process technologies

OUTLINE :

ProcessTechnologies

A. What Are Process Technologies

B. Application For Individual Instruction

C. Application For Small-Group Instruction

D. Application For Large-Group Instruction

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OUTLINE :

ProcessTechnologies





1. Galbraith, definition, “the systematic application of scientifics or other organized knowledge to practical tasks.”

2. Importance of Practice and Feedback

3. Organization of This Chapter


OUTLINE :

ProcessTechnologies




Programmed Instruction

Programmed Tutoring

Personalized System ofInstruction

Learning Centers



OUTLINE :

ProcessTechnologies




Cooperative Learning

Games

Simulation

Simulation Games



OUTLINE :

ProcessTechnologies




Mastery Learning

Programmed Teaching



Introduction

In Chapter One, we provided a definition to technology that differentiated between hard technologies products such as computers and satelites – and soft technologies-process or ways of thingking about problem. In This chapter focuses on technology as a process.

Galbraith, definition, “the systematic application of scientifics or other organized knowledge to practical tasks.”

The behaviorist perspective propose that individuals learn what they

do – that is, learning is a process of trying various behaviors and

keeping those that lead to favorable results.

Cognitivists propose that learners build up and enrich their mental

schemata when their minds are actively engaged in struggling to

remember or apply some new concept or principle.

The sociopsychological perspective stresses the importance of

interpersonal communication as the social basis for knowledge

acquisition

Importance of Practice and Feedback

Organizing of This Chapter

1. Application for Individual Instruction

a. Programmed instruction

b. Programmed tutoring

c. Personalized system of instruction

d. Learning centers

2. Application for Small-Group Instruction

a. Cooperative learning

b. Games

c. Simulation

d. Simulation games

3. Application for Large-Group Instruction

a. Mastery learning

b. Programmed teaching

Advantages Limitation

Self Pacing

Practice and feedback

Reliable

Effective

Program Design

Tedious

Lack of Social Interraction


Application :

Developed by B.F. Skinner.

Skinner’s initial inventions vere elaboratemachines that would mechanically presentchunks, of “frames”, of information; waitfor a response to be written or a button tobe pressed; then compare the responsewith the correct answer. If the answere wascorrect, the machine would display thenext frame. Research and practicalexperience soon indicated, however, thatstudents learned just as well when thesequence - information, question,response, answer – was presented in bookform.

Linear Branching

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2 2a

33a

4

5

6

7

6a

7a


Advantages

Self Pacing


Programmed instruction allows individuals to learn at their own pace

at a time and place of their choice

Advantages



It requires the learner to participate actively in the learning process and

provides immediate feedback for each practice attempt

Advantages

Reliable


This technology provides a reliable form of learning, in that the

instructional routine is embodied in print so that it can be mass produced and experienced by many people in

exactly the same form.

Advantages

Effective


Hundreds of research studies compare programmed instruction

with conventional instruction.

Limitation

Program Design


Some programmed materials are poorly designed and have little value

Limitation

Tedious


The repetition of the same cycle and plowing through an endless series of small steps taxes the attention span

and patience of many students. It can be tedious.

Limitation

Lack of Social Interraction


Most programmed materials are meant to be used by one individual at

the time.

Advantages Limitations

Self-pacing


Reliable

Effective

Labor intensive

Development cost

Programmed Tutoring

Application :

Programmed Tutoring

Programmed tutoring is a

one-to-one method of

instruction in which the

responses to be made by

the tutor are programmed

in advance in the form of

carefully structured

printed instructions.


Self-pacing


Reliable

Effective

Labor intensive

Development cost

Programmed Tutoring

Programmed tutoring shares with programmed instruction the

characteristic of individualized pacing.


Self-pacing


Reliable

Effective

Labor intensive

Development cost

Programmed Tutoring

The use of a live tutor as a mediator adds immensely to the flexibility of the feedback system, and it adds another

major advantage over printed self-instructional material by employing

social reinforces in the form of praise rather than just simple knowledge of

result.


Self-pacing


Reliable

Effective

Labor intensive

Development cost

Programmed Tutoring

Compared with unstructured tutoring, programmed tutoring has higer reliability because there is a

predetermined pattern to the tutor’s action.


Self-pacing


Reliable

Effective

Labor intensive

Development cost

Programmed Tutoring

The effectiveness of programmed tutoring has been well established

through the evaluation studies carried out by its originator,

Douglas Ellson.


Self-pacing


Reliable

Effective

Labor intensive

Development cost

Programmed Tutoring

Programmed tutoring depends on the availability of volunteer tutors. In school, tutoring is usually done

by peers, older students, or parents.


Self-pacing


Reliable

Effective

Labor intensive

Development cost

Programmed Tutoring

The success of programmed tutoring depends on the design of

the tutoring guides; their development requires an

investment of time and expertise.


Self-pacing

Mastery

Effective

Development cost

Behaviorist commitment

Self-discipline

Personalized System of Instruction

Application :


The Personalized System of

Instruction (PSI), one of the best-

known individualized instruction

system, can be described as a

template for managing instruction.

The esential idea of PSI is that the

learning materials are arranged in

sequential order and the student must

demonstrate mastery of each unit

before being allowed to move on to

the next.


Self-pacing

Mastery

Effective

Development cost


Self-discipline


PSI allows students to progress at their own rate and to take full responsibility for

determining when, where, and how they study.


Self-pacing

Mastery

Effective

Development cost


Self-discipline


The main claim of PSI is that it prevents the “accumulation of ignorance”. Student are

not allowed to go on to advanced units until they show that they have mastered the

prerequisites.


Self-pacing

Mastery

Effective

Development cost


Self-discipline


The effectiveness of PSI has been documented in a large number of studies

comparing PSI and conventional versions of courses


Self-pacing

Mastery

Effective

Development cost


Self-discipline


PSI demands a great deal of time in planning and developing materials,

since it is essentially an organizational framework and does

not come with a given set of materials.


Self-pacing

Mastery

Effective

Development cost


Self-discipline


The instructor adopting PSI must also be willing to adopt its

behaviorist structure, including specification of precise performance objectives, derivation of tests from these objectives, and selection or

design of material that leads learners efficiently to those objectives.


Self-pacing

Mastery

Effective

Development cost


Self-discipline


Dealing with the freedom of PSI can be a problem for students, especially

younger learners who may need practice in the required self-

discipline.


Self-pacing

Active learning

Teacher role

Cost

Management

Student resonsibility

Student isolation

Learning Centers

Application :

Learning Centers

Learning center with many station

are found in business, industry,

medical facilities, and the armed

forces.

Learning centers are independent

stations set up throughout the

classroom where children can go to

actually engage in some learning

activity. Children choose the center

they wish to work in and decide on the

amount of time to spend there.


Self-pacing

Active learning

Teacher role

Cost

Management


Student isolation

Learning Centers

Center encourage students to take responsibility for their own learning and

allow them to learn at their own pace, thus minimizing the possibility of failure and maximizing the likeihood of success.


Self-pacing

Active learning

Teacher role

Cost

Management


Student isolation

Learning Centers

Learning centers provide for student participaton in the learning experience, for student response, and for immediate

feedback to student response..


Self-pacing

Active learning

Teacher role

Cost

Management


Student isolation

Learning Centers

Learning centers allow the teacher to play more of a coaching role, moving around the classroom and providing individual

help to students when they need it.


Self-pacing

Active learning

Teacher role

Cost

Management


Student isolation

Learning Centers

The equipment and materials used in the center, entali costs.


Self-pacing

Active learning

Teacher role

Cost

Management


Student isolation

Learning Centers

Teachers who manage learning centers must be very good at classroom organization and management.


Self-pacing

Active learning

Teacher role

Cost

Management


Student isolation

Learning Centers

Any form of independent study will be successful only insofar as students are

able and willing to accept responsibility for their own learning.


Self-pacing

Active learning

Teacher role

Cost

Management


Student isolation

Learning Centers

Learning cnters need not be limited to individual student use; small groups can be assigned to work together. If students do work alone, other provisions must be made to provide for the social dimension

of learning

Learning Together Model

Team-Assisted Individualization (TAI)

Computer-Assisted Cooperative Learning



Cooperative learning has gained momentum in both formal and nonformal education

from two converging forces: first, the practical realization that life outside the classroom

requires more and more collaborative activity, from the use of teams in the workplace to

everyday social life, and second, a growing awareness of the value of social interaction

in making learning meaningful.

Today’s notion of cooperative learning entails a deeper level of interaction, based on the

principle that articulating and negotiating your ideas with others forces you to process

information in a way that improves meaningfulness and retention. This new concept of

cooperative learning can be defined as the instructional use of small groups so that

students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning.

Two particular formats will be elaborated as example of cooperative learning

technologies: Johnson and Johnson’s Learning Together model and Slavin’s Team-

Assisted Individualization (TAI)

Learning Together Model

Johnson and Johnson have determined that feedback about your performance-

knowing what is working well and what is not – is a critical factor in successful

learning.

Johnson and Johnson’s interdependent learning group, also known as the

Learning Together model, requires four basic elements:

1. Positive interdependence.

2. Face-to-face helpong interaction.

3. Individual accountability.

4. Teaching interpersonal and small-group skills.


Team-Assisted Individualization (TAI)

Robert Slavin and his colleagues have developed a different format for

cooperative learning, Team-Assisted Individualization (TAI), which was

developed for mathematics instruction in grades three to six. TAI was

specifically intended to avoid some of the problems encountered with

individualized programmed instruction.

TAI follow this pattern:

1. Teaching group

2. Team formation

3. Self-instructional materials

4. Team study

5. Team scores and team recognition


Computer-Assisted Cooperative Learning

Computer assistance can alleviate some of the logistical obstacles to using

learning methods, particularly the tasks of managing information, allocating

different individual responsibilities, presenting and monitoring instructional

material, analyzing learner responses, administering tests, and scoring and

providing remediation for those tests.

Group-oriented programs of this sort can also deal with the logistical problems

of assisting a number of groups simultaneously, as is necessary in the single-

computer classroom. The software manages a rotation of the teams so that

there is little time lost waiting in line.


A game is an activity in which participants follow prescribed rules that differ from those of real life as they strive to attain a challenging goal.

The distinction between play and reality is what makes game entertaining.

Games

Attaining the goal usually entails competition –individual against individual, as in chess; group against group, as in basketball; or individual against a standard, as in golf (with “par” as the standard).

On the other hand, striving to attain a challenging goal does not necessarily have to involve competition. Communication games, fantasy games, and encounter games exemplify a whole array of activities in which participants agree to suspend the normal rules of interpersonal communication to pursue such goals as self-awareness, empathy, sensitivity, and leadership development.

Games

Advantages

Attractive

Novel

Atmosphere

Time on task

Limitations

Competition

Distraction

Poor design

Games

Simulation and Discovery Learning

Role Plays

Simulators

Advantages - Limitations

Simulations

A simulation is an abstraction or

simplification of some real-life or

process. In simulations, participants

usually play a role that involves them in

interactions with other people or with

elements of the simulated environtment.

Simulations

Simulations

Simulation and Discovery Learning

One particular value of simulation is that it implements

the discovery method as directly and clearly as

possible.

In discovery learning, the learner is led toward

understanding principles through grappling with a

problem situation.

Through simulations, we can offer learners and human

relation as well as in areas related to the physical

sciences, where laboratories have long been taken for

granted

Simulations

Role Plays

Role play refers to a type of simulation in which the

dominant feature is relatively open-ended interaction

among people. In essence, a role play ask someone to

imagine that he or she is another person or is in a

particular situation; the person then behaves as the

other person would or in the way the situation seems to

demand.

The purpose is to learn something aout another kind of

person or about the dynanics of an unfamiliar situation.

Simulations

Simulators

One familiar example of a simulator is the flight trainer,

a mock-up of the interior of the cockpit complete with

controls and gauges..

Simulations

Advantages Realistic

Save

Simplified

Limitations Time-consuming

Oversimplification

Applications

Cooperative Simulation Games

Simulation Games

A simulation game combines the attributes of a simulation (role playing, a model of reality) with the attributes of a game (striving toward a goal, specific rules).

Simulation Games

Simulation Games

Applications

Instructional simulation games are

found in curriculum applications that

require both the repetitive skill

practice associated with game and

the reality context associated with

simulations.

Societal procsses (e.g., Ghetto,

Democracy), cultural conflicts (e.g.,

Bafa Bafa), historical eras (e.g.,

Empire, Manchester), and ecological

systems (e.g., Extinction) are

popular topics.

Simulation Games

Cooperative Simulation Games

In recent years, sports psychologist and

educational psychologist have developed

new theories questioning the value and

necessity of competition in human

development.

Cooperative games challenge the body and

imagination but that depend on cooperation

for success.

Mastery Learning

The mastery learning approach grows

out of the theory that students differ in

the amount of time needed to master

each objective, not in their inherent

ability to learn the subject matter.

They have developed a specific

technology, known as Learning for

Mastery (LFM), that incorporates

specific procedure to implement

mastery learning.

The heart of LFM is the teach-test-

reteach-retest cycle.

Programmed Teaching

Programmed teaching, also known as Direct Instruction, is an attempts to apply

the principles of programmed instruction in a large-group setting.

Programmed teaching lessons are designed to generate high rates of

responding by all students. To avoid inattention or mere imitation of other

student’s responses, all are required to respond vocally at the same time, at a

hand signal by the instructor. When the teacher detects an error, he or she

follows the procedures specirfied in the protocol to correct and remediate the

error.

Programmed teaching has been used successfully in numerous experimental

programs in North America and many other parts of the world, including the

Philippines, Indonesia, and Liberia in the primary grades.

Print References

Heinich, R., dkk. 1993. Instructional Media And Technologies For Learning. New Jersey. Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Terimakasih


process technologies

Education

process technologies

learning centers application

successful learning

simulation games application

smallgroup instructiona

mastery lfm

mastery learningb

smallgroup instructiond