.

• ress :T& after analysis.

• Hecord the moisture loss.

• #ring the down the temperature of the furnace to ,05o and

maintain for 20 minutes.

• ool crucible in a dessicator and weigh after 30 minures.

• Heheat the crucibles in an oen at ,,0o! let cool and weigh.

34


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• Hepeat this operation at constant interals until constant

weight is obtained.

• Hecord the Enal weight of the crucibles.

%Ash U weight of the residue


6 C+ude 'at 0So)h*et #ethod

HeagentsC

Anhydrous diethyl ether

Fuipment8 Apparatus

Gilter paper

:o"hlet apparatus

=rying oen

Analytical balance

• 1eigh in triplicate 2.00 g sample in a pre( weighed Elter

paper ),5",5! fold! and wrap with another piece of the

same sie. lace the sample in the e"traction chamber

of the so"hlet apparatus.

• :et up the so"hlet Nas' with enough anhydrous diethyl

ether! appro"imately ,75 m? )the empty Nas' should be

dried to constant weight in an oen before using for the

e"traction. F"tract the fat in the sample.

35


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• Hemoe the sample and air dry to remoe the e"cess

ether. =ry the Elter paper with the sample in an oen at

,05o until the weight is constant.

• Hecord the weight of the Elter paper and the sample.

• Hun the blan' using the same sie of the Elter paper.

:ubtract the weight obtained from the weight of the fat

in the sample.

% rude Gat U corrected weight of the fat " ,00


6 C+ude 'ibe+ 0-anua* 'i*t+ation -ethod

HeagentsC

0.6>bM +2:&> )7,.,2 m? conBt +2:&> per ? solBn

,.56 M Ma&+ ),2>. g Ma&+ per 2 ? solBn

0.2 % methyl red )ttitrate 0.2 g methyl red with 7.> m? 0., M Ma&+

and ma'e up to ,00 m? with of distilled water

,% phenolphthalein ), g +2h in -0m? ethanol and ma'e up to

,00m? with ethanol antifoam.

Fuipments8Apparatus

600 m? bea'er /ooch crucibles

+ot plate &en

=ress linen mue furnace

Gilter papers dessicator

36


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• Transfer the defatted sample into a 600 m?bea'er )tall

form.

• Add boiling 0.6> M +2:&> upto the 200 m? mar'. Add ,

drop antifoam compound.

• +eat the resulting mi"ture and allow to boill for ,0

minutes with constant sha'ing.

• Gilter immediately through dress linen.

• 1ash the residue on the Elter paper with boiling water

until the washings are no longer acidic )washings turn

red to yellow with *H indicator

• Heturn the residue into the bea'er using appro"imately

,00 m? hot distilled water. *a'e up to the ,00 m? mar'

with the distilled water.

• Add boiling ,.56 M Ma&+ up to the 200 m? mar'. Add ,

drop antifoam compound.

• +eat the mi"ture and allow to boil for ,0 minutes with

constant sha'ing

• Gilter immediately through dress linen

• 1ash the residue with boiling water until the washings

are no longer al'aline )washing turn pin' to colorless

with phenolphththalein indicator

37


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• Transfer the residue into the prepared /ooch crucible

with asbestos matting by washing the residue with ,0

m? ethanol.

• +eat the sample at ,05o until the weight becomes

constant.

• gnite the residue in the mue furnace for about 20

minutes at 550o until all carbonaceous matter are

o"idied.

• ool! place in a dessicator and weigh.

%rude Giber U 1eight of crucible V 550o " ,00 1eight of dry sample

(!!endi) ?

Docu#entation

:ample reparation

38


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*oisture and Ash ontent Analysis

onstant 1eighing

39


40/51

:amples in the Gurnace

:o"hlet *ethod for rude fat and &il F"traction

40


41/51

Appendix C

Raw Data

41


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Proximate Composition (%) of 3 Jatropha curcas Provenances

Table 1 Tubao-Philbio

Replicate

No.

Moisture Ash Fat Fier !rotei" #aroh$%ra

tes

1 6.6 4.56 37.2 12.8 14.54 23.3

2 6.59 4.64 35.48 13.42 16.22 21.65

3 6.62 4.5 38.4 12.56 16.34 18.58

A&e 6.603333 4.566667 37.02667 12.92667 15.7 21.1766666

7

Table 2 ndia-!1

Replicate

No.

Moisture Ash Fat Fier !rotei" #aroh$%rates

1 6.2 5.3 37.7 13.43 17.1 19.27

2 6.43 4.56 36.32 13.62 16.53 20.54

3 6.5 4.9 36.25 14.6 16.5 18.25

A&e 6.376667 4.92 36.75667 13.88333 16.71 19.35333333

Table 3 "exican-Phil#io

Replicate

No.

Moisture Ash Fat Fier !rotei" #aroh$%rates

1 6.2 4.4 36.35 13.43 16.6 22.02

2 5.43 4.43 35.74 13.62 16.12 22.66

3 5.43 4.4 35.5 14.6 17.2 19.87

A&e 5.686667 4.41 35.86333 13.88333 16.64 21.51666667

(!!endi) D

Statistica* (na*ysis

42


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-OISTUR$

?et the following beC

,. +ypothesisC

2. ?eel of signiEcanceC

3. Test :tatisticC

>. ritical HegionC

5. omputationsC

AnoaC :ingleGactor

:@**AHX

Groups Count Sum Averag

earian

ce

Tubao(hilbio 3 ,-., 6.603 0.000

ndia =, 3 ,-.,3 6.377 0.025*e"ican (hil#io 3 ,7.06 5.67 0.,-

AM&ASource of ariation SS df !S " #$value " cri

#etween/roups

,.367755556 2 0.6> -.22, 0.0,5 5.,>

43


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1ithin /roups 0.>>5 6 0.07>

Total,.,27555

56

6.

7. onclusionC At 5% leel of signiEcance! based on sampleresults! there is su$cient eidence to claim that not allpopulation mean moisture content of the three J. curcas proenances are eual.

(S


,. +ypothesisC


3. Test :tatisticC

>. ritical HegionC

5. omputationsC

AnoaC :ingleGactor

44


45/51

:@**AHX

Groups Count Sum Averagearian

ce

Tubao(hilbio 3 ,3.70 >.57 0.00ndia =, 3 ,>.76 >.-2 0.,>

*e"ican (hil#io 3 ,3.23 >.>, 0.00

AM&ASource of ariation SS df !S "

#$value " crit

#etween/roups 0.>0- 2 0.205 >.3,2 0.06- 5.,>3

1ithin /roups 0.25 6 0.0>7

Total 0.6->

6.

7. onclusionC At 5% leel of signiEcance! based on sampleresults! we do not hae su$cient eidence to conclude that

the population mean ash content of the three J. curcas proenances diDer from one another.

'(T


,. +ypothesisC


3. Test :tatisticC

45


46/51

>. ritical HegionC

5. omputationsC

AnoaC :ingleGactor

:@**AHX


ce

Tubao(hilbio 3 ,,,.0 37.03 2.,5ndia =, 3 ,,0.27 36.76 0.67

*e"ican (

hil#io 3 ,07.5- 35.6 0.,-


#$value " crit

#etween/roups 2.22 2 ,.,, ,.,, 0.3- 5.,>

1ithin /roups 6.03 6 ,.00

Total .25

6.

7. onclusionC At 5% leel of signiEcance! based on sampleresults! we do not hae su$cient eidence to conclude thatthe population mean fat content of the three J. curcas

proenances diDer from one another.

'I?$R


46


47/51

,. +ypothesisC

?eel of signiEcanceC

2. Test :tatisticC

3. ritical HegionC

>. omputationsC

AnoaC :ingleGactor

:@**AHX


ce

Tubao(hilbio 3 3.7 ,2.-3 0.20ndia =, 3 >,.65 ,3. 0.3-*e"ican (

hil#io 3 >,.65 ,3. 0.3-

AM&A

Source of ariation SS df !S "

#$value " crit

#etween

/roups ,.3 2 0.-2 2.7- 0.,> 5.,>1ithin /roups ,.-7 6 0.33

Total 3.0

5.

6. onclusionC At 5% leel of signiEcance! based on sampleresults! we do not hae su$cient eidence to conclude thatthe population mean Eber content of the three J. curcas proenances diDer from one another.

47


48/51

,ROT$IN


,. +ypothesisC


3. Test :tatisticC

>. ritical HegionC

5. omputationsC

AnoaC :ingleGactor

:@**AHX


ce

Tubao(hilbio 3 >7.,0 ,5.70 ,.0,ndia =, 3 50.,3 ,6.7, 0.,,

*e"ican (hil#io 3 >-.-2 ,6.6> 0.2-


#$value " crit

#etween/roups ,.-, 2 0.-5 2.02 0.2, 5.,>

1ithin /roups 2.> 6 0.>7

Total >.75

48


49/51

6.

7. onclusionC At 5% leel of signiEcance! based on sample

results! we do not hae su$cient eidence to conclude thatthe population mean protein content of the three J. curcas proenances diDer from one another.

C(R?O4DR(T$S


,. +ypothesisC


3. Test :tatisticC

>. ritical HegionC

5. omputationsC

AnoaC :ingleGactor

:@**AHX


ce

Tubao(hilbio 3 63.53 2,., 5.7>ndia =, 3 5.06 ,-.35 ,.32

*e"ican (hil#io 3 6>.55 2,.52 2.,>

49


50/51

AM&A


#$value " crit

#etween/roups .,2 2 >.06 ,.33 0.33 5.,>

1ithin /roups ,.3 6 3.06

Total 26.50

6.

7. onclusionC At 5% leel of signiEcance! based on sample

results! we do not hae su$cient eidence to conclude thatthe population mean carbohydrates content of the three J.curcas proenances diDer from one another.

'R$$ '(TT4 (CID


,. +ypothesisC


3. Test :tatisticC

>. ritical HegionC

5. omputationsC

:@**AHX

50


51/51

Groups Count Sum Average ariance Tubao(hilbio 3 0.>7

0.,56666667

3.33333F(05

ndia =, 3 3.0,.0266666

670.0006333

33

*e"ican (hil#io 3 0.5

0.,-3333333

0.000233333

AM&A


#$valu

e " crit #etween/roups

,.>526- 2

0.7263>>>>>

2>2,.,>,>

,.-F(0-

5.,>3253

1ithin/roups 0.00, 6 0.0003

Total,.>5>>

-

6.7. onclusionC At 5% leel of signiEcance! based on sample

results! there is su$cient eidence to claim that not all

population mean moisture content of the three J. curcas proenances are eual.

proximate analysis of jatropha curcas

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