pronouns of address in spanish-language textbooks: the case for vos

Pronouns of Address in Spanish-Language Textbooks The Case for uos

Keith Mason Princeton University

Kenneth Nicely Cave Spring High School

ABSTRACT The voseo is a frequently used second person singular form of address in many New World varieties o f Spanish. Unfortunately, most textbooks of Spanish regularly treat the use of tu', usted, ustedes, and vosotros, but ignore vos. This article includes a survey o f 37 first- year secondary and postsecondary Spanish textbooks for their coverage o f the voseo. All texts were carefully analyzed via a page-by-page survey of explanations, tables of contents, readings, marginal glosses, and indexes. Results of the survey revealed that only 16 percent of the analyzed texts included any reference to the voseo. The article also makes recommendations for the inclusion of the voseo in future textbooks of Spanish and in class instruction. Indeed, the vos may be considered as the simple addition o f one more vocabulary item that could improve students' communicative competence in Spanish.

Several factors support an increased attention on vos: our students have contact with a Rum- ber of native speakers who regularly use vos. This contact is between our students and Central and South Americans both as immigrants in the United States and through contact with native speakers when our students travel and study in Central and South America. Therefore, the ever- increasing contact with dialect speakers exhibiting uos requires increased attention to this important form of address in pedagogical materials and class lessons at all levels.

Introduction In an effort to achieve meaningful communication, students of foreign languages face many challenges presented by constantly changing linguistic, social, and cultural factors within the context of a conversation.' Teachers prepare their students for success in the target language by exposing them to as much of the language as they will need to ex- press and to understand the intended meaning in spontaneous conversation. In the case of Spanish, one of the first grammatical structures that teachers and textbooks present is subject pronouns. Understanding and being

Keith Mason (Ph.D., University of Michigan) is Lecturer of Spanish in the Department of Romance Languages and Literatures, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey. Kennefh Nicely (M.A.T., University of Virginia) is Teacher of Spanish at Cave Spring High School, Roanoke, Virginia.

able to produce subject pronouns and their accompanying verb forms is basic to success- ful communication. Generally, the pronouns of address introduced in textbooks are tu', usted, ustedes, and vosotros. The vos is rarely included in spite of the fact that vos is a com- monly occurring second-person form of address in New World Spanish.' One of the most compelling rationales for including the ooseo in the study of Spanish pronouns of address is the increasing contact that U.S. students have with native speakers that use vos, both here in the U.S. and in voseante countries, as students increasingly consider Latin America as a study-abroad destination. In addition, because proficiency-based instruction advo- cates an increased usage of authentic materials (Omaggio Hadley 1993, 82-83) and because many materials in our Spanish classes may derive from voseante nations, it becomes increasingly important to expose

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students to uos usage. Just as most pedagogical texts of Spanish include the second person plural uosotros, and many classroom teachers at least refer to it, if not actively practice it, pre- sumably to prepare students for encounters with natives of the regions of Spain in which uosofros is used, it follows that the singular uos also merits a place in textbooks and lesson plans. Given that the population of Spain is a p proximately 39.1 million and the combined populations of the eight countries where uos is dominant is over 69.1 million (Information Please Almanac 1994, 12&9), students are at least as likely if not more likely to have contact with a native speaker who uses uos than one who uses uosotros.

While increased attention on uos in class lessons and pedagogical texts may be desir- able for better preparing our students to communicate with uos speakers, we realize that many teachers may object to the inclusion of another pronoun of address for three main reasons: (1) the grammar load is already very heavy in the Spanish cumculum, and students have enough difficulty learning the fu'lusted distinction; (2) the uos is considered a nonstandard form in some Hispanic countries and is not recognized by the Real Academia Espuiiola of Spain; and (3) the fu' is generally the familiar pronoun of address used by uos speakers when addressing foreigners. Let us address each of these three concerns briefly.

The task of finding enough time to teach all of the grammatical structures that students need for communicative competence is a daunting one for many teachers. Teaching students to distinguish between Spanish pronouns of address is a good example of a grammar point that requires much patience and persistence from the teacher. Despite the confusion that many teachers already en- counter from students who have to learn the pronouns tu', usted, usfedes, and uosocros, the benefits of at least teaching uos for recognition make the frustrations worthwhile. Expo- sure to 00s at the beginning levels may take the form of a cultural note or perhaps teaching uos as a vocabulary item. Mastery of the verb conjugations with uos is not the goal at

this level. Rather, merely exposing students to the uoseo will enable them to later build upon their knowledge of uos when they are called upon to understand and produce it.

With regard to standard versus nonstandard language use, Micheau (1991,87) reports that perceived prestige value and social connota- tions still affect pronoun usage in some soci- eties. This seems to be the case for tu' versus uos in dialects of Spanish. Nevertheless, in some countries such as Argentina, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, the uos is used by all levels of society including educated speakers; therefore, uos is not considered a stigmatized or nonstandard form3

While usfed and the plural usfedes are used in virtually all varieties of Spanish, the same cannot be said for fu', uos, and uosotros. Vosotros is only used in the Castilian variety of Spanish, spoken in the northern central region of Spain. Vosofros and its usage in Spain is ad- dressed in the research literature (cf. Siciliano 1971, and Almasov 1974). The fu' is used to the exclusion of uos in Castilian, most of Mexico and Peru, and in the Caribbean nations of Puerto Rico, Cuba, and the Dominican Re- public; however, the uos is used exclusively in eight New World nations (Piez Urdaneta 1981,515).

The use of the fc by uos speakers appears to be motivated by the desire to be not too familiar when addressing a stranger or for- eigner. In this case, the tu' is used instead of uos in a similar way; when in doubt, the usted is deemed more appropriate than fu'. The uos is often considered too informal to use with foreigners. On the other hand, the uos is normally used with fellow speakers of one's speech community or with foreigners once they become more familiar with one another.

In this article, we shall first present a brief diachronic description of the development of the uos from Latin and then proceed to the geographical distribution of uos in the New World. We shall then discuss U.S. census data and their implications for increased attention to uos and information about study-abroad programs in which U.S. students participate. We then survey 37 secondary and postsec-

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FOREIGN LANGUAGE A"ALS--FALL 1995

ondary textbooks for their coverage of uos, and the results of that survey are presented in the second part of this study. Finally, we make recommendations about the place for uos in the Spanish-language curriculum and in pedagogical materials.

History of uos Diachronically, Spanish uos derives from

Latin VOS, the second person plural pronoun of address. In the fourth century A.D., the VOS was used as a singular respectful form of address with the Roman emperors. Micheau (1991,79) explains that the uos of respect was extended beyond the emperor; it began to be used to address one person and to address anyone of superior status. This occurred par- ticularly in the popular language. The uos is documented in one of the earliest Spanish writings The Glosas Emilianses of 950 A.D. (Oelschlager 1940, 219) and in the "Poema del Mio Cid" from the twelfth century. Vos then filtered down to the lower class from the upper class.

In Latin, VOS was the plural of TU (cf. Corominas and Pascual, 1983). In Castilian, uosofros (uos + ofros) represents the original Latin VOS, whereas in all other varieties of Spanish usfedes is generally used (<uuesfru merced). Through time, VOS became a singular formal pronoun of address, later replaced by usfed. Micheau (1991, 80) explains that the uos took on an intermediate position between the respectful usfed and the intimate fu'. An important distinction between intimacy in fu' and nonintimacy in uos was originally maintained, but by the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, uos was used interchangeably with f u in Spain. The tendency to simplify pronoun usage resulted in the loss of uos and the re- tention of fu' in Spain (Micheau 1991, 80); however, it has been maintained in many areas in Latin America.

A link appears to exist between fu usage in New World Spanish and direct influence of Spanish viceroyal governments in Mexico, Peru, and the Caribbean nations, as well as Panama and coastal regions of Ecuador, Colombia, Chile, and Venezuela (Micheau

1991,81). Areas that were isolated from Span- ish rule adopted uos instead of fu', for example, rural areas of Mexico and Peru (Micheau 1991, 82). Pa& Urdaneta (1991, 115) reports that early settlers considered uos a prestigious form, and it became the only form of address. Vos lost its formal connotation and became a familiar form of address, generally more familiar than fu in those varieties that use both fu' and uos.

Dialectal Distribution of uos The uoseo has received much attention in

the professional literature. Chart (1943), Kid- dle (1953), Sole (1970), Pinkerton (1986), Tor- rej6n (1986), and Fontanella de Weinberg (1976, 1977), for example, report on dialectal aspects of uos. PAez Urdaneta (1981) presents a comprehensive overview of the uoseo in Latin America. Micheau (1991) considers the Latin American uoseo within historical sociolinguistics. While it is beyond the scope of this article to survey the extensive literature dealing with uos, the selective review that follows provides a succinct overview of precisely where uos is used and the approximate percentage of New World speakers exposed to

According to Rosenblat (1973), the uoseo is a principal linguistic feature that differentiates Latin American Spanish from Peninsular Spanish. Micheau (1991) reports that the usage of tu', uos, or W u o s determines dialectal regions of Latin America. Fontanella de Weinberg (1976, 267; 1977, 227) reports that the fu' and uos forms converge in various regions of Latin America. This includes using the pronoun fu' with the uos forms or vice versa. Hanssen (1966, 75) reports that only parts of Spain, specifically Andalusia, Asturias, and Le6n, still retain uos or uos verbal morphology as a respectful form. This differs from the singular familiar usage of various Latin American regions (Micheau 1991).

Following Resnick (1981, 89) and PAez Ur- daneta (1981), the geographical distribution of uos in Latin America is as follows. Vos is used by all classes in Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Honduras,

uos.

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El Salvador, and Costa Rica. The uos is also used in mountainous areas of Bolivia and Ecuador, western rural areas of Panama, Are- quipa and some northern regions of Peru, certain rural areas of Colombia, Chile, and Venezuela, and in the states of Chiapas and Tabasco in Mexico. The tu' is often rejected by the common people in Central and South America, who consider the tu' pedantic, ridiculous, or effeminate (Rosario 1970,47).

Paez Urdaneta (1981, 146) reports that the uos is consistently a rural phenomenon, even exclusively rural, and may also be an urban feature, but one does not find it solely as an urban feature. The same can be applied to lower-class and upper-class speech. The uos is consistently a lowerclass feature and at times an upperclass one. One of the most enlight- ening facts reveals that 47 percent of the Latin American population is exposed to uos. Why is the uos totally ignored in most pedagogical texts of Spanish if so many speakers of Span- ish, especially in the New World, use it or at least have contact with it? It does not seem jus- tifiable to exclude the uos. Below, we survey 37 texts for their coverage of uos.

U.S. Immigration Statistics and Their lrnplications for uos Usage

One of the principal objectives of modem foreign language teaching is to enable students to communicate in a meaningful way with native speakers of the target language. For many years, the native speakers of Span- ish with whom students would most likely have contact here in the United States have been Hispanics of either Mexican, Puerto Rican, or Cuban descent. These three groups, all of whom use tu' almost exclusively to uos, still represent by far the largest percentage of Hispanics in the United States. However, re- cent immigration statistics show a dramatic rise in the number of Hispanics entering the United States from uoseante countries, especially those of Central America. According to statistics published by the Immigration and Naturalization Service, the number of U.S. res- idents born in the uoseante countries of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua,

Costa Rica, Argentina, and Uruguay increased from a combined total of 352,000 in 1980 to over 1.1 million in 1990 (Statistical Abstract of the United States 1993:50). In 1990 alone, over 110,000 immigrants entered the U.S. from just two uoseante countries, El Salvador and Gua- temala, earning them rankings of second and sixth, respectively, among the top 15 countries of birth for immigrants admitted in 1990 (INS Fact Book 1993,15). These uosspeaking immigrants are distributed widely across the U.S., settling in at least 47 of the 50 states (Statistical Abstract of the United States 1993, 13). Clearly, the opportunities that students of Spanish have to communicate with native speakers who use uos here in the U.S. are on the rise, and they need to be prepared to function within such a sociolinguistic context by having been exposed to the uoseo some time in the course of their study of Spanish.

Study Abroad Programs In vosSpeaking Regions

Many students of Spanish in the U.S. take advantage of opportunities to study abroad during either high school or college. The Insti- tute for International Education in its publica- tion Academic Year Abroad (Steen 1994, 478-9) reports that Europe continues to be the most popular destination for U.S. students studying abroad, with Spain ranking behind only the United Kingdom and France as top host country. The second most popular region to which students travel has consistently been Latin America, including Costa Rica, where uos reportedly is used by all classes. For the 1991-1992 school year, Costa Rica ranked twelfth among all host countries for study- abroad programs and third among Spanish- speaking countries. Academic Year Abroad lists a total of 29 programs for Costa Rica and Argentina alone, with programs also available in Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Honduras. While U.S. students still choose European study-abroad programs much more often than programs in Latin America, statistics show that between 1985 and 1992, the number of U.S. students studying in Europe declined by nearly 10 percentage points, while the num-

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ber choosing Latin American programs increased by five percentage points. As U.S. students look south in growing numbers to countries like Costa Rica and Argentina for opportunities to study abroad, it seems rea- sonable to conclude that they would benefit from having encountered speech patterns such as the use of uos during their formal study of Spanish.

Vos in College and High School Textbooks

Thirtyseven textbooks designed for teaching Spanish at the secondary and post-secondary levels were surveyed for their coverage of uos. This was done to ascertain precisely how well represented or underrep- resented the uoseo is in Spanish pedagogical materials. The titles of each text that we sur-

veyed appear in Table 1 and are fully refer- enced in Appendix A. While we did not survey every book available for teaching Spanish at the secondary and postsecondary levels, we believe that the number of texts surveyed may be considered representative of those available.

For the survey, each text was carefully scru- tinized page by page in order to reveal all references to the uos in grammatical and cultural explanations, readings, marginal glosses, tables of contents, and indexes. All references to uos were carefully recorded for those texts that included it as well as for those texts that did not. The type of exercise or explanation involving uos was encoded in a master table so that it could be discussed both qualitatively and quantitatively. This discussion appears below.

TABLE 1

Textbooks Analyzed for uos Coverage

SECONDARY TEXTS

4mistades (Woodford et al., 1989) 4rcos y alamedas (Reynolds et al., 1989) 3tre todos (Jarvis et al., 1989) ’ronteras (Levy-Konesky and Daggett,

Mucho gusto! (Brett, 1988) Vosotros,los j6venes (Cazabon et al., 1990) Nuestro mundo (Femandez et al., 1991) Pasos y puentes (Reynolds et al., 1989) ,Que gusto! (Brett, 1988) Saludos (Schmitt et al., 1989) Somos asi (level 3) (Funston et al., 1991) Spanish for Mastery 1 (Valette and

Spanish for Mastery 2 (Valette and

Spanish for Mastery 3 (Valette et al., 1988) Voces y vistas (Reynolds et al., 1989) iYa verk!, primer nivel (Gutierrez and

iYa verh!, segundo nivel (Gutierrez and

iYa verk!, tercer nivel (Gutierrez and

2.Y tu? (Jarvis et al., 1989)

1989)

Valette, 1984)

Valette, 1984)

Rosso 0’ Laugh I i n , 1 99 1 )

Rosser, 1992)

Rosser, 1993)

POSTSECONDARY TEXTS

A conocernos! (Long and Macian, 1992) iArriba! (Zayas-Bazan and FemBndez,

Asi es (Levy-Konesky and Daggett, 1992) !Claro que si?(Caycedo Gamer et al., 1990) iC6mo se dice? (Jarvis et al., 1990) Destinos (VanPatten et al., 1991) Dos mundos (Terrell et al., 1993) Enlaces (Glisan and Shrum, 1991) Encuentros (Spinelli and Rosso-

Entradas (Higgs et al., 1993) Espaiiol en espaiiol (Shumway and

En contact0 (Valencia and

En direct0 (Boylan et al., 1988) Habla espanol. Essentials (Mendez -Faith

Puntos de partida (Knorre et al., 1993) iQu6 tal? (Dowick et al. 1991) iSabias que? (VanPatten et al., 1992) Visi6n y voz (Galloway and Labarca, 1993)

1993)

O’hughlin, 1988)

Forbes, 1988)

Weissenrieder, 1992)

and Hill, 1990)

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A careful examination of popular secondary-school level Spanish textbooks reveals that of 19 textbooks surveyed, only four offer any mention of the pronoun uos, and in one of these it is done incorrectly. Two of the 19 textbooks include contexts in which tu’ is used rather than uos, even though the latter may be the more natural choice given the sociolinguistic factors involved. The remaining textbooks avoid any reference to the uoseo in both grammatical and cultural contexts. This survey indicates that high school textbooks, whether intentionally or not, normally do not present uos along with other Spanish pronouns, and that among textbooks that do mention uos there is little agreement as to how it ought to be presented.

In the three textbooks in which the uoseo is treated in an appropriate context (16 percent of the books surveyed), the authors choose three different approaches in bringing the pronoun to the reader’s attention. The intermediate-level text Somos usi (Funston et al. 1991, 101) mentions the uoseo in a brief annotation accompanying a Mufuldu cartoon in the teacher’s edition. Mufuldu is a comic strip of Argentine origin that utilizes the uos regularly. The annotation includes a partial list of the countries in which uoseo is used. Fronterus (Levy-Konesky & Daggett 1989), a third-year textbook, offers a brief explanation of uos in a footnote on the same page in which the other subject pronouns are discussed in the student edition. As in Somos usi, the authors give a partial listing of the countries in which uos can be heard. The second book in the Mc- Graw-Hill program, Amistudes (Woodford et al. 1989, 216), uses the novel approach of including uos in a fictional “pen pal”-type letter written by a Costa Rican girl. In the letter, she explains many of the dialectal differences that exist in Spanish and draws a parallel with the differences between American and British English.

In some cases, the textbooks surveyed either associated grammatical forms incorrectly with the uoseo or did not include the uoseo in sociocultural contexts in which it may natu- rally be found. One example occurs in the

level-three textbook of the j Yu uerds! program (Gutierrez & Rosser 1993, 286). In a question about the Gabriela Mistral poem fiececitos (286), students are asked to find examples of the use of uos in the poem where none exist. The intermediate-level Somos usi (Funston et al. 1991, 110) makes a similar error in identify- ing the uosotros form of object pronouns as uos pronouns. The same edition of Somos usi (Funston et al. 1991, 187) presents a fictional conversation between an Argentine boy and his North American classmate. Since Ar- gentina is one of the countries that Micheau (1991) and others consistently identify as uoseunte across all classes, one might expect to find uos rather than tu’ as the second-person pronoun of address. In this case, however, the authors have the Argentine boy use tu’. Simi- larly, Nuestro mundo (Fernandez et al. 1991, 8), a textbook intended for third year, includes two created contexts in which tu’ wins out over uos. The first is in a letter written by an Uruguayan boy in which he uses tu’ com- mands rather than the more natural uos com- mands, and the second is in a conversation between a Honduran girl and a Chilean boy, both natives of countries in which uos is common.

In terms of collegelevel books, Dos Mundos (Terrell et al. 1993) presents the uos in its explanation of pronouns of address along with tu’, Ud, Uds, and uosotros. This inclusion of uos is a rarity in other postsecondary texts in which the uos is not mentioned at all. Only two other texts, Destinos (1991) and Puntos de purfidu (1993), make any reference to uos. In Dos Mundos, the uos conjugations do not a p pear, but the authors do explain that the uos forms are often the same as the tu’ forms with the exception of the present indicative and present subjunctive. Of course, this general- ization serves as a useful rule of thumb for b e ginning-level students. Dos Mundos does have samples of speech exhibiting uos and uosofros on the lab program whenever the speakers were from regions using these forms of address.

In Destinos (VanPatten et al. 1991), uos is presented in a Mufuldu cartoon and is ex-

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plained in a “Nota Cultural.” The authors’ explanation is similar to the one given in Dos Mundos and is accurate and appropriate for beginning-level students. Similarly, Puntos de purtidu (Knorre et al. 1993) also exposes students to uos through a Mufuldu comic strip. Their explanation is very brief and not as com- plete as the ones found in Dos Mundos and Destinos.

Out of 18 postsecondary texts, only 17 percent systematically included uos in the main text, although it was not systematically included in the practice exercises or the work- book or laboratory manual. Our survey verified our original hypothesis: a minimal number of textbooks incorporate the uoseo.

Recommendations This article presented an overview of Span-

ish oos usage in dialectal and diachronic terms. It considered the Hispanic population in the U S . that uses uos as well as the greater likelihood for our students to travel and study in oosspeaking regions. Our students are increasingly exposed to users of uos both in the United States and in countries in which uos is widely used.

Because textbooks often serve as the principal pedagogical materials for use in Spanish courses at both the secondary and postsecondary levels, we surveyed 37 such texts for their coverage of uos. We discovered that only 16 percent of the texts made any reference to uos. We also found that some of the uos coverage was either incomplete and/or inaccu- rate.

After considering the important facts tied to uos usage, mainly its extensive use in eight Spanishspeaking countries as well as the likelihood that our students will interact with uos users in the U S . and abroad through study or travel, we recommend that uos and its usage be integrated into more pedagogical texts for Spanish and into class lessons. Until that time, we recommend that teachers share the information we presented with students via hand- outs and/or the chalkboard. (See Appendix B for a sample handout that presents uos as a cultural capsule and shows examples of uos

conjugations of regular -ar, e r , and -ir verbs.) Inviting native speakers who use uos to your class is also recommended so that students can hear the forms and their usage. Exposing students to written texts including Mufuldu cartoons that exhibit the uoseo is also benefi- cial to students for recognition purposes.

Recall that many pedagogical texts systematically present the second person plural (uosotros) and its verbal morphology, which is used only in Spain. A far greater number of native speakers of Spanish regularly use uos. The uos is widespread in these regions and is not considered substandard in some of these areas. Recall that uos fell out of use in Spain in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but this fact does not necessarily have any bearing on the perceived prestige or stigmati- zation of uos in Latin American Spanish.

For all the arguments outlined in this article, we see no valid reason why uos should be totally excluded from textbooks; it is a vital, important form used by millions of speakers of New World Spanish. Indeed, the uos is one feature that demonstrates that Spanish is a rich language that exhibits variation as do all modern, living languages. Because of the high use of uos in the Hispanic world, we urge textbook authors and publishing house editors to include the 110s in new textbooks as well as in future editions of already published texts. We sincerely believe that our students will benefit from knowing about this basic pronoun of address and will become more communica- tively competent, and that in the Spanish class there is undoubtedly a place for uos.

NOTES I We would like to thank Isabel Bustamante,

Patty DeCourcy, Pam Fives, Todd Simkin, and Daniel Woods and two anonymous reviewers for their influence on this article.

Wieczorek (1992), for example, emphasizes the misleading representation of subject and object pronouns in Spanish-language textbooks, espe cially in terms of dialectal Spanish. The uoseo is one of the subject pronouns cited by Wieczorek. He reasons that for sociolinguistic and pedagogical reasons, students should be provided the option of

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choosing among the possible pronouns of address used in Spanish. The present article supports Wiec- zoreks findings by providing further arguments for an increased focus on uos in pedagogical texts and class lessons.

The aspiration and deletion of syllable and word-final 1st occuts in Southern Spain, the Canary Islands, the Caribbean, Central America, and low- land and coastal regions of South America; this sound change may affect the pronunciation of 00s in these dialects resulting in [boh] or [bo] instead of [bos]. See Mason 1994 for further discussion of 1st aspiration and deletion in dialects of Spanish.

REFERENCES Almasov, Alexey. 1974. “‘Vos’ and ‘vosotros’ as For-

mal Address in Modern Spanish.” Hispania 57:

Chart, Ira E. 1943. “The uoseo and tuteo in Amer- ica.” Modem Language Forum 28:17-24.

Corominas, Joan, and Jose A. Pascual. 1983. Dic- cionario critic0 etimoldgico castellano e his- pdnico, tom0 5: 8435. Madrid: Editorial Gredos.

Fontanella de Weinberg, Maria Beatriz. 1976. “Analogia y confluencia paradigmatica en for- mas verbales de voseo.” Thesaurus 31:24971.

Fontanella de Weinberg, Maria Beatriz. 1977. “La consti tucih del paradigma pronominal d e voseo.” Thesaurus 32:22741.

Hanssen, Frederico. 1966. Gramdtica histdrica de la lengua castellana. Paris: Ediciones Hispano- Americanas.

Information Please Almanac, 47th ed. 1994. New York: Houghton Mifflin.

INS Fact Book. 1993. Washington, DC: Immigration and Naturalization Service.

Kiddle, Lawrence B. 1953. “Some Social Implica- tions of the uoseo.” Modern Language Forum 38:50-4.

Mason, Keith William. 1994. Comerse las eses: A Selective Bibliographic Survey of 1st Aspiration and Deletion in Dialects of Spanish. Unpub- lished doctoral dissertation, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.

Micheau, Cheri. 1991. “The uoseo in Latin Amer- ica: Insights from Historical Sociolinguistics,” 77-91 in Carol A. Klee and Luisa Ramos-Garcia, eds. Sociolinguistics o f the Spanish-Speaking World: Iberia, Latin America, United States.

304-10.

Tempe, AZ: Bilingual Press. Oelschlager, Victor R. B. 1940. A Medieval Spanish

Word-List, 219. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.

OmaggieHadley, Alice. 1993. Teaching Language in Context, 2nd ed. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Pdez Urdaneta, Iraset. 1981. Historia y geograhh. hispanoamericana del uoseo. Caracas: La Casa del Bello.

Pinkerton, Anne. 1986. “Observations on the triluos Option in Guatemalan Ladino Spanish.” His- pania 69:690-7.

Resnick, Melvin C. 1982 Introduccidn a la historia de la lengua espafiola. Washington, DC: George town University Press.

Rosario, Ruben del. 1970. El espafiol de Amgrica. Sharon, CT Troutman Press.

Rosenblat, Angel. 1973. “Bases del espaiiol de America: nivel social y cultural de 10s conquis tadores y pobladores,” 293-371 in Actas de la Primera Reunidn Latino-americana de Lingiiis- tica y Filologia. Bogota: lnstituto Car0 y Cuervo.

Siciliano, Ernest. 1971. “The vosotros Form Again.” Hispania 54: 91516.

Sole, Yolanda. 1970. “Correlaciones sociocultur- ales del us0 de tLi/uos y usted en la Argentina, Peni y Puerto Rico.” Thesaurus 25:16395.

Statistical Abstract o f the United States, 113th ed. 1993. Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of the Census.

Steen, Sara J., ed. 1994. Academic Year Abroad. New York: Institute of International Education.

Torrejbn, Alfredo. 1986. “Acerca del uoseo culto en Chile . ” Hispania 69: 67 7-83.

Wieczorek, Joseph A. 1992. “Classroom Implica- tions of Pronoun (Mis)use in Spanish.” Modem Language Joumal 76:34-40.

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APPENDIX A

Textbooks Reviewed

Boylan, Patricia, Dorothy Rissel, and John A. Lett, Jr. 1988. jEn directo! Spanish in Action: A Beginning Course. New York: Random House.

Brett, Robert J. 1988. jMucho gusto! St. Paul, MN: EMC.

Brett, Robert J. 1988. jQukgusto! St. Paul, MN: EMC, 1988.

Caycedo Gamer, Lucia, Debbie Rusch, and Marcela Dominguez. 1990. jClaro que si‘ Introductory Course in Spanish, 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Cazabon, Maria J., Jos6 B. Femandez, Nancy Ann Humback, and Dolores M. Koch. 1990. Nosotros, 10s jduenes. Chicago: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Dorwick, Thalia, Martha Alford Marks, Marty Knorre, Bill VanPatten, and Hildebrand Villarreal. 1991. ~ Q u k tal?An Introductory Course, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Femandez, Jose B., Nancy Ann Humbach, and Eduardo Zayas-Bazan. 1991. Nuestro mundo. Chicago: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Funston, James F., Gabrielle Sweet, and Rafael Varela. 1991. Somos asi St. Paul, Minnesota: EMC.

Galloway, Vicki, and Angela Labarca. 1993. Visidn y uoz. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.

Glisan, Eileen W., and Judith L. Shrum. 1991. Enlaces. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Gutierrez, John R., and Harry Rosser. 1992. jYa uerds!, segundo niuel. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Gutierrez, John R., and Harry Rosser. 1993. jYa uerds!, tercer niuel. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Gutierrez, John R., and Marta Rosso-O’Laughlin. 1991. jYa uerds!, primer niuel. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Higgs, Theodore V., Judith E. LiskinCasparro, and Frank W. Medley, Jr. 1993. Entradas. El espaiiol por etapas, 2nd ed. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Jarvis, Ana C., Raquel Lebredo, and Francisco Mena. 1990. iCdmo se dice...?, 4th ed. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath.

Jarvis, Gilbert A., Diane W. Birckbichler, Therkse M. Bonin, and Linita C. Shih. 1989. i Y tU?, 2nd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

Jarvis, Gilbert A., Diane W. Birckbichler, Therke M. Bonin, and Jill K. Welch. 1989. Entre todos, 2nd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

Knorre, Marty, Thalia Dorwick, Bill VanPatten, and Hildebrando Villarreal. 1993. Puntos de partida. An lnuitation to Spanish, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Levy-Konesky, Nancy, and Karen Dagget. 1992. Asies. Philadelphia: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

368


APPENDIX A (continued)

Levy-Konesky, Nancy, and Karen Daggett. 1989. Fronferas. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

Long, Donna Reseigh, and Janice Lynn Maciin. 1992. jA conocernos!. Boston, MA.: Heinle & Heinle.

Mhdez-Faith, Teresa, and Mary McVey Hill. 1990. Habla espaiiol, Essentials, 4th ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Reynolds, Bernadette M., Carol Eubanks Rodriguez, and Rudolf L. Schonfeld. 1989. Arcos y alamedas. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company.

Reynolds, Bernadette M., Carol Eubanks Rodriguez, and Rudolf L. Schonfeld. 1989. Pasos y puenfes. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company.

Reynolds, Bernadette M., Carol Eubanks Rodriguez, and Rudolf L. Schonfeld. 1989. Voces y vistas. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company.

Schmitt, Conrad J., Protase E. Woodford, and Randall G. Marshall. 1989. McCraw-Hill Spanish: Saludos, 2nd ed. Mission Hills, CA: McGraw-Hill.

Shumway, Nicolas, and David Forbes. 1988. Espaiiol en espaiiol, 2nd ed. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston.

Spinelli, Emily, and Marta Rosso-O’Laughlin. 1988. Encuenfros. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston.

Terrell, Tracy D., Magdalena Andrade, Jeanne Egasse, and Elias Miguel Muiioz. 1993. Dos mundos. A Communicative Approach, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Valencia, Pablo, and Maureen Weissenrieder. 1992. En confacfo. A Firsf Course in Spanish, 4th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Valette, Jean-Paul, and Rebecca M. Valette. 1984. Spanish for Masfery 1. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Company.

Valette, Jean-Paul, and Rebecca M. Valette. 1984. Spanish for Masfery 2. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Company.

Valette, Jean-Paul, Rebecca M. Valette, and Teresa Carrera-Hanley. 1988. Spanish for Masfery 3. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Company.

VanPatten, Bill, James F. Lee, Terry L. Ballman, and Trisha Dvorak. 1992. LSabias que ... ? Beginning Spanish. New York: McGraw-Hill.

VanPatten, Bill, Martha Alford Marks, and Richard V. Teschner. 1991. Desfinos: An Infroducfion to Spanish. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Woodford, Protase E., Conrad J. Schmitt, and Randall G. Marshall. 1989. McCraw-Hill Spanish: Amisfades, 2nd ed. Mission Hills, CA: McGraw-Hill.

Zayas-Bazin, Eduardo and Jose B. Fernindez. 1993. iArriba! Comunicacidn y Culfura. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall.

369


APPENDIX B

Vos: Another Informal, Singular Pronoun

History of uos

Vos, from the Latin word VOS, is the pronoun that people in Spain originally used when addressing more than o n e person (plural). Over time, it changed in meaning to the formal, singular form and later to an informal, singular form, similar to fu'. Even though people in Spain began to use fc instead of uos in the beginning of the seventeenth century, when the conquistadors came to the New World they brought uos with them. Today, many Latin Americans still use uos in the same way that other Spanish speakers use fu'.

Vos-soeakinn redons of Latin America

Argentina Nicaragua Paraguay El Salvador

Uruguay Honduras Guatemala Costa Rica

The uos is also used in mountainous areas of Bolivia and Ecuador, western rural areas of Panama, Arequipa, and some northern regions of Peru, certain rural areas of Colombia, Chile, and Venezuela, and in the states of Chiapas and Tabasco in Mexico.

Verb conjugations with uos

Many of the verbal forms for uos are the same as those for tu, although dialectal variation is common for the present indicative, future, preterite, and imperative as noted below.

Infinitive Variant 1 variant 2 variant 3 PRESENT INDICATIVE hablar hablas hablas hablais

vender vendes vend& vendeis escribir escribes escribis escrib i(s)

Infinitive variant 1 variant 2 FUTURE hablar hablaras hablarb

vender venderas vender& escribir escri biris esc ri b i rils

Infinitive Variant 1 variant 2 Variant 3 PRETERITE hablar hablaste hablastes hab 1 a tes

vender vendiste vendistes vendites escribir esc ri b iste escribistes esc ri b i tes

Infinitive Form IMPERATIVE hablar habla

vender vend6 escribir escri bi

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pronouns of address in spanish-language textbooks: the case for vos

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