proceedings of the national seminar on institutions
TRANSCRIPT
PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL SEMINAR ON INSTITUTIONS WORKING ON GENDER,
BIODIVERSITY AND LOCAL KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS
IN SWAZILAND
Edited by
Phonius M. Dlamini Department of Agricultural Economics and Management
University of Swaziland. E-Mail : [email protected]
and
Bruce R. T. Vilane
Department of Land Use and Mechanization University of Swaziland.
E-Mail : [email protected]
April, 2001
LinKS PROJECT WORKING DOCUMENT N0. 3
HOSTED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF SWAZILAND – FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE [CONFERENCE ROOM] :
16 – 17 MARCH 2001.
ii
COPYRIGHT
This document is a collective sharing of ideas and experiences and thus copyright does
not reside either with the editors, anyone of the contributors or their parent institutions.
However, usage of any material or reproduction, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in whole or in part in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical,
photocopying or otherwise, as a matter of courtesy, acknowledgement of the source
should be given. The views expressed are those of the contributors and do not necessarily
represent the view of the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO).
Copyright © FAO, 2001.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Copyright ...................................................................................................………………. iii
List of Tables .....................................................................................................…………. v
Preface.................................................................................................................…………. vi
1.0 KEYNOTE ADDRESS By The Honourable Minister of Tourism,
Environment and Communication (Mrs. Stella Lukhele...................…......... 1 2.0 DAY ONE : PAPER PRESENTATIONS……………………………….…… 3 2.1 Gender Papers :…………………………………………………………………….. 3 2.1.1 Gender, Biodiversity and Local Knowledge Systems :
Highlights and Submissions of the Seminar Discussions :………………………… 3 2.1.2 Gender and Food Security by Dr. P.E. Zwane :……………………………………. 13 2.2 Biodiversity Papers :.……………………………………………………………… 26 2.2.1 Biodiversity Management in Swaziland by Mr. J.D. Vilakati :……………….….. 26 2.2.2 Biological Diversity Conservation in Swaziland : Perspectives
From The Lubombo Region by Dr. B. S. Nkosi :…………………………………. 33 2.3 Indigenous Knowledge Systems Papers :…………………………………………. 52 2.3.1 Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Swaziland; A benefit or
Threat to Biodiversity Conservation by Mr. M. Mlipha for Dr. P. N Fakudze…… 52 2.3.2 A Review of Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Technology for
Community-Based Resource Management in Swaziland by Dr. A. M. Manyatsi:… 81 2.3.3 Swazi Indigenous Religion and the Swazi World View by Dr. H. N. Ndlovu:…….. 89 3.0 DAY TWO : GROUP DISCUSSIONS OF DOCUMENTS……………………. 98 3.1 Seminar Way Forward:……………………………………………………………… 98 4.0 CONCLUSSIONS:……………………………………………………………….. 102 5.0 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS:……………………………………………………… 103
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LIST OF TABLES Table Page
1 Communities where interviews were held by physiographic region:……….. 55 2 Perceived causes of land degradation in Swaziland:………………………… 61 3 Recommended technologies to control land degradation :………………….. 63 4 Grazing problems in the selected communities:……………………………… 64 5 Effects of fire on land :………………………………………………………. 65 6 Recommended techniques to maintain soil fertility :………………………… 66 7 Types of plants that can be used to improve soil fertility :………………….. 67 8 Some indigenous trees that are used as woodfuel or for building purposes:… 69 9 Common sources of drinking water used in the selected communities:…….. 70 10 Distance to nearest water sources :…………………………………………… 71 11 Problems with water resources in the selected communities :………………. 72 12 Reasons for the degradation of wetlands :…………………………………… 73 13 Importance of Cyperus plants :………………………………………………. 74 14 rules and regulations to be observed in the restoration of wetlands :………… 76
15 Some examples of indigenous knowledge used for community-based resource management in Swaziland :……………………… 84
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PREFACE This report consists of five papers prepared for the two days’ LinKS Project Workshop,
which was held at the University of Swaziland, Luyengo Campus’s Conference Centre,
16-17 March 2001.
The LinKS project, “Gender, Biodiversity and Local knowledge Systems” is a regional
effort aimed at raising awareness of the value of rural people’s knowledge related to the
use and management of local systems. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of
the UN is executing the project.
The three major themes of the Workshop were Gender, Biodiversity and Local
Knowledge Systems, and the overall purpose was to discuss policy issues surrounding
these themes. The workshop was organized at two levels: One level comprised
presentations of papers related to the themes by key scholars whose background papers
laid a platform for level two on the second day where the Directory and annotated
bibliography were thoroughly discussed. The aim in compiling the Directory was to
provide development workers, researchers, policy makers and other interested persons
with an up-dated information about institutions that are in the fields of gender,
biodiversity and local knowledge systems in Swaziland. Both the Directory and
Annotated Bibliography are based on data collected by a Team of researchers at Luyengo
Campus of the University of Swaziland (see Part II and III of this Report).
The Seminar began with a keynote address by the Minister of Tourism, Environment and
Communications, the Honourable ‘Make’ Stella K. Lukhele who enlightened participants
on the Government stand on the issues of gender, biodiversity and local knowledge
systems. This was followed immediately by the gender papers: The gender dimension
does need elaboration since it is the least observed aspect in the culture of the Swazi
people. Two papers were presented on the issue of gender: one was a general case study
which highlighted a number of serious views on gender, but since no formal paper was
available a detailed summary is presented in this Report from notes taken during the
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presentation. Other notes and individual submissions from the seminar discussions were
found necessary for giving a broader perspective on each of the major issues since they
individually carry so much weight in the way communities conduct their day-to-day
businesses. The second paper entitled “Gender and Food Security” has been edited and
incorporated in this report. The paper addresses the issues of food security and gender
analysis through existing disparities related to food security and also poses some
challenges that need to be addressed in future.
Biodiversity formed the second theme of the seminar under which the third and fourth
papers were presented. The third paper by Jameson D. Vilakati analyzed policy,
legislative and institutional measures that the country has established to promote the
conservation of biodiversity and the utilization of its genetic resources. Dr Bonga S.
Nkosi presented the fourth paper, which discussed community biodiversity conservation
education programme, which formed part of study undertaken in the Lubombo Region of
Swaziland in 1997. The paper focused on building an information base on the local
knowledge and it highlights the concerns and observations of communities on the issue of
biodiversity.
The fifth paper by Dr. Patience N. Fakudze was presented by Mr. Mandla Mlipha
focused on a study that was commissioned to document indigenous knowledge systems
and techniques in Swaziland. It focused squarely on the assessment of the extent of
indigenous knowledge techniques and peoples’ perceptions on land degradation in the
country. It further reviewed the history of policy measures that were designed to control
land degradation. Dr A.M. Manyatsi presented a paper that reviewed existing local
knowledge and technology used in community based resource management in Swaziland.
The paper looks at traditional practices meant to protect rare species, use of totems and
taboos, use of stories to protect wildlife, farming systems, passing historic information by
use of names, naming of plants based on their use and importance, prediction of weather
patterns, description of soil fertility, methods of harvesting plants for medicinal purposes
and preservation of food.
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The last theme of the workshop, local knowledge systems, saw the presentation and
discussions of the fifth, sixth and seventh paper for the workshop. Dr H.L. Ndlovu
presented the seventh and last paper, which examined the major beliefs and practices
prevalent in Swazi indigenous religion that reflect and embody the underlying philosophy
and culture of the Swazi. The author demonstrated the inextricable link and synthesis
between Swazi traditional religion and the indigenous world view and knowledge of the
Swazi.
In summary these papers have been enlightening because they touch all areas of
importance in the life of a society. It is, in fact, necessary to protect the biodiversity of
plants and animals in Swaziland and to learn and understand more about the issues of
gender and local knowledge systems. In fact, the main aim of conducting a research of
this nature is to support, build on, and strengthen what groups working on gender,
indigenous knowledge and agro-biodiversity issues in Swaziland are already doing. The
research promotes collaboration with and between governmental and non-governmental
institutions working on these subjects.
dr pm dlamini
National Coordinator, LinKS – Swaziland.
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KEYNOTE ADDRESS
Honourable Mrs. Stella Lukhele
Minister of Tourism, Environment and Communications.
Master of ceremony , Vice-chancellor, Dean of the faculty of agriculture, Seminar
Coordinator, distinguished participants, ladies and gentlemen. Thank you for the
opportunity you have given to me to participate in this national Seminar on institutions
working on gender, biodiversity and local knowledge systems in Swaziland by way of an
opening address.
From the very onset, I want us to recognize that this seminar is taking place at the time
when: gender issues are at the fore-front of national regional and international
development initiatives. It is important that issues of gender are main streamed into all
development projects and programmes. There is need to be gender sensitive so that we
correct some imbalances and biases that have occurred in the past within our society. We
should ensure that we do not pay lip service but we should be committed to what we
recommend. The bible says we should not be hearers of the word but we should be the
doers. I therefore urge coordinators of this seminar to ensure that the recommendations
on gender issues are translated into practical projects and programmes and not mere
recommendations that gather dust on offices shelves.
I am informed that the purpose of this seminar is to discuss policy issues surrounding the
themes of gender, biodiversity and local knowledge systems and it is my fervent hope
that these issues will be discussed thoroughly so that they inform and shape our policy
orientation and formulation in these areas.
My ministry is about to finalize the preparation of a biodiversity strategy and action plan,
which aims at providing a framework for biodiversity conservation on a national scale.
This biodiversity and action plan will also provide a basis for the formulation of a
national biodiversity policy. This seminar has come about at the opportune time and will
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provide an avenue for discussing in detail some of the problems and challenges
Swaziland is facing with regard to biodiversity management in this country. As
government, we are aware of the threats to biodiversity in this country, but we need
coordinated and collaborative methods and strategies for overcoming these threats.
Master of ceremonies, ladies and gentlemen, the issue of local knowledge systems in the
management of natural resources cannot be over emphasized. Past conservation strategies
have not been successful because project and Programme planners had a tendency of
ignoring local knowledge systems and had always thought that their approaches and
methods were superior to local practices and know-how. The dismal performances of past
policies and programmes on conservation and development has clearly demonstrated the
need to take local knowledge systems in these areas and issues together to discuss and
share experiences in these three areas of-gender, biodiversity and local knowledge
systems. When talking about strategies for biodiversity conservation, the issues of
gender and local knowledge systems are at the fore front and hence the need for
institutions dealing with these areas to meet and share experiences
May I at this juncture quote the book of books; which need no copy right : "Pay
attention, you all the people, every one in Judah, listen. Has anything like this ever
happened in your time or the time of your fathers? Tell your children about it, they
will tell their children who in turn will tell the next generation". Joel 1:2-3.
In conclusion ladies, and gentlemen, I would like to take this opportunity to express my
appreciation to the Faculty of Agriculture and the Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) for organizing and facilitating this national seminar on gender, biodiversity and
local knowledge systems. I believe this will not be the only seminar on these issues, but
there will be subsequent seminars after this one so as to ensure that these issues are
thoroughly discussed by all involved institutions. With these few remarks, I would like to
declare this national seminar on the directory of institutions working on gender
biodiversity and local knowledge systems in Swaziland officially opened and wish you
fruitful deliberations.
I thank you.
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GENDER, BIODIVERSITY AND LOCAL KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS :
HILIGHTS OF THE SEMINAR DISCUSSIONS
Phonius. M. Dlamini
Department of Agricultural Economics and Management
University of Swaziland
I Introduction
This paper presents synthesized material that came from the plenary session. The
sequence of discussion is following the major themes of the seminar with gender treated
first, followed by biodiversity, then local knowledge systems. It is worth mention that a
lot of detail on these subjects was captured in the discussion than in the material written
by the individual authors. Of importance though was the formal paper presentations
which aimed at stimulating debates on these subjects.
II The Concept of Gender
From time immemorial, Gender has always been a conspicuous variable in the allocation
of roles, responsibilities and resources at both the household and public levels. The term
gender was first conceived as Women in Development (WID) in 1935 (Moffat Geedah
and Stuart,) where they focused on the productive roles of women. At this time, WID was
linked to the Equity Approach which recognizes that women are active contributors to
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development through their reproductive and productive roles (Moser, 1989). Later the
whole focus shifted to what was called Women and Development (WAD) which
emphasized the Efficiency Approach (SADC Report, 1998). A summary of the
approaches is presented below:
In the deliberations during the workshop a lot came out on this subject. For example,
gender was thought to refer to the social, cultural and historical differences between men
and women in any given society.
While sex is a constant, unchanging biological physical feature, gender is socially
constructed and denotes the roles attributed to females and males outlining how each is
expected to act, speak and socialize. This socialization process instills values of each
society to an extent that they are taken as if they are natural and God given.
As stated above, gender is a socially defined allocation of tasks in society between
women and men. The division of labour and responsibility between the sexes is not
natural in the sense that it is not determined by biological differences of sexes. It reflects
social custom, norms and beliefs which govern and circumscribe individual behaviour. It
attached social meaning to the roles of women and men in different societies. It is
susceptible to change and is influenced by many factors such as religion, culture,
economic and legal situation. Gender roles differ from society to society.
“People are born female and male, but learn to be girls and boys who grow into women
and men. They are taught what the appropriate behaviour and attitudes, roles and
activities are for them, and how they should relate to other people. This learned
behaviour is what makes up gender identity and determines gender role”.
III Gender Concerns
Gender concerns are the needs which arise from the different situations of women and
men in the division of labour, access and control of resources and benefits. These can be
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classified into two categories: Practical needs and Strategic interests (Box 1). Practical
Needs are the basic needs for survival such as water, food, shelter, money, fuel, and jobs,
while strategic interests are those relating to power in self-determination and decision
making – education, participation, voting, skills development, exposure, leadership and
ownership.
Box 1 : Special Features of Practical & Strategic Gender Needs A. PRACTICAL NEEDS B. STRATEGIC INTERESTS
Tend to be immediate, short term e.g. Access to clean water, availability of fuel, credit - relatively easier to address. Unique to particular women. Relate to daily needs: food housing, income, healthy children, etc. Easily identifiable by women Can be addressed by provision of specific inputs: food, hand pumps, clinic, etc. Provision of these needs makes it easier for women to carry out roles and responsibilities expected of them by society. But generally does not alter traditional roles and relationships.
Tend to be long-term e.g. freedom from violence, equal legal rights, equal access to education – more difficult to address Common to almost all women Relate to disadvantaged position: Subordination lack of resource and education, vulnerability of poverty and violence, etc. Basis of disadvantage and potential for change not always identifiable by women. Can be addressed by: consciousness raising, increasing self-confidence, education, strengthening women’s organization, political mobilization, etc. Provision of these needs changes the traditional relationship between women and men and can be very empowering for women.
Addressing practical needs: Tends to involve women as beneficiaries and perhaps as participants. Can improve the condition of women’s lives. Generally does not alter traditional roles and relationships.
Addressing strategic interests: Involves women as agents or enables women to become agents. Can improve the position of women in society. Can empower women and transform relationships.
Women’s Special Needs arise from women’s sex roles that are biological. Reproduction
and child-bearing are women’s special needs which are not experienced by men. These
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include provision of maternity care, contraceptives, breastfeeding facilities, maternity
leave and so forth.
Gender issues arise when a grievance is felt by one gender that their needs are not being
met or that there is unfair treatment, for example in the division of labour, or in decision-
making where there are observable gender gaps. These gaps are measures of gender
inequality on any socio-economic indicator. A gender gap is measurable and may be part
of well-known statistics e.g. male/female rations in formal sector employment
management level occupations, literacy, university. A person who is gender aware has
knowledge of gender issues but is yet to be convinced to change and take action. One
who is gender sensitive has knowledge, has interest and internalized issues and is ready
to take actions to bring about change.
In the literature about gender there is what is called mainstreaming gender. This is an
action-oriented planning measure designed to ensure men’s and women’s equal access to
and control over productive resources, development benefits and decision-making
process. Gender issues and concerns must be taken into account in all development
efforts within the process of mainstreaming.
There is also what is referred to as gender discrimination. Gender gaps do not arise by
accident, but are often caused by the differential treatment given to one gender in
comparison to the other. This treatment is called gender discrimination. Gender
discrimination can be a single instance or systemic, as part of a social system which runs
through all aspects of national life. Gender discrimination exists on all levels of family
and household, customary law, government administrative regulations and practice,
government legislation and in national constitutions.
Finally, there is gender sensitivity which means taking women’s equality with men
seriously; understanding women and men’s roles rather than relying on assumptions;
hearing women (their needs, priorities and perspectives) even as we hear men; counting
and valuing women’s work as we do for men; equally respecting women and men’s
views and human rights; caring about women and men (and what happens to them in
development programmes) equally.
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IV Biodiversity and Local Knowledge 4.1 Background
Biodiversity comprises all habitats and their sustainable use. It is about the diversity of
environments and/or habitats including the various life supporting niches such as
grasslands, forests, wetlands and so forth. It encompasses all forms of agro-biodiversity
such as the varied plants and animal species. Agro-biodiversity is undoubtlessly a
resource which needs to be conserved. Other species not normally taken into
consideration are countless numbers of micro-organisms which though innocuous are
important ingredients in the food chain. What is also grossly underestimated is the
diversity found in the wildlife and domesticated livestock.
The real danger is ignoring the diversity of indigenous knowledge, for example,
conservation of certain seeds and plant species. Indigenous knowledge can be illustrated
by a Word from the Bible:
11. “And God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the
fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth:
and it was so”(Genesis 1);
12. “And the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after his kind, and
the tree yielding fruit, whose seeds was itself, after his kind: and God saw that it
was good” (Genesis 1)
In the above quotations, God provided man with a natural pharmacy in the forest, and we
are all witnesses to this that is why we have gathered here. Awareness of the abundance
of this Natural Pharmacy is one thing, specific knowledge of which plant part does what,
cures what specific ailment is the missing link which man has to find. God having made
man expects man to use the faculties given to him to determine which plant is used for
what purpose. Evidently man has not done much in exploring the Natural Pharmacy to
his own benefit. All efforts towards finding cures for our ailments have so far been
concentrated in the Laboratory where it may be easier.
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Knowledge of medicinal plants have been known to mankind for a long long time. In the
Southern African region, such knowledge was and has been the sources of remedies for
most of our ailments before the introduction of Western Medicine. What is grossly
missing is the documentation of this knowledge.
The Institute of Health Sciences is a University Campus responsible for all research
activities within the University, Ministry of Health and Social Welfare and the country at
large. It is responsible for technical and sometimes coordination of short courses and
seminars on health research methodologies.
Box 2: The Main Research Areas Covered • Feasibility study for the introduction of Hepatitis B Vaccine in the Expanded Programme of
Immunization in Swaziland • Endemic and Transmissible diseases (Malaria, Bilharziasis, Diarrhea Diseases, Sexual
Transmitted Diseases and AIDS) • Health Systems Research Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine.
4.2 Medicinal Plants in Swaziland
The use of medicinal plants and traditional medicine in Swaziland is extensively very
high. A national gene bank in collaboration with the Chemistry Department of the
University of Swaziland is involved in the analysis of the plant extracts.
Most of the herbal medicines on sale in Swaziland had reportedly originated from
Swaziland, South Africa, Mozambique and few portions from Malawi. Of particular note
are the herbal material from Swaziland (Myrothamnus flabellifolius); from Malawi
(Ndzawaveja); from South Africa ( Alepidea amatymbica, Cassipourea spp and
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Ndzawaveja)1. There are no recorded official exports of medicinal species in the
country, even though a lot has been smuggled through the legal and illegal exit point to
South Africa and Mozambique.
The local market of medicinal plants is very informal for the large variety of plants,
which are used to attempt to cure diseases. Traditional practitioners are divided in two
categories: those who use plants that have some literature for example aloe vera, cassia
alata, euphorbia hirta, vernonia amagdalina, azadiractha indica , and pausinystalia
yohimbe (Box 3):
Box 3: Plants Used for Curing Diseases Plants Application Aloe Vera Wounds, sores and antiviral Azadicratha indica Malaria, Ulcer Cassia alata Fungal infections, wounds Euphorbia hirta Asthma Vernonia Amagdalina Dysentery, Helminthiasis and as cardiac stimulant Pausinystalia yohimbe Impotence/Aphrodisiac Swaziland currently has no specific legislation aimed at conservation of wildlife and
medicinal plants, but a number of laws and regulations affect the trade in medicines.
International trade in plant medicines is channeled through the Government Department
of Research. A lot was discussed during this session. Participants alluded to issues which
are currently not given the recognition they deserve (Box4):
Box 4: Issues currently not given Proper Recognition • The status of traditional medicines. • Standardization of traditional medicines. • Property rights of medicinal plants. • Protection of plant inventions and biodiversity.
4.3 Status of Traditional Medicine
The system of alternative treatment in Swaziland has been developed empirically and is
not the same as that of alternative treatment in China where the method of using plants
1 Marshall, N.T.; Searching for a Cure: Conservation of Medicinal Wildlife Resources in East and Southern Africa. A TRAFIC Network Report. TRAFIC International, Cambridge, UK, pp 111
xvii
has been widely accepted internationally. In Swaziland persons using plants for treatment
are shunned by the system.
However, due to the lack of scientific data concerning traditional medicines, medical
doctors are reluctant to use medicinal plants for patient treatment. Medical doctors do not
want to put their patients at risk, so they claim. Their reluctance is due to the fact that
there is no assurance of the safety of traditional medicine usage. In addition, the
Traditional Healers Associations have not held enough course for their members.
The emergence of a global information society in recent years, characterized by the rise
of modern information technologies, has given rise to increasing awareness of the value
of traditional knowledge (TK), including in particular traditional medicine. However,
what is meant by the term TK? A fundamental aspect of TK is that it is “traditional” only
to the extent that its creation and use are part of the cultural traditions of communities.
“Traditional”, therefore, does not necessarily mean that the knowledge is ancient. TK is
being created every day, it is evolving as a response of individuals and communities to
the challenges posed by their social and natural environment. In its use, TK is also
contemporary knowledge.
Although indigenous knowledge (IK) is generally considered traditional knowledge, not
all TK is IK. Since IK is otherwise similar to TK in its transmission, scope, and diversity,
it is appropriate to consider IK a subset of TK. For example, information passed down by
traditional means amongst the Swazi communities may be referred to as IK or TK;
however, the information passed down by white settlers in Swaziland through traditional
means would be TK but not IK.
The importance of traditional medicine as a source of primary health care was first
officially recognized by the World Health Organization (WHO) in the Primary Health
Care Declaration of Alma Ata (1978) and has been globally addressed since 1976 by the
Traditional Medicine Programme of the WHO. The Programme defined traditional
medicine as the sum total of all the knowledge and practices, whether explicable or not,
used in diagnosis, prevention and elimination of physical, mental or social imbalance
xviii
and relying exclusively on practical experience and observation handed down from
generation to generation, whether verbally or in writing.2
Covered by various definitions and terminologies, TK is receiving increased attention in
numerous policy debates, ranging from food and agriculture, the environment, health,
human rights and cultural policy, to trade and economic development. The role of
intellectual property (IP) in the protection of TK is currently being considered in several
of the policy contexts, including Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), FAO,
United Nations Educational and Scientific Cooperation (UNESCO), UNHCHR, World
Health Organization (WHO), and World Trade Order (WTO).
V Policy Framework in Swaziland
The policy environment is determined by Parliament through Gazette closes. However, of
late the country has had relevant sector and cross-sectoral policies with implementation
mechanisms. Of significance has been the National Development Strategy (Vision 2020),
out of which ESRA was drafted to cater for short-term rolling plans for the country.
Under the issues of gender, biodiversity and local knowledge systems one finds a host of
drafted policy documents covering the following areas (Box 5):
Box 5: Areas with Drafted Policy Documents as of March, 2001 • Food security. • Indigenous knowledge. • Gender. • Plants. • Culture. • Wildlife. • Poverty. • Livestock. • Cooperative development.
2 Dr Xiaorui Zhang, Director, traditional Medicine Programme, WHO. “Significance of Traditional Medicine in Human Health Care.” Paper presented at WIPO Asian Regional Seminar on Intellectual Property Issues in the Field of Traditional Medicine. New Delhi, India, October 7 to 9, 1998:3
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• Environment. • Land and land use. • Food and nutrition. • Forestry. • Fisheries.
The examination of Vision 2020 reveals that there were no specific policies on
indigenous knowledge. However, there has been a framework policy guidance on food
and nutrition which is under the auspices of the Swaziland National Nutrition Council.
Other framework documents instituted by Government include the list in Box 6.
Box 6 : Framework Documents Instituted by Government • The establishment of the Swaziland Environment Authority to coordinate biodiversity. • The rectification of the Biodiversity Convention in 1994. • The formulation of a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan to guide biodiversity
conservation. • The formulation of a Forestry policy and updating legislations. • The building of capacity in the National Herbarium.
Conservation of biodiversity has been implemented through a number of techniques such
as protected areas, legislation protecting certain fauna and flora. Protected areas fall
under National Parks, Game Reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, and nature reserves. These
areas are established under:
i) an Act of Parliament, i.e., the Swaziland National Trust Commission Act
of 1972);
ii) the Flora Protection Act of 1952; and
iii) the Game Act of 1991. On conservation the Government has moved
towards the direction of establishing:
i) a National Herbarium;
ii) a National Plant Genetic Resource Centre (NPGRC);
iii) a Nguni Breeding Station and iv) a tree nursery.
Finally, it is recommended that Government and other institutions should encourage
studies that will cover wide areas such as the one listed in Box 7.
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Box 7: Areas Needing Further Research • Traditional methods of preserving vegetable and fruits. • Local technologies of production. • Indigenous soil conservation. • Traditional structures for food storage. • Traditional diets. • Indigenous knowledge on trees and animals. • Plants used by traditional healers. • Forest products. • Deforestation and its impact on food security. • Women as main care-takers of agro-biodiversity. • Differing needs of women and men. • Gender roles in the household and agriculture/workload. • Women’s roles in commercial activities.
One may say there has been little conceptual knowledge and analytical skills on these
subjects and more so on the symbiotic relationships between gender, agro-biodiversity
and local knowledge systems.
GENDER AND FOOD SECURITY
xxi
Pinky. E. Zwane Department of Home Economics
University of Swaziland E-Mail : [email protected].
Abstract
This paper draws upon reviewed literature on the conceptualisation of gender using
the equity and efficiency approaches. The presentation will then address food security,
and gender analysis through existing disparities related to food security, and lastly pose
challenges to be addressed in the near future.
I Conceptual Framework on Gender Gender was first conceived as Women in Development (WID) in 1935. Emphasis was
placed on the productive role of a woman. The focus was on women as an untapped
resource that could provide an economic contribution to development, and it popularised
the concept of income generating projects for women. The WID is linked to the Equity
Approach which recognises that women are active contributors to development through
their reproductive and productive roles, although their contribution is often
unacknowledged in economic terms (Moser, 1989).
Subsequent to unrealised results, there was a shift in focus from Women in Development
to Women and Development (WAD) which embraced the Efficiency Approach (SADC
Report, 1998). The assumption with this approach was that increased economic
participation for women in Third World countries would automatically result in increased
equity. Furthermore, it assumed that under-productive technologies were predominant
constraints influencing women’s participation in economic development and
acknowledges that women need to be brought into the development process through
access to employment and the market place. This shift coincided with the recession in the
world economy from mid 1970’s. The IMF and World Bank imposed structural
adjustment policies centered on increased efficiency and productivity in the workforce by
redirecting labour costs from men to women through donor funds. It simply meant a shift
xxii
in costs from paid labour to unpaid labour of women’s unpaid time. This led to increased
funding of women activities among international aid agencies, and national governments
(Moser, 1989).
The envisaged results from the efficiency approach did not take place due to the
formulation of policies and projects without consultation with women. The success of
projects was to be based on efficient execution of activities which was not the case and
this led to increased failure rate of designed projects. The approach relied on women’s
labour in productive, reproductive and community management roles for long hours
without remuneration for the jobs (Moser, 1989 & Wallace & March, 1991).
The concept of Women and Development was then transformed to Gender and
Development (GAD) in the 1980’s. It is believed that the term gender was conceptualized
by feminists who were concerned with the perception of women’s problems which are
universal, largely based on biological differences (sex roles) and not subject to change
rather than on socially constructed roles that are influenced by a number of independent
variables. May be that explains the reluctance and rejection of the concept by
governments, particularly in third world countries, who perceived it negatively and as a
foreign concept promulgated by western radical feminists aimed at disrupting the status
quo (Martine & Villarreal, 1997 and Villarreal & Guerny, 2000).
Subsequent to the adoption of gender and development, programmes aimed at elevating
the status of women in isolation mushroomed at national, regional, and international
levels. These programmes were based on the empowerment approach, which emphasised
that women experienced oppression differently based on race, class, colonial history, and
current position in the international economic order. It encouraged women to challenge
oppressive structures and situations. It acknowledged the importance of women in
increasing their power and sought to identify power not in terms of domination but in
terms of increased women’s capacity in self reliance and internal strength (Moser, 1989).
Based on the above approach, the issue of gender was not sufficiently and holistically
incorporated into wide programming areas. This has mainly been due to the fact that most
xxiii
decision making portfolio powers have been in orientation. Furthermore, there has been
some complexity surrounding the issue of gender in specific socio-economic context
instead of drafting and implementing the operational framework that will enable
practitioners to translate gender awareness to action as opposed to being a threat to males
(Moser, 1989).
Despite the different names given to the concept or development interventions used in
addressing the issue in the past, there has been some positive achievements made so far in
empowering women even at grassroots level. We also need to acknowledge bottlenecks
and misinterpretation that exist which need a critical redress on why the intended
purposes of gender equity and equality were not achieved. One glaring problem is the
realisation that information and reports on gender focus exclusively on women or
women’s issues. That is bound to create resentment on males due to the biasness in
handling matters on gender (Villarreal & Guerny, 2000). It becomes necessary to define
gender, gender equity and equality.
II Gender Approach
Gender is the system of relations between men and women with some economic, social
and cultural influences. It is not absolute but part of a dynamic system that surrounds life
in general. Gender equity is the participation of all in household responsibilities among
men and women. Everyone has to come to terms with the fact that life has changed. Men
are no more the only income earners, even women are now part of the workforce and this
situation begs for fair distribution of work roles in the home. Gender equality focuses on
the provision of opportunities for both men and women to play active roles in the socio-
economic and political environment having factored in the biological differences
(Comesa Report, 1998).
The gender approach does not advocate a revolutionary change in socio-cultural system
but argues that policy makers and project planners need to understand these differences in
order to increase chances of formulating and implementing successful and sustainable
xxiv
projects in making a meaningful contribution to communities. It embraces the equity
approach in addressing practical needs and the efficiency approach in addressing strategic
needs. This approach espoused internationally uses the rationale that men and women
play different roles in society and have different needs. Therefore when identifying and
implementing programmes, governments should take into consideration those differences
necessitating a systematic approach to adequately and holistically address gender issues
as noted by Villarreal & Guerny (2000).
In Swaziland, the integrated approach on gender equality has been proposed and adopted,
and it is spearheaded by United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) with the
involvement of many Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO’s). The main purpose of
this approach is for bridging gender gaps in the Swazi society and to expedite necessary
responses to key challenges faced by the country. It is also envisaged to harness the
support of men and women at all levels in the nation, be it private or public sectors,
through educational empowerment that will facilitate enhanced awareness which should
lead to action on gender equality (UNDP & SADC Report, 2000).
This multifaceted and holistic approach includes three aspects: 1. participatory rural
communication which is key in eliciting information from people at grassroots level and
ensuring that they understand, promote and make valuable contribution to the process.
2. Media awareness should enable a pragmatic redress of gender through well-
communicated messages to the people with results that may lead to the formulation of a
national gender policy. 3. The social economic gender analysis as a tool for integration of
gender issues in development plans with a focus on HIV/AIDS and poverty (UNDP &
SADC Report, 2000).
This approach has also been enshrined in the National Development Strategy (NDS) and
the Economic & Social Reform Agenda (ESRA) I [on the conceptual framework on
gender equity and equality]. Its strategies have been mapped out on the drawing boards’
and the focus should now be on developing programmes utilizing the logical framework
in the implementation and monitoring of drafted programmes followed by evaluation to
re-strategise, if need be, for positive outcomes. The contribution by UNDP in carrying
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out some groundwork, and assistance from organisations like Leadership Regional
Network (LeaRn) are commendable, as they will act as catalysts in the formulation of the
gender policy.
The above highlights on gender that have been undertaken or on-going activities, set, the
background necessary to be followed by gender analysis in food security with a brief
prelude on food security. World governments in 1996 renewed their pledge to eradicate
hunger, food insecurity and malnutrition by 2015; but these problems still prevail
particularly in developing countries. Furthermore, there are minimal indicators that show
major improvements. Still there are about eight hundred million people in the world
which have insufficient food to meet their basic nutritional needs. Food insecurity
together with a whole host of factors are sometimes the culprits for such statistics. In
other quarters, the root cause of food insecurity is said to be poverty with inequitable
distribution of wealth and infections, as secondary contributory factors (World food
Summit, 1996).
III Food Security in Swaziland
Food security is widely defined as access to food by all people, at all times needed for an
active and healthy life (SADC Report, 1993). It is achieved by:
a) Adequate production of food in the community or national level to feed the
population.
b) Households having access to food availability or means for obtaining the food.
c) Individuals consuming a sufficient and balanced diet given the status of food
supply and food behavioral changes as affected by local socio-cultural factors.
This part is crucial because a certain crop may be promoted given its nutrient
content only to find that people do not utilise it. People need to be
acculturated to new foods to increase acceptability of the food item to be part
of their food choices (Malaza, 1994). Furthermore, it is imperative to focus
on food allocations, which may be biased by gender and age.
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d) Assurance or risk management to minimize bottlenecks in food availability,
food access and food utilisation thereby maintaining a high degree of stability
in each of the above points. Sources of risk in the country include high
dependency on rain for food production and unpredictable foreign investment
(Swaziland Country Paper at the World Summit, 1996).
In Swaziland, 74% of the land is Swazi National Land (SNL) with 85% of the
homesteads located in rural areas occupied by around 74% of the population, of which
58% are women (Country Paper at the World Summit, 1996). According to Manyatsi,
Vilane & Dlamini, 2000, food production on SNL is still inadequate with 80% of maize
producers engaged in subsistence farming and 59.1% of the subsistence farmers
producing insufficient food. Improvements have been seen post the drought period
between 1991 and 1993. According to the Food Security Quarterly Bulletin (1999), there
was a surplus in 1998 of 7000 tonnes of maize production on the gross national output as
maize is the main crop in the country and the principal crop produced by small holder
farmers. This surplus is misleading because it is only based on maize production by
commercial farmers.
Food inadequacy particularly in rural areas is partly due to the escalating cost of hybrid
seeds which are not reusable as seeds for the next planting season. According to Manyatsi
et al. (2000), 80% of households were using hybrid seeds and 20% were using local
varieties. Twenty-six percent of families using local seed varieties reported food
sufficiency as opposed to 45% of the families who used hybrid seeds. At face value, one
may think it is best to use the hybrid seeds for food sufficiency for purposes of early
maturation. The major huddle for most poor people is the high cost of seeds. There is
need to explore, as an alternative, genetic banks of local varieties for the poor who are
residing in parts of the country least affected by drought.
Livestock rearing is another major activity in rural areas. Farmers on SNL own about
81% of total cattle production for social significance with a negligible contribution
towards the economy (Country Paper at the World Summit, 1996). The recent foot and
mouth disease has reduced the total number of cattle drastically and will affect food
xxvii
availability and generated income from sale of the livestock in rural areas. Some of the
identified contributory factors to food insecurity may be insufficient land use, policy on
Title Deed Land (TDL) and SNL, natural disasters and disabling conditions, and
incapacitating government policies. For example, lack of market opportunities, lack of
appropriate technologies for production of value added products and absence of a gender
policy have equally contributed to the incidence of food insecurity in Swaziland.
Based on the above inhibiting factors towards food security, objectives have been
formulated with implementing strategies mapped out for improved food security by the
National Plan of Action on Nutrition (NPAN) as follows:
• Engender policy on improved land utilisation and promotion of appropriate
technologies to improve food production.
• Avail government guaranteed loans with low interest rates.
• Encourage production of all crops apart from maize and legumes, and promote
preparation and consumption of drought resistant crops.
• Promote and improve food processing, preservation techniques and on-farm
storage.
• Improve and expand the maize storage capacity.
• Promote the establishment of small industry and agro-industries by way of
providing credit.
• Secure marketing outlets on and off farm production and enhance the
performance of cooperatives.
• Review the land and credit policies to be also accessible to women.
• Formulate an emergency food policy and set up emergency short-term food
reserves.
• Improve water management systems (CANGO Report, 1998).
Some of the strategies have been implemented and are currently in operation and some
are in the pipeline given financial constraints. Other strategies need to be infused in the
statutes and mechanisms drafted on their monitoring and evaluation in the
xxviii
implementation process. The question remains, are the formulated strategies gender
sensitive or not?
IV Gender Analysis in Food Security
Gender Analysis in food security examines gender-desegregated information on division
of labour, duration of each activity, and degree of access and control over resources. It
also requires an understanding of how labour is valued. Based on socially constructed
gender-roles which we operate, programmes and projects affect women and men
differently. Therefore, a successful project requires gender to be factored in all the stages
of the development process.
Gender Analysis recognises that a household has people with common production and
consumption functions or intra-household activities, and with shared or equal access to
resources for the benefits from production to be enjoyed. It views households as systems
of resource allocation where decisions affecting production, income and expenditure have
to be made in consultation with members of the unit or decision making powers entrusted
upon men, women and children. In a given system, household members may share some
goals, benefits and resources, be independent on some and be in conflict on others.
Therefore, decision-making powers should not be assumed due to the evolving
complexities of life (Feldstein & Poats, 1989).
Secondly, there are different kinds of household structures within communities that
emerge as responses to different demographic variables, resources, cultural traditions,
social class and incentives. They all impact on gender-needs, opportunities, problems and
solutions. Thirdly, households may belong to corporate groupings in inter-household
activities, which may influence the pattern of, access to resources and obligations which
in turn affect made decisions.
There are a number of gender analysis tools that can be used based on the purpose of the
analysis exercise. The Harvard analytical framework is used for gathering gender
xxix
desegregated information on gender-roles. Although originally this framework was
developed for solving complex problems, it has been modified and adopted for gender
analysis as a complex issue too. It is a planner driven tool focusing on influencing factors
on practical gender needs, arising from division of labour, as opposed to strategic gender
needs, things necessary to change the balance of power between men and women.
The above framework has three levels: 1. The activity profile which includes productive,
reproductive and community work. 2. Access and control of resources such as land,
equipment, credit, labour, water, wild fruits, fuel-wood, carts, axes etc. and benefits that
accrue from this level are evaluated based on sex. 3. Influencing factors that may
contribute to unequal resource distribution and inequities in general are considered in
terms of their impact, constraints and opportunities that are in existence.
In Swaziland, agricultural productive activities are carried out by women in rural areas as
a sizeable number of homesteads are female headed households where the men are
employed in the formal sector in urban areas, work in the mines in South Africa, or the
women are widows. These socio-economic problems inhibit increased productivity and
income growth in the rural areas. Activities to be carried out in rural areas include land
clearing, ploughing, weeding, harvesting, threshing and storage, herding cattle, small
stock keeping, cotton farming, and handicraft/ income generating project.
Although some headway has been made through the formation of women’s associations
in accessing some donor funds for projects, women are still overworked from farming
activities and household chores. Assistance from children, neighbours and relatives, is
provided but the responsibility still lies with the women to ensure that the tasks are
carried out diligently. The question remains, what should be done to ameliorate the
situation of women and improve the involvement of men? In the past, the focus has been
on women in addressing the emanating problems based on inequitable distribution of
labour (SADC Report, 2000; Course Report, 1998, & Carr, 1991).
Reproductive activities are mostly executed by women and they include water collection,
fuel-wood gathering, food preparation, child-care and health, and maintenance of huts.
xxx
On the other hand, men provide security for their families, assist in fuel-wood collection
and in building of houses and storage structures. The involvement of men in the
productive role is mainly on cash generating activities which may be slightly mechanised
including livestock rearing, cotton farming, and formal employment. Women on the other
hand are involved in arduous activities including weeding, harvesting, herding animals,
and handicraft. Both male and females participate in communal projects and meetings, in
weddings and funerals. It has been observed that women’s participation in community
projects was based more on the large number of female-headed households in rural areas
(SADC, 2000). The disparity in allocation of responsibilities warrant scrutiny in
redressing the situation in order to be gender sensitive.
A typical example of an on-going project that is gender insensitive is the pilot project of
establishing wood-lots in the Manzini region (Luve) that was implemented with good
intentions for addressing problems experienced by only women in fuel wood scarcity and
in reducing deforestation. The well thought out project has become an issue of conflict
between women who want to harvest the trees for fuel-wood, and men who want to use
the wood for the construction of kraals and houses. The main snag was that men were not
involved in the development of the project and were not given an opportunity to express
their needs.
On access and control of resources and benefits accrued by gender on land, livestock,
income and farming, women are marginalised on access to ploughing implements,
income or use of income and farm produce particularly if done on a commercial scale.
Women also have no control over land ownership, livestock, and do not have decision
making powers on the above issues except for female-headed households. In essence,
men use income as they see fit, and women may not even benefit from used income or
the farm produce (SADC Report, 2000).
Other pertinent factors that influence gender roles generally are the general economic
situation that may adversely affect women. The main constraint is availability of time to
engage in other productive activities. Opportunities for improving the situation may be
through initiation of income generating activities and easing the work burden on
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reproductive responsibilities. Institutional structures and bureaucracies also further hinder
gender roles from being realised by structuring programmes that do not focus on
community needs. The current socio-cultural factors overload women with a lot of work
resulting in less available time to instill desirable values to children. This leads to the
disappearance of norms and imbalances between men and women in labour provision. A
way forward would be gender sensitisation in the communities, which is currently
ongoing with the help of UNDP and LeaRn. Meetings have been organised, to engage
people in dialogue on gender issues in the Swazi context with the hope of reducing
resistance from males and contributing towards the resolution of critical issues, including
food security issues.
His Majesty’s initiatives are acknowledged and applauded in setting the 44 million fund
whose purpose was to loan associations money to boost the economic activities in the
country for purposes of poverty alleviation and reduction of rural migration to urban
centres. Furthermore, the 40 million grant fund that was launched last year to assist
associations formed by grassroots people in the 55 chiefdoms, will hopefully make a
significant contribution towards poverty alleviation and mitigate problems related to
access to credit by most poor people.
V Challenges and Way Forward Based on the presented issues and achievements that have been accomplished, the
following points although not comprehensive are food for thought that need to be
considered. What are we not doing right? Is it the legal system that is not fed with the
right information to implement laws or there are no implementing structures to ensure
that recommendations are implemented by relevant bodies and ministries? Are men not
receptive of the ideas and sluggish in repealing prohibitive legislature due to the
threatening nature of the issues to male supremacy? Is it financial constraints to set things
or plans in motion? All the above questions trigger issues we need to address.
In addressing some of the above questions, we therefore need to explore mechanisation
of weeding in the fields in order to complement the existing ploughing technologies in
order to ease the work load and avail more time for rural women to engage in other
productive activities. Most children attend school leaving the bulk of the work to be done
xxxii
by women. Science and technology research has a role to play in rural areas. May be
Agriculturists and Economists can shed some light on what happened to tinkabi tractor?
From the layman’s point of view the latter was ideal in that it was cheaper, easy to use,
and assembled locally which made spare parts to be easily available and maintenance was
not a major concern.
The HIV/AIDS scourge affects the overall existence of human beings. Increased
morbidity and mortality rates have and are crippling productivity in all sectors including
food production. Food security has been grossly affected due to re-channeling of
financial resources of families in order to sustain the health of the infected. There is also
emotional effects of the affected that results in decreased productivity and absenteeism
when taking care of the sick.
Increased mortality translates to more women being culturally mandated to wear the
mourning gown and has repercussions on food security. The cultural restrictions or
package that women are subjected to when in mourning limits them from providing their
children with the basics including food, yet they will be the only surviving parent to
ensure continued sustenance of the family.
Poverty has ramifications on maintenance of children. Parents have a joint responsibility
of bringing up a child in an enabling environment that allows normal child development.
In cases where men are neglecting their responsibilities, it impacts on food availability
due to insufficient financial resources available to one parent to nurture the child. There
is need for law enforcement in that area. At least a committee has been set up to look into
the latter issue.
Formulate other strategies not only to assist the women but also to bring men on board to
share the pie of responsibilities equitably. Restoration of male self-esteem may result in
psychological ramifications including engaging in productive economic activities that
will contribute to the welfare of families.
Engender legislature to address issues on land ownership by women and easy access to
financial institutions as individuals with economic pursuits instead of being viewed as
xxxiii
minors of their spouses. Review of existing legislature is necessary to reflect gender
sensitivity. Exploration of affirmative action laws for marginalised groups once the input
from communities has been sought.
Carry out gender analysis in food security at national level to feed into various
programming areas of the country’s development plan. The specific area of focus should
be access and control of resources and identification of suitable technology that is gender
sensitive.
VI References CANGO Report on Food Security and Nutrition. (1998). Funded by FAO, at Malkerns,
Swaziland.
Carr, M. (1991). Women and Food Security. South Hampton Row, London: / IT
Publications.
Commonwealth Secretariat Report on Proposals for Improving Food Security
Information Systems in SADC. (June, 1993). Harare, Zimbabwe.Country Paper
presented at the World Food Summit on Food Security in Swaziland. (Nov, 1996). Rome,
Italy
FAO Report on World Food Summit. (1996). Rome Declaration on World Food
Security and World Food Summit Plan of Action. Rome, Italy.
Feldstein, H.S. & Poats, S. V. (1989). Working Together: Gender Analysis in
Agriculture. Kumarian Press: Connecticut, USA.
Food Security Quarterly Bulletin. (Jan/Feb, 1999). SADC, Harare.
Malaza, M. T. (1994). Food Security in Swaziland: Factors Influencing Dietary
Patterns. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Pennsylvania State University, Philadelphia.
USA.
xxxiv
Manyatsi, A. M., Vilane, B.R.T., & Dlamini, R.M. (2000). Research Report on
Assessment of Technologies Currently in Use at the Grassroots Level in Swaziland.
Conducted for Swaziland Government & UNDP: Mbabane, Swaziland.
Martine, G., & Chile, S. (1997). Gender and Sustainability: Re-assessing Linkages and
Issues. [On-line]. Available: FAO. Org/sd/WPdirect/Wpan0020.htm.
Moser, C. O. (1989). Gender Planning in the Third World: Meeting Practical and
Strategic Gender Needs. World Development. Vol. 17 (11): 1799 – 1825.
SADC Report on Training of Trainers on Gender in Food Security Course. (April,
1996). Otjiwarongo, Namibia.
SADC and UNDP Report on Participatory Communication for Gender Equality.
(August, 2000). Piggs Peak, Swaziland.
Villarreal, M., & Guermy, J. (2000). Gender and development: Why do we still have
problems in population programmes after all these years? Available: FAO.
Org/sd/WPdirect/Wpan0047.htm.
Wallace, T. & March, C. (1991). Changing Perceptions: Writing on Gender and
Development. Oxfam: Oxford, UK.
xxxv
BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT IN SWAZILAND
J.D. Vilakati Swaziland Environmental Authority
E-Mail : [email protected]
Abstract
This paper aims at analysing policy, legislative and institutional measures that the
country has established to promote the conservation of biodiversity and the utilisation
of its genetic resources. Section 2 discusses the role of biodiversity in national
economic change and growth while Section 3 focuses on threats to biodiversity Section
4 and 5 focus on the status of in-situ and ex-situ conservation respectively. Sections 6
suggests policy and institutional measures that Swaziland should put in place to
strengthen and build capacity in biodiversity conservation. Section 7 outlines the
challenges in managing Swaziland’s biological diversity.
1.0 Introduction
Swaziland is a small country covering an area of 17364 km2 and is sandwiched between
Mozambique and South Africa. Although Swaziland is small, it has a great variation in
xxxvi
landscape, geology and climate. It also supports a diverse assemblage of habitats which
are home to a wide range of organisms.
Although information base on Swaziland’s biodiversity is still incomplete, Surveys
undertaken to date show that a significant portion of Southern Africa’s plant and animals
species occur in Swaziland, e.g. the eastern region of Swaziland forms part of
Maputaland centre of plant diversity (one of the world’s biodiversity hotpots). Similarly,
the western part of Swaziland falls within another area of global significance, the
Drakensberg Escarpment endemic bird area.
2.0 Biodiversity in Swaziland’s Socio-economy
Despite its small size, Swaziland is one of Southern Africa’s areas that are rich in
biodiversity. With at least 3400 plant species, the country contributes 14% of the taxa in
the region; it has 127 mammal species, of which 28 are in the Southern Africa Red Data
Book. There are 111 species of reptiles, 51 species of fish, 44 species of amphibians and
493 bird species, 51 of which are in the Southern Africa red data book.
Swaziland also forms part of two world biodiversity hot spots; the Maputaland centre of
plant diversity in the East and the Drakensberg Escarpment Bird Endemic area in the
West. The diversity of species is supported by an equally diverse mix of habitats,
ranging from Savannah woodlands, grass plains, man-made reservoirs and natural rivers
to Montane vegetation belts in the west of the country. Within these broad habitats, there
are gradations and the associated hedge effects and ecotones resulting in a mosaic of
habitats supporting correspondingly varied communities and environments.
Biodiversity is vitally important to the country’s economic development. It is indeed its
economic basis, the single most important factor in the people’s welfare. Agriculture, the
country’s economic backborne is directly dependent on biodiversity. Similarly, tourism
which is an emerging economic growth area depends on the availability and sustainable
use of biodiversity. Agriculture still accounts for over 10% of the country’s Gross
National Product (GDP), while contributions from plantation forestry amounts to just
10% of GDP.
xxxvii
Woodfuel on the other hand accounts for more than 80% of the National fuel
requirement. The figure on forestry does not take in into account the non-timber forest
products and services such as bees, mushrooms, fruits, game meat, medicinal products,
water conservation and pollution reduction.
According to a report compiled by the Forest Policy and Legislation Project in Swaziland
(2000) non-timber, forest groups contribute between E129 Million and E514 Million with
a median of E321 Million per annum. The report states that the medicinal plants are the
most important with an annual average value of E209 Million.
Besides its direct contribution to the National economy through agriculture, tourism
forestry and non-timber forest products, biodiversity provides most of the calories for
primary consumption, builds and protect the soil, determines water availability and
controls temperature.
3.0 Threats to Biodiversity Management in Swaziland
Despite the direct and indirect contributions made by biodiversity to the country’s
economic, species, habitats and ecosystems are being degraded and lost at a rapid rate. A
wide range of interrelated actors account for this degradation and loss of biodiversity.
These include:
• Destruction or alteration of habitats as a result of commercial agricultural
production and rapid population growth.
• Over-exploitation through deforestation and commercialisation of bidoversity
resources.
• Impact of exotic species.
• Limited or lack of appropriate conservation technologies.
• Weak policies on sustainable land use.
• Limited national capabilities to develop new conservation technologies.
xxxviii
• Weak or absence of economic and land policies which generate disincentives to
conserve biodiversity and sustainable use its component.
• Absence of a national policy regime on conservation of biodiversity and
sustainable utilisation of its components.
The Government of Swaziland has, over the past years, begun making effort at
establishing various measures to reduce the loss of biodiversity. These measures range
from the formulation of laws and policies to the creation of institutions.
4.0 In-Situ Conservation of Biodiversity
In-situ conservation of biodiversity in Swaziland has in the past years been implemented
through a number of techniques ranging from the establishment of protected areas,
legislation targeted to certain fauna and flora species and the establishment of
institutions.
Swaziland has a number of wildlife protected areas covering at least 4% of her land area.
These protected areas categorised as National Parks, Game Reserves, Wildlife
sanctuaries and Nature Reserves. These areas have been established for the purposes of
Conserving Wildlife and the National Heritage. National Parks and Nature Reserves are
established under an Act of Parliament. (The Swaziland National Trust Commission Act
1972). The Nature Reserves falling under the Swaziland National Trust Commission
(Pararastal body) and the Big Game Parks (Private entity) are well developed and well
protected. Some private Nature Reserves and Game Reserves have been established but
some still do not qualify for proclamation because they are still unable to meet the
legislative requirements for their proclamation.
Most of the floral and faunal species that have been recorded in the country are found in
the protected areas. Besides the protected area’s system, flora inside and outside
protected areas is protected through the flora protection Act 1952. This Act protects
certain flora that is considered to be of conservation and economic importance. Similarly
xxxix
the Game Act of 1991 also protects certain game species inside and outside protected
areas.
5.0` Ex-Situ Conservation
In Swaziland, ex-situ conservation systems that are currently in use include the national
herbarium, the establishment of a National Plant Genetic Resource Centre (NPGRC), the
establishment of a National Nguni Cattle Breeding Station and the establishment of Tree
nurseries.
Currently a national herbarium operates from the Malkerns Research Station and is
operated by a herbarium curator and two assistants. In the absence of a National
Botanical Garden, the Herbarium has proved as a very useful institution for conservation
of our flora in Swaziland.
Efforts to conserve the Plant Genetic Resources (PGR) has recently been revived by
establishing a National Plant Genetic Resources Centre (NPGRC), at Malkerns. The
NPGRC was formed by the Government of Swaziland in response to the
recommendations of the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC), that SADC
member states establish National Plant Genetic Resources Centres, and a SADC Gene
Bank for crop and forest seeds to safeguard the region’s genetic resources threatened by
erosion. The NPGRC has the following responsibilities
• coordinate the practical activities at national level, including:
� collection
� conservation
� documentation
� exchange and distribution of germ plasm
• Development of national policies, guidelines, standards and legislation on
conservation and germplasm exchange.
xl
Other notable ex-situ programmes include the development of nurseries and the National Tree Planting programme. 6.0 Policies and Institutional Measures
The absence or inadequate polices and institutional reforms have been found to be
responsible for the degradation and loss of biodiversity in Swaziland.
Although some legislation exist for protecting some components of biodiversity, these
legislation are either outdated or are not founded on any biodiversity policy. In some
instances where legislation exist, the responsibilities for enforcement have not been
clearly defined. There has been a tendency for some institutions to be protective
especially where they have commercial interests. A case in point is in the administration
of the Game Act, where a private entity has coerced the powers that be to give it the
responsibility of administering the Game Act in order to protect its commercial interest.
In the case of Forestry, too much emphasis in the past was placed on plantation forestry
to the detriment of the indigenous forests. This approach has tendered to under develop
or undervalue the indigenous forest resources and its biodiversity’s contribution to the
national economy.
In order to overcome the shortfalls currently being experienced in biodiversity
conservation the Government of Swaziland has instituted the following measures:
• Establishment of the Swaziland Environment Authority to coordinate biodiversity
issues and to coordinate and implement the Convention on Biological Diversity.
• Ratified the Biodiversity Convention in 1994.
• Established National Plant Genetic Resources Centre.
• Establish a Nguni (local breed) cattle breeding station to ensure that the local breeds
are selectively bred and maintained and also ensure that the genetic resources of this
breed are maintained.
• Formulated a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan to guide Biodiversity
Conservation.
xli
• A formulation of a Forestry Policy and the updating of the Forestry legislation to ensure that the legislation gives effect to the biodiversity Convention and is in line with biodiversity conservation in Swaziland.
• Building capacity in the national herbarium. 7.0 Key Challenges in Managing Swaziland’s Biodiversity
Swaziland’s biodiversity, as shown above contributes considerably to regional and
national development, but it is under threat. There is a growing rate of habitat destruction
and species loss in country.
The search for ways and means for stemming the degradation and loss of biodiversity has
been the pre-occupation of the Government of Swaziland for many years now. As it has
been shown earlier in Section 4 and 5, networks of protected areas and nature reserves for
wildlife have been established; a national genebank for ex-site conservation and
enhancement of crop species have been established.
Despite the above named efforts, Swaziland is still confronted by major challenges to
manage (conserve and sustainability use) its biodiversity. Policies, laws and institutions
have not been able to stem biodiversity degradation and loss. The key challenges
confronting Swaziland’s ability to manage its biodiversity include:
• Capacity to understand, assess and monitor impacts on biodiversity. • Awareness, knowledge and information on status and trend of biodiversity. • Ownership of biodiversity resources; property rights over land and biological
resources. • Roles of communities in conservation and utilization. • Recognizing communities and their indigenous knowledge. • Weak legal and regulatory frameworks: absence of procedures and laws to regulate
access to genetic resources. • Ownership and sharing of benefits accrued from national trade in genetic resources. • Determining proper economic use and values of major components of biodiversity. • Illegal trade in natural resources and their products.
xlii
8.0 Conclusion In order to overcome the challenges and problems stated in this paper, it is important that the country focuses on the following priority areas to mitigate biodiversity loss in Swaziland. • Create awareness at all levels of society and instill the importance of biodiversity and
its conservation into the youth of the country. • Strengthen institutional framework to ensure development of an integrated approach
to biodiversity conservation. • Re-inforce implementation of national agreements through legislation and
institutional strengthening. • Build capacity at individual and institutional level. • Draft a comprehensive wildlife legislation. • Establishment of a single institution dealing with wildlife issues in the country. • Formulation of a National Biodiversity Policy.
9.0 References Kunene, I.S. (1998). Survey of information on the Botanical Biodiversity of Swaziland.
Ministry Tourism, environment and Communications. Mbabane, Swaziland.
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (2000). Report on Non-timber Forestry Sub-
Sector in Swaziland: Forest Policy and legislation project.
Monadjem, A, (1997). A Survey of information on the Zoological Biodiversity of
Swaziland - Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Communications, Mbabane.
Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Communications, (1999). Draft Biodiversity
Strategy and Action plan Report.
Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Communication, (1997). Swaziland National
Environment Action Plan.
xliii
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY CONSERVATION IN SWAZILAND PART 1:
PERSPECTIVES FROM THE LUBOMBO REGION
Bonga S. Nkosi
Department of Biological Sciences University of Swaziland
E-Mail: [email protected] Abstract The process of Biodiversity Conservation is dependant on the level of information and
awareness among the communities in Swaziland. A community biodiversity conservation
education programme was undertaken in the Lubombo Region in December 1997.
Community leaders including Chiefs and Headmen "Tikhulu ne Tindvuna " and other
stakeholders such as Herbalists were involved in a one-day workshop held at the
Simunye Country Club Conference Room. The participants were given some back-ground
information on the need to conserve Swaziland's natural resources in general and the
country's biological diversity in particular. The workshop included building an
information base from the local knowledge of the stakeholders who were participating in
the Lubombo Regional Biodiversity Conservation Workshop. This Paper highlights some
of the community's observations and concerns. The workshop noted a large extent of the
degradation of biodiversity in the region. This knowledge is a major contribution to a
high degree of ownership of any measures undertaken to conserve the country's
biodiversity within their region.
I Introduction
xliv
A key observation in dealing with the conservation of biological diversity is
understanding what it means. Biological diversity means: biological variety; biological
variation; biological multi-formity; biological distinctiveness; and biological
individualism. Basically, biological diversity (biodiversity) refers to organisms in the
environment { Myers & Giller (1988); Barbour, Burk and Pitts (1987)}. Thus biological
diversity may be defined as the variability, multi-formity, distinctiveness and
individualism of biological resources in the environment.
Swaziland is a Party to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The objectives of
the (CBD) are the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its
components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of utilization of
genetic resources, including by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies, taking into
account all rights over those resources and to technologies, and by appropriate funding.
With reference to the Convention, biological diversity is defined as the variability among
living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other
aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part. The BSAP
Project was a sequel to the Swaziland Environment Action Plan (SEAP). Member
countries of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) resolved to undertake
Biodiversity Conservation Strategies and Plans. This entailed consultations with
communities to get indigenous knowledge. Therefore, the Regional Consultation Process
was a UN-GEF supported activity aimed at developing a Biodiversity Conservation
Strategy and Action Plan for Swaziland.
Key Elements of the 1992 Convention on Biodiversity
II The Major Principles
2.1 Biodiversity has intrinsic value and is a common concern of humanity.
2.2 Governments have sovereignty over their biodiversity and using their biological
resources in a sustainable manner.
2.3 States are responsible for conserving their biodiversity and using their biological
resources in a sustainable manner.
xlv
Causes of significant reduction of biodiversity should be attacked at their source.
2.4 The fundamental requirement for the conservation of biodiversity is the in situ
conservation of natural habitats and the maintenance of viable populations of
species in the natural surroundings, preferably in the country of origin although ex
situ measures also have an important role to play.
2.5 The General lack of information and knowledge regarding biological diversity
and the urgent need to develop scientific, technical and institutional capacities to
provide the basic understanding upon which to plan and implement appropriate
measures.
2.6 The close and traditional dependence of man, indigenous and local communities
embodying traditional lifestyles on biological resources and the desirability of
sharing equitably the benefits arising from the uses of traditional knowledge,
innovations and practices relevant to the conservation of biological diversity and
the sustainable use of its components.
2.7 The vital role that women play in the conservation and sustainable use of
biological diversity and the need for the full participation of women at all levels
of policy-making and implementation for biological diversity conservation.
2.8 The conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity is of critical
importance for eating the food, health and other needs of the growing world
population, for which purpose access to and sharing of both genetic resources and
technologies are essential.
Therefore we are all (internationally, nationally and individually) obliged to play a role in
the sustainable use and fairly/equitably share the biological/ genetic resources.
xlvi
Many indigenous and local communities with traditional lifestyles have a close and
traditional dependence on biological resources and need to share equitably in the benefits
arising from biodiversity.
III International Cooperation is an Important Part of Implementing the
Convention.
3.1 Major Measures Which Contracting Parties Agree to:
• develop national biodiversity strategies, plans and programme;
• identify and monitor important components of biodiversity;
• establish systems of protected areas, manage biological resources, rehabilitate
degraded ecosystems, control alien species, protect threatened species;
47
• implement measures for sustainable use, including use of economic and social
incentives;
• establish programmes for training, education and research, and promote access to
relevant technology.
48
• facilitate access to genetic resources, on mutually agreed terms and under prior
informed consent of the party providing such resources promote access to relevant
technology.
• promote technical and scientific cooperation, including exchange of information
relating to biodiversity.
• provide funds to developing countries to help implement these measures.
3.2 Points to be Emphasised in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
As one of the parties to the CBD (UNEP, 1994) Swaziland recognises the issues gleaned
from the (CBD including the following:
3.2.1 The intrinsic value biological diversity and of the ecological, genetic social,
economic scientific, educational, cultural, recreational and aesthetic values of
biological diversity and its components.
3.2.2 The conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity by humankind.
3.3 Socio-economic Benefits of Biological Diversity
The biodiversity convention was initiated by northern conservationist NGOs (IUCN and
WWF) through concern on the destruction of the tropical rainforest. The objectives of the
convention are to:conserve biological diversity, promote the use of biological diversity
components and encourage equitable sharing in the benefits arising from the utilization of
genetic resources in a sustainable manner, so as not to compromise the ability of future
generations to meet their needs. Among the important considerations in the fulfillment of
the objectives of the convention is the development of national strategies for the
conservation of biological diversity. Individuals, local communities, government, NGOs
and the private sector have a major role to play in the development of the national
strategies on sustainable management and utilisation of biological resources.
49
IV The Importance of Biodiversity
The occurrence of the variety of organisms helps to ensure the existence of the different
ecosystems. It is because of these ecosystems that nature is balanced. From this, mankind
is able to get basic needs such as shelter (timber, thatching grass etc). We also get
medicinal plants. The higher the biodiversity the more organisms a locality can have and
therefore a much wider choice of getting resources for basic needs.
V How Development Affects Biodiversity
5.1 Agriculture
The most obvious effect of commercial agriculture is the occurrence of green deserts –
vast hectares of land under a single or limited number of plants e.g. sugarcane. Obviously
the biodiversity of that area is drastically lowered and also the ecosystems are limited.
The existence of animal husbandry has led to the increase of livestock and hence
overgrazing particularly in commercial areas. The use of pesticides and herbicides not
only kill the targeted pests (which are an element of biodiversity) but also affect and kill
other organisms.
5.2 Manufacturing
Manufacturing results in pollution of air, land and most importantly rivers. In rivers fish
life is affected together with other forms of aquatic life. Land contamination not only
limits the sizes of the habitat, but actually kills life forms living on and in the soil
5.3 Construction
For construction to take place the ecosystems are disturbed - land is cleared killing plant-
life and also changing the ecosystems such that organisms have to migrate to other areas.
For example, with the occurrence of towns and cities wildlife has been chased away.
5.4 Developments in the Medical Field
The increase in population (growth of about 3%) linked with low economic growth has
led more pressure on resources and thus the decline in biodiversity. This is a self-
50
defeating process because with less resources mankind cannot survive. This poses a
challenge to mankind.
5.5 The Challenge
Resources have to be utilised in a sustainable way to ensure the existence of the
necessary Ecosystems and hence the biodiversity.
VI Regional Consultation : (Plenary)
The nature of the Lubombo Regional Consultation was, as in the other Regions prepared
in consultation with a Regional Committee and involved the Regional Administrator,
Regional Secretary and Members of Parliament in the Region. Other elected
representatives were also involved. Discussion Group Reports were prepared and
presented by either the Chairman or the Secretary of the group. Four Groups had been set
up among the participants who numbered about seventy.
The Lubombo Regional Committee was comprised of officials from following
stakeholders: the town council (Siteki); Government Ministries and NGO’s such as Save
the Children Fund.
6.1 Observations
Some of the observations made in Plenary on the one day seminar were to the effect that
Swazi Communities have very poor attention to conservation. Whereas our national
envelopes carry the message “The soil is our greatest asset, Conserve it”, the following
problems were highlighted;
• Urban development
• Tree cutting.
• Road construction without conservation ethics.
51
• Top soil loss through erosion and other effects.
• Pollutants in cities and industrial estates.
• Fresh soils / Virgin soils not preserved.
• A high number of dongas could be observed near and not rehabilitated by
communities
• Traditional healers - herbalists uproot plants/cut down trees.
• Mine dumps with no rehabilitation.
• Change to housing from special agricultural land.
• Animal life our wealth Impala/ Impunzi/wildlife threatened.
• ”Inyamatane inengati lembi- siyibukela kuyibulala.”
• Now we have to buy externally to replace lost resources.
It was noted that the University of Swaziland (UNISWA) and other institutions should
educate people effectively about Biodiversity Conservation. It was further noted that
Mitigation Plans should come from Community members and all stakeholders, not top-
down from government.
Some of the Participants wondered if the Swaziland Environment Authority was able to
carry-out Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) inspection before construction and after
construction, in Projects such as the Simunye Sugar Estates. Unfortunately the Simunye
Sugar Estates were set-up when the regulations were not yet in place.
VII Group Discussions.
All the groups had the same theme except that Group 4 discussed POLICY issues.
7.1 Groups : 1, 2 and 3
These groups were randomly assembled from the participants whose careers were
generally not administrative.
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A. Threats to Biological Diversity
• introduction of exotic species.
• industrial development.
• Earth extraction for road construction.
• Down slope farming.
• Inappropriate land use.
• Pollution / waste disposal systems.
• Traditional structures authorities not instrumental in the development processes.
• Bush encroachment.
• Lack of appreciation of nature and the environment .
• Lack of responsibility attitudes and positive behaviour towards the environment.
• Natural disaster such as drought, wild fires over-flooding.
• Population explosion.
• Deforestation (indiscriminately) uprooting (over utilization of trees).
• Clearing of bush during settlement and development.
• Poor Planning (e.g. dipping tank one sided hence soil erosion.
• During development of industries roads cutting are made any where.
• Erosion of socio-cultural values.
B. Plant /Animal Extinction.
Threatened species of plants and animals include economic/social organisms.
(plants): bunkhunkhu (Androstachys johnsonii); umvangati (Pterocarpus angolensis);
umhlume (Adina microcephala); silele; likhatsato (Alepidea amatymbia); lihlambo;
sibhaha (Pittosporum viridiflorum); (animals): tinhlangu / emanqala; imbhune; tiger
fish; livule; timphisi; infinyezi
Additional observation: Umtfombotsi (Spirostachys africana), mangololo, umnganu
(Sclerocarya caffra), lusundvu (palm tree), gebeleweni umsilinga (Melia azadarach),
53
umnyamatsi (Ekebergia capensis), umntulwa (Vangueria cyanescens); The animals
include: cattle, snakes, wild animals, birds. Other organisms include liza, liwula,
gebeleweni (Elaphoglossum ptiolatum), silulwane (mahlanganisa) insingizi. (NB Most
observations were similar in the three Groups)
C. What is Threatening the (Biodiversity)?
• Negative attitudes.
• Population growth / needs.
• Climate change.
• Poaching.
• Destruction of catchment areas/water sources.
• Poverty.
• Socio economic development ie, community development projects.
• Dam Construction.
Other observations included the following:
o Developments - sugarcanes.
- use of herbicides/pesticides.
- cutting trees (eg. For fire wood without replacement).
- improper road construction leading to erosion.
• Too many cows leading to overgrazing.
• Over-hunting is causing extinction of animals.
• Pesticides are killing fish.
• Water pollution is killing fish.
• Chemicals used to control bilharzia are killing fish.
• Fish are poisoned using pesticides (to catch the fish).
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D. Ecosystem Types
• Lubombo Plateau
• Rivers and Riverine habitats (tihosha).
• Swamps/Wetlands (ematete).
• Forests.
• Dams.
• Grasslands.
• Caves (imigedze).
• Rocky outcrops.
E. How can we encourage and maintain conservation?
• Incentives.
• Establish youth clubs.
• Law enforcement.
• Education for all, by all educational agencies.
• Restrict use of working tools and such.
• Law enforcement and implementation process/structures.
• Publicity - to elaborate its importance.
• Conservation for private sector and adjacent communities.
• Attach conservation education to relevant phenomenon.
F. How can Agro-biodiversity be conserved?
• Take pride in our nature.
• Genetic resources bank.
• Encourage the maintenance of Nguni cattle.
• Promote traditional dishes / foods.
• Revive traditional knowledge systems..
• Sustainable harvesting
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G. What Crop-land races do we have?
Landraces should be mixed and interbreeding should be reduced.
• Silver-king is a landrace of maize (singwane?). Ummbila wesintfu
• Ematabhane (Scolopia mu.
• Nyawotsi.
• Emabele (sorghum – Setaria italica or Pennisetum gloucum).
• Ludvonca (Sesamum alatum).
• Emadlaboshi.
• Nguni cattle.
• Ligwalagwala.
H. Use of biological resources in a sustainable manner.
• Control of accessibility to traditional attire resources by permits.
• Establish woodlots for communities.
• Strict control on extraction of resources.
• Empower traditional authorities.
• Attach monetary value to natural resources.
• Accessibility to resources within nature reserves
I. Inputs needed to implement recommended actions to formulate youth /community
programmes
• initiate incoming generating projects for the youth.
• give empowerment to communities .
• provide appropriate human resettlements.
• educate and provide information.
56
J. Measures to Conserve Biological resources.
These included efforts to apply proper land use planning that would allow reservation of
environment and create Protection Worthy areas (reserved as monuments) eg. Protecting
specific plants which provide habitats for animals.
Other measures were noted as follows:
• Swaziland National Trust Commission (SNTC) should conduct research that
would establish propagation methods.
• Restructure the National Land Use Policy.
• SNTC with the help of government should establish sites where they can grow
botanical gardens.
• Increase capacity building to the present nature conservation institution.
• Government in conjunction with farmers and extension workers should set aside
areas for keeping pure breeds.
• Community members should be sensitised with importance of local materials
which have resistance to diseases such as Tinhlumaya (cowpeas), emabele
(sorghum), tindlubu (Jugo beans), ludvonca (Ceratotheca triloba), mngomeni
(mungbeans), emantongomane (groudnuts – Arachis hypogea).
• Create awareness about the importance of protecting the natural habitat through
community leaders. (Educate)
• Let people come up with a well planned conservation strategy.
• Communities should have conservation communities that would deal with
conservation issues.
• This community committee in consultation with the chief, will work to develop
environmental issues.
K. Actions that would result in sustainable utilization
• Education especially on the importance of the environment.
• Establish committee (appointed by chiefs) in each chiefdom which are responsible
for environmental protection.
57
• Selected areas (of important habitats) that should be protected e.g. In the form of
nature reserves;
• Legislation required for community nature reserves.
• Introduce a culling system.
• Over-harvesting be prevented by introducing limits of harvesting guidelines.
• Sustainable use of the species with economic / social value:
o fall grass
o umvangati (Pterocarous angolensis).
o Luphakama.
o Umutsi.
o Umkhanyakudze (Acacia xanthophloea).
o Umsilinga (Melia azedarach).
o Umhonono (Terminalia phanerophlebia).
• Captive propagation is not currently possible or feasible. It is better to develop
sustainable harvesting instead.
• One benefit of biodiversity is tourism.
• Take all idle government farms and use them to develop eco-tourism. (To benefit
the local communities).
• Poaching is a serious problem, as is overgrazing and the cultivation of riverbanks.
Littering is also a problem. There is no well-defined settlement policy and
therefore an appropriate policy is needed.
• Community education on biodiversity is necessary (and this must be supported by
legislation).
• Tree planting initiatives must be supported (cut a tree and then plant two)
• More nurseries are required.
• Local authorities and government must support biodiversity conservation.
• Financial resources must be made available for conservation projects.
• Conservation of biodiversity needs to be promoted effectively.
• Technical support is required for conservation initiatives.
58
7.2 Group 4. Policy Concerns
This group was hand picked and constituted participants who had some administrative
exposure.
A) Threats / Pressure on the Biological Resources
• Unplanned houses thus destroying forestry.
• Overpopulation and pressure on livestock (cattle).
• Lack of regulation and policy to guide communities especial when taking
livestock to dip tanks.
• Poor ploughing methods.
• Unplanned fires.
• Pesticides done on commercial land -use of planes.
• Lack of knowledge on environment impact assessment.
• Unplanned donga done purposely by companies selling sand and silt for building.
• (Most observations were similar to those of other groups)
B. Group: 4 listed some of the benefits from the use of biodiversity resources as
• the prevention of soil erosion.
• the provision of food for animals.
• tree availability whichprovide shade and act as windbreaks.
• Improvement of the aesthetic quality of the environment.
C. POLICY - Policy observations included the following:
At national level, existing acts, policies should be ratified, rectified and enforced.
i) Establish demonstration sites or projects as education tools. This is feasible at
emphakatsini or tinkhundla areas.
ii) The communities near the protected areas should be part of the decision making
or administration of the reserve. The communities should be represented
especially in their monthly board meetings.
59
iii) Designate more areas as protection worthy in the Lubombo region. Currently,
areas in this catergory include:
- The Hlane Game Reserve
- The Mlawula Game Reserve
- The Mbuluzi Game Reserve
- Mhlosinga Nature Reserve
v) Provide a policy to highlight the benefits derived from the use of Biodiversity
resources In Game Reserves.
- Employment
- Project funding
- Selling of land craft near the reserve for tourists.
D. Benefits
These benefits noted in C above require sustainable use of the biological resources and
there is a need for strategies that can be put in place for the equitable sharing of benefits.
These strategies include:
i) Education or awareness at local level to enhance local cooperation
pertaining their biodiversity conservation.
ii) At local level a policy /policies and regulations should be put in place and
enforced through Tinkhundla and the chiefs to be able to share by
protecting and conserving:
a) Creation of Regional legal committees to work on the policy
b) Exchanging beneficial skills within the stakeholders and also the
creation of a pool of funds to train people in biodiversity
iii) Biodiversity concerns into Government Planning.
60
Institutes when planning any development should integrate all stakeholders that is
roads, environmental health , housing. The Economic Planning Ministry should
be involving an Environment inclined person on these matters. Swaziland
Environment Authority (SEA) is presently under Government in a smaller
industry. Thus it would be better if the Swaziland Environment Authority (SEA)
was a department under The Prime Minister’s Office to be able to voice
Government concerns and also advise all departments/institutes and companies.
The Swaziland Environment Authority should establish a strong information
base using education effectively.
iv) Role of Other Ministries.
In order to protect the natural habitats found in our regions, Government should:-
1) Create an educational strategy and bring awareness to the areas which
have rich natural resources.
2) Identify the areas periodically. This could also be done at national level.
Funds will be needed. The Swaziland Environment Authority should
solicit for funds to service communities. The education strategy should be
in place to bring awareness to all thus they can be able to identify the
value of their biodiversity. Policies should be enforced through
consultation with the Legislature and the Attorney General’s Chambers to
create effective and relevant laws regulating Biodiversity Conservation.
3) Conservation efforts
- Companies should avail funds for outreach education on
importance of biodiversity conservation.
- Create regional communities to work on the policy they want
- Exchange beneficial skills within the stakeholders and also
create a pool of funds to create people in biodiversity.
61
4) Biodiversity concerns into Government Planning
- When there is any development by Government institution, the
Government should involve all stakeholders in their planning.
- The planning and Economic Ministries should have an
environmental inclined person to be involved on their
ministry.
5.) The Swaziland Environment Authority should be moved form the current
Ministry and be at placed in the Prime Ministers Office a department that
can stand our and be able to voice out government concerns and also be
able to advise all departments, institutes and companies.
6.) SEA should establish a strong information wing to educate or create
awareness in all other ministries in order to protect the natural habitats
found in regions. This may involve the creation of an Educational strategy
to bring awareness to all various areas the importance of the Conservation
of Biodiversity. The awareness can be done at local level and at national
level places can he targeted for any observed biodiversity destruction
taking place in that area or community.
VIII. Recommendations and Conclusions
In order to facilitate the equitable sharing of the benefits listed and those not
listed the group resolved that:
i) There is a need to raise awareness amongst community leaders and
members on the benefits of biodiversity conservation.
ii) Community members should establish a policy on the protection of their
local environment.
iii) There is a need for greater community involvement in the management of
conservation areas such as game parks and nature reserves.
62
The stakeholders should :
i) exchange ideas and skills amongst themselves.
ii) establish funds for training local community members on how to manage
their environment.
Biodiversity concerns may best be brought into government planning by :
i) The SEA educating other ministries and government departments on the
value of biodiversity and the importance of complying with the
Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations.
ii) The Swaziland Environment Authority being transferred to the Prime
Ministers Office in order to gain more authority and more recognition so
that environmental issues are taken more seriously by the public and
private sectors.
Sustainable management of biodiversity in the region may be achieved by:
i) raising awareness on biodiversity.
ii) identifying habitats to be protected.
iii) establish a regional committee to monitor environmental management in
the region.
In order to implement the recommended actions the community will need :
i) Funding and technical assistance from existing conservation parks in the
region and governmental and non-governmental organisations.
63
IX. References
Dlamini M. (1997). Industry and Biodiversity. Seminar Paper for the Swaziland National
Regional Consultations on Biodiversity.
Fakudze, P. N. (1997). Socio-Economic Benefits of Biological Diversity. Seminar Paper
for the Swaziland National Regional Consultations on Biodiversity.
Nkosi, B. S. (1997) [Ed.] Proceedings of the First National Workshop on Biodiversity
Strategy and Action Plan : Swaziland (19 August, 1997). Swaziland Government /
UNDP Report.
Nkosi, B. S. (1997). The International arena on Biological Diversity Conservation.
Seminar Paper for the Swaziland National Regional Consultations on Biodiversity.
Nxumalo, J. M. (1997). Perspectives on the Conservation of Biological Diversity in
Swaziland. Seminar Paper for the Swaziland National Regional Consultations on
Biodiversity.
UNEP, (1994). Convention on Biological Diversity : Text and Annexes.
64
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS IN SWAZILAND; A BENEFIT
OR THREAT TO BIODIVERSITY C ONSERVATION.
Patience N. Fakudze
Department of Geography, Environmental Science and Planning University of Swaziland
E-Mail :[email protected]
Abstract
To fulfil the country's mandate on the Convention to Combat Desertification, a study
to document indigenous knowledge systems and techniques in Swaziland was
commissioned by the National Steering Committee for the convention. The survey was
conducted in sixteen (16) communities from the various physiographic regions of the
country. Each region was represented by at most 3 communities. Elderly members of
the selected communities were interviewed in their homesteads using an open-ended
questionnaire. The interviews were meant to assess the extent of indigenous knowledge
techniques in the country. In addition, the perceptions of the respondents on land
degradation were also investigated.
The results of the survey suggest that most people in the country are aware of the
causes of land degradation in the country. However, there are some disturbing aspects,
especially with regard to the use of fire. The respondents recommended a number of
techniques that are relevant in natural resource management. The suggested
techniques can be incorporated in the strategies to combat desertification and mitigate
the effects of drought. Of importance, are the techniques to harvest wood resources,
control erosion in grazing and cultivated areas, maintain soil fertility and restore
wetlands. On another note, the climate prediction techniques still need to be verified.
A brief review of the history of policy measures to control land degradation was also
undertaken to establish the level of community participation in the drafting and
implementation of the policies. Documentation on the implementation of policies
65
suggests that most of the policies were based on foreign ideologies and did not involve
consultations with the affected communities. It is believed that ineffective participation
of local communities in the drafting and implementation of policies and programmes
contributed to the failure of some of the policies or programmes. Local communities
did not own the processes involved. They generally perceived the activities outlined in
the policies and programmes as government's or development officers' responsibilities.
I. Introduction
Local or indigenous knowledge has been an area of focus in the quest to combat
environmental problems and enhance the conservation of biodiversity. In many instances,
it is recognised that the incorporation of such knowledge in proposed projects aimed at
solving the escalating environmental problems partly contributes to increased awareness
of the problems and acceptance of the projects by local communities. Documentation of
indigenous knowledge techniques and practices is important because, prior to the
introduction of scientific technologies of natural resource management, communities
relied on indigenous knowledge techniques.
The indigenous knowledge systems and techniques revolve around traditional rules and
regulations based on beliefs for the protection of flora, fauna and land. These techniques
and systems are largely built on experiences and close contact with nature. As such,
cultural diversity is an important component in local knowledge with regard to natural
resource management. Within the traditional sphere, the management of natural resources
can be gender sensitive in terms of the division of labour, access to land, decision-making
and other roles. Very few countries have undertaken to compile available information on
local knowledge regarding natural resource management and biodiversity conservation.
The fact that indigenous knowledge systems in resource management are not documented
in most countries partly contributes to the lack of or poor application of indigenous
techniques in resource management. Instead, the information is conveyed orally from
66
generation to generation. Authors such as Osunade (1994 (b)) and Lore (1992), argue that
the incorporation of indigenous knowledge systems in modern technologies facilitates
understanding and the utilisation of modern techniques. Indigenous knowledge systems
can also be used in contemporary resource management and conservation education as
well as the assessment of social and environmental impacts.
As a signatory to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, Swaziland is
obliged to fulfill the objectives of the convention. To fulfil this mandate, a study to
document indigenous knowledge systems and techniques in Swaziland was
commissioned by the National Steering Committee for the convention. This was
facilitated with funding from the United Nations Special Office (UNSO) through the
local United Nation Development Programme (UNDP) office. Underlying the importance
of the study is the expectation that local communities must fully participate in the
National Action Programmes to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought
(Articles 10 & 17). Recognising that effective participation of local communities in
measures to combat desertification can be achieved through understanding of the
techniques involved, it is therefore essential to review and integrate the indigenous
knowledge techniques with modern techniques.
On the basis of the convention, desertification means land degradation in arid, semi-arid
and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and
human activities. Land degradation means the reduction or loss of biological or
economic productivity in cropland, pasture, forest and woodlands as a result of processes
such as erosion, long-term loss of natural vegetation and the deterioration of soil. Causes
of desertification include increases in the human and livestock populations, bad
agricultural practices, climatic variations, felling of trees for fuel and frequent use of fire.
1.2 Objectives
Generally, the objectives of this study were:
• To establishing the perceptions of local communities on land degradation.
67
• To document information on indigenous knowledge techniques used to address
the problem of land degradation is Swaziland.
• To facilitate networking between modern scientists, traditional authorities and
rural communities on strategies to combat desertification and develop a resource
base for capacity building on techniques to combat desertification using the
documented techniques.
• To explore the possibility of integrating indigenous knowledge techniques in the
strategies to combat desertification.
II. Methodology
Primary and secondary sources of information were used to acquire information on
indigenous knowledge systems in the country. Considering that indigenous knowledge
systems may vary between locations and that land degradation also depends on several
variable factors, the study was designed in such a way that each of the six physiographic
regions of Swaziland is represented. The primary information sources were elderly
members of sixteen (16) communities in the six physiographic regions of Swaziland.
Representing each physiographic region were three randomly selected areas (Table 1).
Table 1: Communities where interviews were held by physiographic region.
Highveld Upper
Middleveld
Lower
Middleveld
Western
Lowveld
Eastern
Lowveld
Lubombo
Ntfonjeni Lobamba Kukhanyeni Mpaka Siphofaneni Lomahasha
Mankayane Timphisini Buhleni Lavumisa Madubeni Siteki
Mantjolo Ezikhotheni Engudzeni Hlane
In each community a total of 22 people were randomly selected and interviewed.
Overall, a total of about 330 people were interviewed.
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The interviews were conducted at the homes of all the respondents using an open-ended
questionnaire. There were four areas of interest in the questionnaire, namely (a) the
perceptions of the respondents to land degradation in the area, (b) techniques used to
harvest natural resources, (c) recommended techniques to mitigate the problems of land
degradation and water depletion and (d) techniques used to predict climatic conditions. In
all the communities, the interviews were based on "surprise" visits. Appointments were
not arranged prior to the interview in all the areas.
Secondary sources of information such as policy documents and other literature on
natural resource management were also consulted. The literature review was conducted to
enhance understanding of the history of the policy measures put in place to address issues
of land degradation in the country. Information from the secondary sources is also
valuable in the distinction of indigenous and introduced techniques. In addition, the
information obtained can be used to elucidate the possible reasons for departure from the
known indigenous techniques and the adoption of "scientific" or western techniques in
the country.
III. Literature Review
Land degradation in Swaziland is partly caused by the land tenure systems that exist in
the country. The systems are based on the colonial land policies that were developed
between 1903 and 1914 and the subsequent partitioning of the country in 1907 (Crush,
1980). In the 1907 partitioning, the country was sub-divided into settler estates and
Swazi Reserves. Amongst the reasons presented by Crush (1980) for the partitioning of
the land was (a) the natural increase and possible migration of the Swazi population, (b)
grass burning by the Swazi which would destroy settler crops and grazing and (c) the
need for settlers to have security of title to land on which to make capital investment.
This left the Swazi population with very little land for their livelihood and hence the
subsequent degradation that is characteristic of Swazi Nation Land. The present land
tenure systems in the country are extensively outlined in Downing and Zuke (1996).
69
In Swaziland, soil erosion is the most obvious sign of land degradation. According to
Osunade (1994), the occurrence of soil erosion in Swaziland pre-dates the settlement of
the area by the people. However, with increasing population and demand for more land
by competing land uses, the problem of soil erosion has grown worse (Osunade, 1994).
The main causes of soil erosion are overgrazing and destruction of land. As a result of
soil erosion, sediment yield in the drainage systems of the country have increased
resulting in diminishing water supply. For example, Pitman (1977) as quoted by
Osunade (1994), estimates that the sediment yield in the highveld and middleveld is
about 8 tonnes /ha/yr, for the lowveld the yield is 10 tonnes/ha/yr and in the Lubombo
region 4 tonnes/ha/year. Since the colonial period "modern " or scientific plans and
strategies of natural resource management (often developed and tested in the cool
temperate regions) were introduced in affected communities. Common to most
introduced technologies was minimum participation of the traditional authorities and
community members. Local communities had to abandon their own techniques of
conserving resources for the imposed scientific methods.
According to Osunade (1994 (b)), the conservation of land and water resources in the
country started in 1949 when the Xhosa extension workers encouraged the use of grass
strips. Between 1940 and 1960, the extension workers laid out a total of 113 780km of
grass strips. In 1954, the CRDB was formed. This body was charged with resettlement,
the division of all Swazi Nation Land (SNL) into arable and grazing areas and the
management of the nations natural resources. Consequent to the formation of the
CRDB, local conservation or development committees (Imisumphe) were established.
However, due to conflicts with chiefs and basic ingredients of operations these became
inefficient (Osunade, 1994 (b)).
In 1970, the Rural Development Area Programme (RDAP) was established with
funding from the United Kingdom. The programme was extended in 1976 with bilateral
aid from West Germany, Sweden and Canada and multilateral aid from the World
Bank, African Development Bank, European Economic Union (EEC) and UNDP. This
programme was geared to improve the income and well being of the Swazi farmers by
70
providing infrastructure, fencing grazing areas, improving livestock management and
land consolidation among other things. Soil conservation became prominent in the
RDAP with the introduction of terraces to supplant grass strips (Osunade, 1994 (b)).
According to Osunade (1994 (b)), only 20% of the planned conservation measures were
achieved in the RDAP. Of the planned removal of 39400ha of grass strips only 2034ha
were removed and of the 42800ha of terraces, a total of 2003ha were constructed. Since
1983, farmers have continued to lay grass strips in their farms without anybody
compelling them (Osunade, 1994 (b)).
It has since been realised that environmental or land-use policies that are solely based
on western technologies have failed (ETC foundation, 1987; Osunade, 1994(a)). For
example, Osunade (1994 (b)) attributes the failure of the Rural Development Areas
Programme (RDAP) in Swaziland to the neglect of community (indigenous)
knowledge. The approach used in the RDAP was based on the assumption that
production levels in rural areas are constrained by lack of inputs, knowledge and
infrastructure. This approach fails to recognise other factors that contribute to land
degradation. Basically, the failure of policies which address land degradation problems
may be attributed to (i) inequalities in land holding and security of tenure, (ii) lack of
consultations with local communities in the formulation of the policies and (iii) failure
to recognise that opportunities to solve the problems also lie with the local communities
and that there is need to learn from the people who face the problems. Because of the
sectoral nature of the policies, there is failure to appreciate the fact that the existing
policies have far reaching implications than the sectors for which they were designed.
In most instance policies that are solely based on alien technologies are designed to
protect natural resources in specific sectors rather than encourage better management of
resources. Indigenous knowledge systems are based on resource sharing practices than
protection. Contrary, the imposed policies have led to the collapse of traditional
resource-sharing practices and controls over resource use (ETC foundation, 1987; Lore,
1992). Therefore, capturing indigenous knowledge techniques and the subsequent
integration of these techniques and knowledge to natural resource management is vital
for the success of any programme or project.
71
IV. Results It is generally recognised (e.g. Lore, 1992) that the quantity and quality of indigenous
knowledge systems varies with gender, age, social status, intellectual capability and
profession (i.e. herbalist, farmer, spiritual medium etc) among community members.
Differences in the perceptions of the respondents on land degradation, its causes and
techniques used to combat the problems were noted. These differences are not only
restricted to regional variations but they are also reflected amongst the various
respondents. Such variations were noted in the results of the survey and these maybe
attributed to differences in environmental conditions, gender and academic background.
For example, people from the highveld and the lowveld regions responded differently to
questions on water and wood resources. With regards to gender, women appeared to have
limited knowledge compared to men.
4.1 Knowledge on the extent and causes of land degradation.
Extent of land degradation : For most respondents, land degradation is synonymous
with erosion hence the responses were generally based on past and existing erosion
features in the area. Only a few respondents mentioned the issue of deforestation as a
sign of land degradation. In all the communities that formed part of the study, land
degradation did not exist in the past and in those where it did, the respondents indicated
that this was minimal and localised to areas close to streams and rivers. To try and
explain the causes for localised and minimal land degradation in the past, one of the
respondents, Mr Shiba of Ekukhanyeni cited low numbers of settlements and livestock.
From the results it appears that soil acidification may not be considered as land
degradation. Lack of awareness on other forms of land degradation is a threat to
biodiversity conservation because the problem might persist without proper redress.
Causes of land degradation : Most respondents in the visited communities perceive
climatic variations as the most important cause of land degradation. According to the
respondents, heavy rains and drought have a significant contribution to land degradation
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(Table 2). Amongst the anthropogenic causes, overgrazing/overstocking,
overpopulation, pathways and tracks and deforestation were also identified as causes of
land degradation. Other causes of land degradation that were identified by the locals
include the construction of roads, uncontrolled fires or frequent burning and poor
agricultural practices. According to some respondents from Ngudzeni, Ezikhotheni and
Madubeni, land degradation was attributed to the spread of termites. They argued that
termites increase the susceptibility of the soil to erosion.
Noted from the responses is that land degradation in largely confined to grazing areas
than cultivated land. Only a few respondents mentioned the possibility of land
degradation in cultivated areas. Apart from cultivated areas, land degradation is also
limited in sacred sites. In Swaziland, sacred sites are mainly burial sites for past and
present royalty in an area. Generally, exploitation of resources such as firewood or
cultivation close to the site is not allowed. Even when there is a fire, local residents will
ensure that the fire does not affect the sacred sites. As a result, all the respondents were
also asked about the existence and location of sacred sites in the area. In all the areas,
the sacred sites were not affected by land degradation. Most forests, particularly in the
highly eroded areas are restricted to the sacred sites. Although the reverence of sacred
sites is a benefit to biodiversity conservation, there is need to enhance efforts on
expanding the conservation of other areas, especially grazing land.
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Table 2 : Perceived causes of land degradation in Swaziland.
Cause Area
Heavy rains/floods
Overgrazing Overpopulation Uncontrolled fires
Drought Termites Deforestation Pathways Roads Poor agricultural
practice
Other
Total
Buhleni 6 8 4 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 21 Ekukhanyeni 4 8 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 15 Ezikhotheni 6 4 1 0 1 3 1 0 0 0 2 18 Hlane 8 2 2 0 4 0 0 1 0 0 2 19 Lavumisa 8 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 12 Lobamba 2 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 10 Lomahasha 10 2 4 0 1 0 2 0 0 1 1 21 Madubeni 6 3 3 0 6 2 0 1 0 0 0 21 Mantjolo 5 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 8 Mhlatane 8 4 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 Mpaka 5 0 8 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 16 Ngudzeni 8 7 1 0 2 1 1 3 0 0 0 23 Ntfonjeni 3 0 5 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 12 Siphofaneni 4 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 8 Siteki 10 0 1 0 5 0 0 3 1 0 0 20 Timphisini 6 2 5 0 4 0 2 1 0 0 0 20 Total 95 43 40 4 26 6 11 14 2 3 6 250
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Techniques used to control land degradation in grazing areas or cultivated land : The
most popular indigenous techniques for controlling land degradation are rotational grazing
and the planting of vegetation (Table 3). Other techniques that were suggested include
destocking, filling rills and gullies with stones and soil, fencing of pastures, alternating
cattle routes and the protection of existing vegetation from over exploitation. In as much as
the respondents recognise rotational grazing as an important techniques for controlling land
degradation in grazing areas, there are several constraints. When asked about grazing
problems in the areas, the most popular responses were that grazing areas are either
inadequate, eroded, unfenced and in some instances specific sites for grazing purposes are
not allocated (Table 4). The problems are further compounded by overstocking, lack of
water and bush encroachment. Other identified problems were frequent burning and the
expansion of termite hills.
There is need to establish the relationship between overgrazing and the expansion of
termitaria on grazing lands. The allocation of grazing areas in the country needs to be
investigated since this was part of the CRDB mandate. Alternative means of supporting
livestock, such as feedlots also need to be encouraged.
The main techniques used to control soil erosion in cultivated areas are contour ploughing
and the use of grass strips. Other noted techniques were terraces, the construction of furrows
and filling rills with stones. Grass strips are the most popular and used simultaneously with
contour ploughing. However, Osunade (1994) notes that the grass strips are poorly
maintained in most areas hence their effectiveness in controlling soil erosion is reduced.
Apart from controlling soil erosion, grass strips are also a source of thatching grass to
indigenous communities. When asked about the techniques used to maintain the supply of
thatching grass, most respondents (53%) suggested that the grass must not be uprooted but
cut low to allow regeneration. some respondents also highlighted the importance of shaking
or thinning the grass at the source to ensure a continuous supply of seeds and future
germination of grass in the area. On the other hand, 32% suggested that the area has to be
burned to encourage regeneration of the grass. Although burning does encourage the
regeneration of grass, frequent burning contributes to land degradation.
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Table 3 : Recommended techniques to control land degradation.
Techniques Area Destocking Rotational
grazing Stone/soil filling Protect
grass Fence
pastures Plant
trees/grass Do not
cut trees Contour
ploughing Construct terraces
Alternate cattle routes
Do not burn
Divert water
Total
Buhleni 4 4 2 1 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 15
Ekukhanyeni 2 7 0 0 2 5 0 0 0 1 0 2 19
Ezikhotheni 3 8 1 0 4 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 30
Hlane 0 3 1 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 9
Lavumisa 1 6 1 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 11
Lobamba 5 8 0 0 0 4 0 2 0 0 0 1 20
Lomahasha 0 1 1 0 1 3 0 1 1 0 0 0 8
Madubeni 3 2 6 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 14
Mantjolo 0 3 0 0 2 1 1 3 0 1 2 0 13
Mankayane 3 6 3 0 0 3 1 0 0 1 0 0 17
Mpaka 0 3 2 1 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 10
Ngudzeni 2 6 3 1 1 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 20
Ntfonjeni 4 4 1 1 1 5 1 3 0 0 0 0 20
Siphofaneni 4 7 9 0 0 9 0 6 0 2 0 0 37
Siteki 1 4 2 0 1 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 20
Timphisini 5 3 0 0 2 5 2 1 0 1 0 0 19
Total 37 75 32 5 17 76 8 18 1 8 2 3 282
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Table 4 : Grazing problems in the selected communities. Problems
Area Unfenced veld Overstocking Erosion Inadequate grazing areas
Unspecified grazing areas
Bush encroachment
Inadequate water
Uncontrolled fires
Termites Total
Buhleni 5 9 2 1 2 2 0 0 0 21 Ekukhanyeni 0 8 5 7 0 0 0 0 0 20 Ezikhotheni 1 5 7 5 0 0 0 0 1 19 Hlane 1 2 0 1 1 0 5 0 0 10 Lavumisa 1 2 9 6 0 2 2 0 0 22 Lobamba 1 6 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 12 Lomahasha 1 3 7 3 1 0 0 0 0 15 Madubeni 7 0 5 4 0 0 0 0 1 17 Mantjolo 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 2 0 5 Mankayane 6 6 5 4 1 0 0 0 0 22 Mpaka 4 0 3 5 0 0 0 0 0 12 Ngudzeni 8 2 3 1 0 0 0 0 1 15 Ntfonjeni 2 4 1 7 2 0 0 0 0 16 Siteki 4 7 8 2 1 0 1 0 0 23 Timphisini 1 5 2 8 6 0 0 0 0 22
Total 43 59 58 60 14 4 8 2 3 251
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Noting that frequent burning by Swazis was cited as one of the factors leading to the 1907
partitioning of the country, the perceptions of the respondents on the impacts of fire were
determined. Fifty three percent (53%) of the respondents believe that fire is destructive
(Table 5). The destruction of homesteads, plants and increased land degradation were cited
as the major destructive effects of fire. Of the remaining 45%, 42% of the respondents were
of the opinion that fire has a positive impact on land in that it encourages regeneration of
grass, increases in soil fertility and destroys pests such as ticks and mice. An examination of
Table 5 indicates that most of the respondents who believe that fire has a positive impact are
from Ekukhanyeni (52%), Ezikhotheni (63%), Mpaka (53%) and Ngudzeni (53%). These
areas are amongst the most degraded areas in the country. Of all the respondents, some
(3%) argued that the impacts of fire largely depend on the timing and frequency of burning.
If done at the right time and infrequently, fire has a positive impact. Frequent burning does
not only lead to a paucity of grass and encourage soil erosion, but it also suppresses the
growth of trees in an area. One respondent (Mr Dlamini of Ndlalambi) attests to the view
that frequent burning suppresses the growth of indigenous trees. According to Mr Dlamini
the area from Timphisini to Ndlalambi used to be grassland. He attributed the expansion of
indigenous trees at Ndlalambi to controlled burning.
Table 5 : Effects of fire on land. Effect
Area Regenerates grass
Causes land degradation
Destroys plants
Causes cattle diseases
Destroys homesteads
Increases soil fertility
Kills ticks
Kills mice and snakes
Depends Total
Buhleni 4 1 11 0 1 0 0 0 1 18
Ekukhanyeni 11 2 5 2 1 0 0 0 0 21
Ezikhotheni 10 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 16
Hlane 2 2 10 0 0 0 1 0 0 15
Lavumisa 4 0 7 0 0 1 1 0 1 14
Lobamba 5 6 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 15
Lomahasha 5 3 6 0 1 1 2 0 0 18
Madubeni 3 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 11
Mantjolo 6 2 7 1 0 0 1 0 0 17
Mankayane 5 2 6 0 0 0 1 1 1 16
Mpaka 8 1 4 0 1 0 1 0 0 15
Ngudzeni 10 0 5 0 1 0 0 0 3 19
Ntfonjeni 6 0 6 1 0 0 0 1 0 14
Siphofaneni 3 1 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 11
Siteki 5 0 8 0 0 0 3 0 0 16
Timphisini 5 1 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 14
Total 92 21 105 5 6 2 10 2 7 250
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Uncontrolled fires are a common feature in the country and in view of the above responses
this problem needs to be addressed urgently. Considering that land degradation is associated
with the deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of soil, the
respondents were also asked about techniques to maintain soil fertility. Regarding the
indigenous techniques to maintain soil fertility in cultivated areas, the use of kraal manure,
compost, fallowing and crop rotation were cited (Table 6).
Table 6 : Recommended techniques to maintain soil fertility.
Technique Area
Add kraal manure
Fallowing
Crop rotation
Add fertilisers
Double ploughing
Use compost
Shift cultivation
Plant trees
Use ashes
Add lime
Inter cropping
Total
Buhleni 20 2 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 27
Ekukhanyeni 13 2 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 19
Ezikhotheni 7 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8
Hlane 11 2 1 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 17
Lavumisa 6 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11
Lobamba 7 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9
Lomahasha 10 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13
Madubeni 6 2 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 11
Mantjolo 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mankayane 16 2 2 0 1 5 1 0 3 1 0 31
Mpaka 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17
Ngudzeni 20 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 24
Ntfonjeni 16 2 1 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 22
Siteki 9 5 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18
Timphisini 18 2 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 23
Total 176 28 18 2 6 10 4 0 4 1 1 250
Other techniques that were identified include double cultivation, shifting cultivation and the
use of ashes. Although Osunade (1994) also mentions the use of termite soil as material that
can be used to enrich the soil, this was not mentioned by any of the respondents in this
study. The notion that indigenous knowledge is subject to erosion with time was confirmed
in this question where a few respondents also cited fertilisers and liming as indigenous
techniques. The respondents were also asked about the different types of materials or plants
that can be used to increase soil fertility in degraded soil. Cited plants (Table 7) include
leguminous plants such as groundnuts (Arachis hypogea), beans (e.g. Phasedus vulgaris)
and tinhlumayo (Vigna spp), ludvonca (Sesamum inducum), emabele (Setarica italica or
Pennisetum glaucum), sweet potatoes (Ipomea batatas), umganu (Sclerocarya caffra),
cassava (Manihot esculenta) and umkhiwa (Ficus capensis).
67
Table 7 : Types of plants that can be used to improve soil fertility.
Plant Species Area
Umkhiwa Ficus)
Emabele Setarica
Tindlubu Bambara
Groundnuts Arachis
Tinhlumaya Vigna
Beans Phasedus
Umganu Sclerocarya
Cotton Sweet potatoes (Ipomea)
Ludvonca Sesame
Cassava Manihot
Ematabhane Total
Buhleni 0 0 1 4 12 11 0 0 2 3 0 0 33 Ekukhanyeni 0 4 1 6 9 7 1 2 2 1 0 0 33 Ezikhotheni 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hlane 0 0 0 3 2 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 10 Lavumisa 0 0 0 0 2 7 0 2 2 0 0 0 13 Lobamba 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Lomahasha 0 2 0 4 0 8 0 2 0 1 0 0 17 Madubeni 0 1 0 1 1 3 4 0 0 1 0 0 11 Mantjolo 0 2 0 0 0 9 0 0 2 1 0 2 16 Mankayane 0 1 0 5 1 11 0 0 2 1 0 0 21 Mpaka 0 1 0 0 4 3 0 1 0 2 0 0 11 Ngudzeni 0 1 0 2 0 11 0 2 2 0 0 0 18 Ntfonjeni 1 2 1 1 2 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 Siphofaneni 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 6 Siteki 0 7 0 1 2 4 0 4 6 0 0 0 24 Timphisini 0 2 2 3 5 5 0 0 2 0 1 0 20 Total 1 23 5 31 41 87 6 14 22 11 1 2 244
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4.2 Wood Resources
Long-term loss of vegetation and subsequent land degradation is generally associated with
the harvesting of wood resources either for fuel or building purposes. During the
interviews, the respondents were asked about the techniques that were used in the past to
harvest woodfuel and building poles. In addition, the respondents were asked about the
most common trees that are used for woodfuel and building purposes. Information on the
indigenous techniques to harvest woodfuel will help in the identification of differences
between past practices and present-day practices. Knowing the types of trees that are
commonly used will help in the identification of threatened species and possible strategies
to mitigate the effects. Secondly, the information may help in the selection of species to be
used in afforestation programmes.
Woodfuel.
In harvesting woodfuel, most people emphasise on resource sharing (ETC Foundation,
1987). The most popular technique among the respondents was the collection of only dry or
fallen trees. Uprooting or the burning of trees can be destructive to wood resources and that
these should be avoided at all costs. Presently, most people who harvest woodfuel will go
to the extent of cutting fresh "wet" trees. This is a result of both financial need and the fact
that the demand for woodfuel is higher than the supply. In those areas where wattle
plantations were introduced, the locals believe that wattle should be used as the main source
of fuelwood in order to sustain wood resources. However, some respondents feel that wattle
trees burn out faster than the indigenous trees. According to one respondent, the indigenous
trees that are commonly used as woodfuel are mainly the hardwoods. Indigenous trees that
are commonly used as woodfuel are shown on Table 8. Some of these trees, especially
Combretum spcs (Imbondvo), Dichrostachys cinera (umzilazembe) and Acacia robusta
(umgamba) have a high calorific value (Mtetwa and Vilakati, 1992).
BUILDING POLES.
In harvesting building poles, the respondents suggested that the most sustainable technique
is selective cutting where an individual only cuts the trees or branches of a tree, which he
will definitely use. In a situation where only straight branches are harvested, the other
crooked branches are supposed to be left in place for other uses such as woodfuel when dry.
According to one respondent (Mr Shiba of Ekukhanyeni), this practice also ensures
regeneration and continuous supply of the material.
69
Although exotic species such as eucalyptus and wattle are now used in most areas, some
respondents felt these are not as good as the indigenous trees. The reason is that exotics are
susceptible to attack by termites hence not as strong as the indigenous trees. An example of
an indigenous tree that is resistant to termites is umhohlo (Bolesanthus speciosus). Other
indigenous trees that are used for building purposes include umncozi (Syzygium cordatum),
umtfombotsi (Spirostachys africana), imbondvo (Combretum spp) and umvangati
(Pterocarpus Angolensis) (Table 8). Some of these trees play an important role in
hydrological processes and in national cultural events.
Table 8 : Some indigenous trees that are used as woodfuel or for building
purposes.
Tree Use Type of Tree woodfuel building
Umtfolo (Acacia dealbata) yes yes Imbondvo (Combretum spp) yes yes Umncozi (Syzygium cordatum) yes yes Umzilazembe (Dychrostachyst cinerea) yes yes Umsilinga (Melia azedarach) yes No Sitfwetfwe (Acacia spp) yes yes Umvangati (Pterocarpus Angolensis) yes no Umkhiwa (Ficus Capensis) yes no Inkokhokho (Ficus spp) yes no Umganu (Sclerocarya birrea) yes no Singa (Acacia gerradii) yes yes Umgamba (Acacia davyi) yes yes Lugagane (Acacia brevispica) yes yes Umhlume (Breonadia microcephala) yes yes Siganganyane (Lannea discolor) yes no Umkhabamkhombe (Peltophorum africanum) yes yes Umtelemba (Annona senegalensis) yes no Umkhuhlu (Trichilia emetica) yes no Umtfombosti (Spirostachys africana) no yes Umncwambo (Manilkara spp) yes no Umnumbela (Bequaertiodendrn spp) yes no Lusololo (Bauhinia galpinii) yes yes Umdvubu (Combretum erythrophyllum) yes no Umphahla (Branchylaena discolor) yes yes Sijelele (Euclea crispa) yes yes Sitsatsatsa (Rhus pentheri) yes no Umtsetane (Dichrostachys spp) yes no Sicalaba (Faurea spp) yes yes Umkhaya (Acacia nigrescence) yes yes Umsasane (Acacia tortilis) yes yes Umneyi (Berchemia zeyheri) yes yes
Based on the responses, the most threatened tree species are those that are used both as
woodfuel and for building purposes. These include imbondvo (Combretum spp), umncozi
(Syzygium cordatum), singa (Acacia gerradii), sijelele (Euclea crispa), umphahla
70
(Branchylaena discolor), sicalaba (Faurea spp), umtsetane (Dichrostachys spp) and umneyi
(Berchemia zeyheri). Efforts should be made to propagate these trees and incorporate them
in afforestation programmes. Although the respondents also mentioned umzilazembe and
umgamba, these are not necessarily threatened since these are invasive and common in
areas that are subjected to bush encroachment.
4.3. Water Resources.
Desertification can lead to water shortages in affected areas. During the survey, respondents
were asked about sources of drinking water, the presence of wetlands and indigenous
techniques to protect or recharge water resources such as wetlands in the area. Information on
sources of drinking water helps in the identification of areas that need assistance in terms of
safe drinking water supplies. Wetlands were also investigated in the study because they play
an important role in hydrological processes and water supply in an area. Combating
desertification also entails ensuring a continuous supply of water not only for drinking
purposes but also for the growth of natural vegetation in an area.
Sources of drinking water.
Rivers and open springs were found to be the most common sources of drinking water in the
study areas (Table 9).
Table 9 : Common sources of drinking water in the selected communities. Source Area
Spring Buy from truck
Tanks Borehole Dam or Well
Taps Stream or River
Total
Buhleni 3 0 0 0 0 9 11 23
Ekukhanyeni 4 0 0 0 4 11 5 24
Ezikhotheni 2 0 0 2 3 3 12 22
Hlane 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 18
Lavumisa 0 0 2 2 0 18 0 22
Lobamba 2 0 0 1 0 17 4 24
Lomahasha 8 0 0 0 0 6 7 21
Madubeni 0 0 0 0 0 0 19 19
Mantjolo 5 0 0 0 0 0 15 20
Mankayane 12 0 0 0 0 7 5 24
Mpaka 1 3 0 1 15 1 0 21
Ngudzeni 7 0 0 0 0 6 9 22
Ntfonjeni 3 0 0 1 2 8 4 18
Siphofaneni 0 0 0 3 0 3 16 22
Siteki 3 0 1 3 8 4 5 24
Timphisini 8 0 1 1 0 5 8 23
Total 58 3 4 14 32 98 138 347
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The most affected areas are Hlane, Buhleni and Siteki. Other sources of drinking water
include boreholes, dams, water harvesting tanks and taps. It is important to note that taps
may either be connected to a borehole or protected spring. This information was not verified
in the field.
When asked about the distance travelled to water sources, most respondents said they travel
less than 1 km (Table 10).
Table 10 : Distance to the nearest water source.
Distance Travelled Area < 1km 1.1 - 2.5km 2.6 - 3.5 km > 3km Total
Buhleni 10 5 4 0 19 Ekukhanyeni 10 2 0 0 12 Ezikhotheni 4 2 2 0 8 Hlane 18 0 0 0 18 Lavumisa 5 7 1 0 13 Lobamba 12 2 3 0 17 Lomahasha 7 2 3 1 13 Madubeni 14 1 1 0 16 Mantjolo 12 2 3 0 17 Mhlatane 15 2 4 0 21 Mpaka 14 2 3 0 19 Ngudzeni 14 3 4 3 24 Ntfonjeni 8 9 4 3 24 Siphofaneni 21 1 0 0 22 Siteki 12 3 2 2 19 Timphisini 12 1 2 6 21 Total 188 44 36 15 283
In some areas such as Ngudzeni, Ntfonjeni, Siteki and Timphisini, some people have to
travel a distance of more than 3 km to obtain drinking water. It was also observed that most
people have not always obtained water from the present source. When asked about the
reasons for changing the source of drinking water, most people had to change following the
construction of taps/boreholes, dams and wells in the area. Other factors that have
contributed to changes in the sources of drinking water include drought, conflict and
contamination of the water source.
72
Areas where drought has led to a change in the source of drinking water are Ezikhotheni,
Malindza, Ntfonjeni and Lavumisa. Several problems were identified by the respondents
regarding water supply (Table 11) . The cited problems were poor water quality, distant
water sources, drought and the absence or inadequate taps to serve a community.
Table 11: Problems with water resources in the selected communities.
Problems Area Unprotected
water sources Water
shortages Distant sources
Sources dry up in
winter
Inadequate taps
Absence of taps
Saline water
Total
Buhleni 8 3 2 0 0 1 0 14
Ekukhanyeni 0 1 2 0 2 2 0 7 Ezikhotheni 11 4 0 3 1 0 0 19 Hlane 7 8 3 5 0 0 0 23 Lavumisa 3 14 1 1 2 0 1 22 Lobamba 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 3 Lomahasha 3 7 3 3 4 0 0 20 Madubeni 6 3 2 3 0 0 0 14 Mantjolo 8 0 2 0 0 2 0 12 Mankayane 7 4 1 0 3 0 0 15 Mpaka 11 6 1 5 0 2 0 25 Ngudzeni 9 3 3 0 3 0 0 18 Ntfonjeni 4 5 1 3 0 0 0 13 Siteki 11 6 0 5 0 0 0 22 Timphisini 2 7 3 1 1 3 0 17
Total 90 73 24 30 16 10 1 244
Wetlands : There are several definitions of wetland. The legal definition of wetlands as
given by Mitsch and Gosselink (1993), is that wetlands are areas that are inundated or
saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support a
prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated conditions. Wetlands are
characterised by standing water, hydric soils and the presence of hydrophytes such as
floating plants, Typha (libhuma), Phragmites (umhlanga), Scirpus (umuzi or inchoboza) and
Cyperus (likhwane, incoshana, inchoboza and insikane) plant species. As such, wetlands
include swamps, marshes, lakes, flood plains and areas adjacent to rivers and streams.
When asked about the presence of wetlands and their location in the area, respondents from
Siteki, Mpaka and Lavumisa noted that there are no wetlands in these areas. Mpaka and
Lavumisa are in the lowveld, a dry region in the country. Siteki is in the Lubombo region
and although characterised by a paucity of river systems, there are some pans and swamps
scattered around the area. The reason for the negative responses could be that the
73
respondents are either not aware of these or they do not consider them to be wetlands. In the
other study areas flood plains, swamps, river sources, and areas close to rivers and streams
(flood plains) were cited as wetlands. Although this is in line with the above definition of
wetlands, very few respondents mentioned swamps as constituting wetlands.
Wetlands maybe subject to degradation if not protected. Factors that lead to the degradation
or loss of wetlands include burning in sensitive areas, planting of vegetation on slopes
adjacent to wetlands, ground water abstraction, dam construction and deforestation. When
asked if any wetlands have dried-up in the area, in almost all the study areas, the
respondents indicated that some wetlands have since dried-up. The reasons given for the
degradation of wetlands were drought, trampling by cattle, sedimentation, planting exotic
trees with a high water demand and over-exploitation of wetlands vegetation, especially
Scirpus (inchoboza) and Cyperus (e.g. likhwane, inchoboza and incoshana) plant species
(Table 12).
Table 12 : Reasons for the degradation of wetlands.
Cause Area
Drought Trampling by cattle
Sedimentation Tree plantations
Erosion Exploitation of Cyperus species
Total
Buhleni 19 0 0 0 0 0 19 Ekukhanyeni 8 0 1 0 0 0 9 Ezikhotheni 7 0 3 0 0 0 10 Hlane 12 1 0 0 0 1 14 Lavumisa 6 0 0 0 0 0 6 Lobamba 9 0 0 1 1 0 11 Lomahasha 13 3 0 0 0 0 16 Madubeni 10 0 0 0 0 0 10 Mantjolo 4 0 0 0 0 1 5 Mankayane 16 2 0 0 0 0 18 Mpaka 7 0 1 0 0 0 8 Ngudzeni 10 1 0 4 0 0 15 Ntfonjeni 11 1 0 1 0 0 13 Siphofaneni 11 1 0 0 1 0 13 Siteki 8 0 0 0 0 0 8 Timphisini 15 0 0 0 0 0 15
Total 166 9 5 6 2 2 190
Considering that Cyperus plants are an important economic resource for women in the
country, the perception of the respondents on the importance of this resource and techniques
used in harvesting the plants in wetlands was also determined. When asked about the
importance of wetlands vegetation, especially Scirpus and Cyperus plant species, the
74
responses were that such plants retain water, prevent soil erosion, encourage water re-
charge, provide shade hence reduce evaporation and stabilise the swamps (Table 13).
Table 13 : Importance of Cyperus plants.
Importance
Area Retain water
Prevent erosion
Provide shade Recharge water Stabilise swamp
Total
Buhleni 11 3 1 0 0 15 Ekukhanyeni 16 3 0 0 0 19 Ezikhotheni 14 1 1 0 0 16 Hlane 12 1 0 2 2 17 Lavumisa 8 2 0 0 0 10 Lobamba 7 2 0 0 0 9 Lomahasha 16 2 0 1 2 21 Madubeni 9 1 0 0 0 10 Mantjolo 14 1 1 0 0 16 Mankayane 15 1 0 2 1 19 Mpaka 4 3 1 0 0 8 Ngudzeni 11 1 0 2 0 14 Ntfonjeni 10 1 1 1 0 13 Siteki 15 2 1 1 0 19 Timphisini 11 0 1 1 0 13
Total 173 24 7 10 5 219
According to chief Mbandzamane of Shewula, the water retention ability of these plants is
attributed to the extensive root system, which restricts water movement and the loss of soil
in an area. Regarding the techniques used to maintain the supply of this important resource,
most respondents indicated that the plants must be harvested when mature and not uprooted
but cut low using a sickle. There is also a need to leave shoots and shake seeds at the source
to encourage regeneration and subsequent germination the following year. Several
respondents (23) indicated that burning after harvesting the plants also encourages
regeneration. This practice needs to be discouraged since it can lead to the degradation or
loss of the wetlands. One respondent from Mantjolo attested to the fact that burning of
wetlands must be discouraged.
Techniques used to encourage water re-charge in wetlands : From the foregoing
discussion, it is obvious that wetlands need to be protected and in situations where the
wetlands are degraded, there is need to restore or re-charge the wetlands. When asked to
recommend techniques for the protection or re-charge of the wetlands, the respondents
75
indicated that there is need to dig around and protect the water sources (springs). Others
suggested that cattle must not be allowed to graze in such areas and that trees must be
removed and only plants which encourage re-charge planted in wetlands. The most
commonly used plants to restore/ re-charge wetlands are Cyperus plant species. According
to Chief Mbandzamane of Shewula, Cyperus plant species are so effective that even if the
area was completely dry, the conditions are likely to improve within a few years. However,
it is important to protect the area against other factors such as cattle and fire. A good
example of the effectiveness of fencing and the growth of Cyperus species is a project
initiated by Yonge Nawe at Kaphunga. Other vegetation types that were identified by the
respondents include umkhiwa (Ficus capensis), umcopho, umncozi (Syzygium cordatum),
libhuma (Typha latifolia), umfomamasi (Rauvolfia caffra), umhlume (Adina microcephala),
bhanana (Musa sapientum), lutindzi (Coleochloa setifera), umnyetane (Salix woodii),
inkhomankhoma (Alsophila capensis/dregei), umhlofunga, inkhokhokho (Ficus petersii).
These plants are commonly found in wet areas and some have been successfully used in
other parts of the world to restore wetlands (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993).
Restoration and maintenance of wetlands using the recommended techniques and plant
species needs to be included in the strategies to combat desertification in the country.
Recognising the fact that indigenous knowledge systems are based on taboos and
regulations, the respondents were asked about the regulations that have to be observed in the
restoration of wetlands. One may note at the onset that the superstitious nature of
indigenous knowledge systems was confirmed in the responses to this question. Amongst
the controversial regulations was the burying of stillborn babies in clay pots in wetlands.
Other cited regulations (Table 14) include the fact that livestock must not be allowed to
graze on wetlands, widows should not come near the area, women as well as twins and their
spouses must not dig springs but only elderly women are allowed to dig springs. Most
importantly, the area must be fenced. One respondent from Ekukhanyeni stated that
cultivation should not be allowed on or close to wetlands. Another respondent from
Lomahasha also noted that eucalyptus trees must not be planted on wetlands.
76
Table 14 : Rules and regulations to be observed in the restoration of wetlands.
Area
Keep livestock
away
Do not destroy cyperus plants
Widows avoid
wetlands
Twins and
spouse must not dig wells
Old women should
clear the site
Menstruating women must not dig wells
Do not plant eucalyptus
trees near the site
Avoid ploughing
near wetlands
Fence the area
Women should avoid
wetlands during
menstruation
Total
Buhleni 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 4 Ekukhanyeni 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Ezikhotheni 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 Hlane 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Lavumisa 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Lobamba 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Lomahasha 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 Madubeni 1 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 Mantjolo 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mankayane 0 0 2 1 4 1 0 0 0 0 8 Mpaka 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 Ngudzeni 0 0 4 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 8 Ntfonjeni 0 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 7 Siteki 0 0 6 7 0 0 0 0 0 2 15 Timphisini 2 0 1 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 7 Total 10 3 21 14 9 2 1 1 1 4 66
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4.4 Techniques used to predict climate.
Recognising that desertification is also caused by natural phenomena such as drought, there
is need to predict climatic conditions on a periodic basis. Such predictions are essential for
mitigating the effects of drought and the occurrence of floods that are likely to disturb the
livelihood of rural communities. Traditionally, local communities have their own means of
predicting climatic conditions. The predictions are based on behavioural patterns of plants
and animals. The respondents were asked about the traditional techniques of predicting
heavy rains and drought.
Regarding the prediction of heavy rains that may lead to floods, several responses were
given. These responses may be classified into three groups, namely, the position of the
moon, behavioural patterns of animals and plants as well as wind and cloud patterns. Most
respondents suggested that the crescent of a moon faces down in a year of heavy rains. With
regards to plants and animals, high numbers of swallows (Hirundo spp), wild ducks (Anas
sparsa), emahlolamvula, emanyamane (caterpillars), white birds and rare white frogs are
indicative of heavy rains in a year. Butterflies (tiphaphati) will also fly from west to east in
a wet year. At Madubeni and Siteki, some respondents suggested that in wet years there are
large numbers of termites and red ants. Osunade (194) also suggests that earthworm casts
and the appearance of tinhlava on the ground also indicate imminent rain. The respondents
in this survey further elucidated that the flowering of umkhaya (Acacia nigrescence),
nhliziyonkulu (Dombeya rotindifolia) is said to occur only in wet years by some
respondents from Lavumisa. On the issue of wind and cloud patterns, some respondents
suggested that easterly winds and the presence of clouds in the east indicate a wet year. If
stars are surrounded by fog with hot air and rain in July suggest a wet year.
In the case of dry years, the traditional prediction techniques can also be classified into three
categories. On the issue of the position of the moon, a crescent that faces up indicates a dry
year. Regarding the behaviour of animals, drought is indicated by the appearance of
sikhonyane (locusts), white butterflies and green flies. Other animals that suggest a wet year
such as imfukwane disappear. Vegetation, especially trees such as umncozi (Syzygium
cordatum), umkhiwa (Ficus capensis) do not flower in dry years. Lastly, winds blowing
from the west and clouds that appear low in the horizon indicate a dry year.
79
V. Conclusion The survey has confirmed the existence of indigenous knowledge techniques in the country.
Some of the suggested techniques are closely related to the modern or "scientific"
techniques. As such, there is a great potential to integrate indigenous knowledge techniques
in the strategies to combat desertification. The integration of these techniques would be an
added advantage since the local communities can be in a better position to participate
effectively in the implementation and review of the National Action Programme as
suggested in the convention (Article 10) and strategies to combat desertification in the
country.
Also noted is that the quality and quantity of the knowledge varies between regions and
communities in the country. The variations do not only relate to differences in the natural
environments but also the degree to which the knowledge has been eroded as a result of
modern technologies and education. It should also be noted that some of the techniques
suggested by the respondents area threat to the conservation of biodiversity. This is
especially true in the case of fire. When asked about the frequency of burning, most
respondents suggested that field burning should be done every year under the supervision of
a chief or indvuna. There is need to discuss the issues regarding the use of fire on a frequent
basis and in wetlands with communities. The aim of these discussions should be to sensitise
communities on the destructive effects of continuous burning on vegetation and wetlands.
Secondly, the discussions should elicit strategies and policy measures to control frequent
burning.
Regarding the predictions of drought, there is need for further studies to validate the
acquired information. Such research has to involve collaboration between the Department of
Meteorology, relevant departments in the Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives and
local community members.
VI. Acknowledgements
Firstly I would like to acknowledge members of the SNCCD for their recommendation and
support for the request that I should conduct such an intensive survey. They have
demonstrated that they have trust in me. The assistance of Mr B. Masuku (National focal
80
point for CCD), Dr N.O. Simelane ( the head of G.E.P) department) and Mr A. Skriver
(UNDP, Programme Officer) is greatly appreciated. The consultant is also indebted to the
community members who took their time to respond to the extensive questionnaire in spite
of the failure to make appointments before the visits were made. Last but not least, I am
indebted to the students (Dlamini ( Luke, Mfanasibili, Nqobile, Sphephile), Vilakati
Bongani, Fakudze Christopher, Mkhweli Samukelisiwe, Mavuso Ntombi, Mthimkhulu
Sindy, Shongwe Jeremiah & Mamba Sabelo) and the UNISWA driver (Mr Zwane) who
helped during data collection. They soldiered on even when things were getting tough. The
analysis of the data would have taken longer without the assistance of Gcinekile Fakudze
and Nomvula Mhlanga.
VII. References
Crush Jonathan S. 1980. The Colonial Land Policy in Swaziland. SOUTH AFRICAN
GEOGRAPHICAL JOURNAL 62: 73 - 88
ETC-Foundation. 1987. WOOD ENERGY DEVELOPMENT: POLICY ISSUES. A report
prepared for the SADC Energy Sector.
LORE. 1992. CAPTURING INDIGENOUS ENVIRONMENTAL KNOWLEDGE. International
Development Research Centre: Ottawa.
Mitch, W.J. and T.G. Gooslink. 1993. Wetlands. Van Nostrand Reinhold: New York.
Mtetwa, V.S.B. and S.S.S. Vilakati. 1992. Renewable Energy Studies: Calorific Values
of some biomass fuels used in Swaziland. UNISWA JOURNAL :55 - 65.
Osunade, Adewole M.A. 1994 (a). Community Environmental Knowledge and Land
Resource Surveys in Swaziland. SINGAPORE JOURNAL OF TROPICAL GEOGRAPHY 15:
157 – 170.
Osunade, Adewole M.A. 1994(b). INDIGENOUS SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION: THE
STATE OF GRASS STRIPS AS AN EROSION CONTROL MEASURE. A report prepared for the
Centre for Development Co-operation Services and the International Institute for
Environment and Development.
81
A REVIEW OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND TECHNOLOGY FOR
COMMUNITY–BASED RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN SWAZILAND
Absalom M. Manyatsi
Department of Land use and Mechanization University of Swaziland.
E-Mail : [email protected]
Abstract
This paper reviews the existing local knowledge and technology that is used in
community-based resource management in Swaziland. It gives the background
information on the concept of indigenous knowledge and reviews the literature on the
use of indigenous knowledge from an international aspect and Swaziland in general.
Some examples of indigenous knowledge used in Swaziland for community-based
resources management is discussed. The domains under which the indigenous
knowledge for community-based resource management in Swaziland are tradition to
protect rare species, use of totems and taboos, use of stories to protect wildlife, farming
systems, passing historic information by use of names, naming of plants based on their
use and importance, prediction of weather pattern, description of soil fertility, methods
of harvesting plants for traditional medicine, and preservation of food. Suggested
improvements on collection and dissemination of indigenous knowledge in Swaziland
include the proposal for research to collect information on indigenous knowledge
currently used in the country and the establishment of an indigenous knowledge centre.
I. Introduction
The role of indigenous knowledge and technology in development and natural resource
conservation is beginning to gain recognition within scientific circles. The conservation of
natural resources is also a major international goal, and in this endeavor, the establishment of
protected areas has become a widely accepted policy instrument. However up to now the
participation of communities in management of the protected areas has been minimal or least
acknowledged. Swaziland is one of the countries that still keep its cultures and tradition.
Some of the cultures and traditions are focused in management of resources among other
things. Cultural activities and traditions are used to pass knowledge from generation to
82
generation. Tradition and culture tend to vary within different ethnical groups. Swaziland is
composed of virtually one ethnical group, and that is a unifying factor within the country.
Like in most developing countries there is very little documentation on indigenous
knowledge in Swaziland. The country is in the process of codifying tradition and culture
related to laws of the country, and this exercise is going to provide valuable information for
generations to come, especially taking into consideration that the new generation is losing
touch with culture and tradition. Traditional knowledge is being used in many countries in the
world for different purposes.
Most of the indigenous knowledge has been developed through experience and experiments.
In the past the occupants of Africa saw natural resources not just as a means of food sources,
firewood and timber, but more as a way of life since they relied on them for their livelihood.
Indigenous land users developed numerous different farming systems, each of which was
fine-tuned to its ecological, economic and sociocultural environment. Today traditional land
users are still experimenting, in order to minimise risk, adapt recommendations to local
conditions, solve specific problems, test existing technologies and adjust to the changes in
climatic and socio-economic conditions (Rhoades and Bebbington, 1998).
II. Review of Literature
Indigenous knowledge is used in a number of areas including pest control, medicinal plants
and wild edible plants, improvement of livestock fertility, prediction of weather pattern and
problem-solving. Hunter (1996) discussed some traditional pest control and agricultural
development in the atolls of the Maldives. To combat attacks by major crop pests, a variety of
resourceful control practices were employed in the atolls. The traditional methods discussed
include the use of traps, use of scaring devices, handpicking, and use of barriers, burning, and
wrapping. The indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants and wild edibles among some tribal
subcommunities of the central Himalayas in India was discussed by Maikhuri et al. (2000).
They described 37 plants most commonly collected by the Bhotiya subcommunities. They
reached the conclusion that most plants collected were used for medical or household
purposes. Most of the people within the subcommunities visited the local medical practitioner
to have their sickness diagnosed, and they resorted to traditional herbs for medication after
the diagnosis had been done.
83
The Fulani pastoralists in Cameroon on the other hand used ethno-veterinary healing. They
combined the use of medicinal material from plant or animal source, and combined it with
supernatural aspects including prayers, incantations, and other actions portraying psychic
interactions and a faith in the healing power (Nuwanyakpa et al. (2000). In a case study from
Western Mexico, Gerritsen (2000) illustrated that farmers’ perspective on biodiversity was
needed as a first step towards conservation of land resources. He argued that through their
farming practices farmers maintain the different land-use and vegetation units (i.e. resource
diversity), as well as the relationships that exist between them.
As stated earlier, there is very little documentation on the use of indigenous knowledge and
technology in Swaziland. Osunade (1992a and 1992 b) is one of the leading authors on the
use of indigenous knowledge for resource management in Swaziland. In his article Osunade
(1992a) discussed the relationship between the soils and land capacity classification of
Murdoch (1968) and the traditional method of land classification. He further analysed the
land resource appraisal used by small scale farmers in Swaziland by putting together the
fragmented knowledge of land possessed by small farmers of the country into a consistent
methodological system that compared favourable with the equivalent modern system
documented by Murdoch (Osunade, 1992b).
A situation analyses of indigenous knowledge in Swaziland was done by Dube and Musi
(1998). They compiled a list of domains in which Indigenous knowledge was used, and the
list contains domesticated foods, wild fruits/foods, animal foods, use of trees and plants for
dyeing purposes and use of trees and plants for livestock among others. Manyatsi et al.
(2000) undertook an assessment of technologies in use at the grassroots level in Swaziland.
The technologies that they found to be in use included those for farming systems and land
management, crop production and management, as well as food preservations. An inventory
and utilisation of agricultural research technologies in Swaziland was done by Keregero et al.
(1999). The formal knowledge network (Agricultural Research and Development Centres and
the University of Swaziland) developed the technologies that were reported. They noted that
high percentages of the farmers received information from informal sources, including
parents, relatives and neighbours. Keregero and Dlamini (1999) reported that the traditional
technologies dominated in most women activities.
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III. Indigenous Knowledge for Resource Management in Swaziland
In Swaziland, sources of indigenous knowledge include land users (e.g. farmers, hunters),
opinion leaders, village leaders and friends. Distant relatives and members of the community
who are migrant workers also contribute in bringing new knowledge in a community which
ends up being adopted by the community. Locally generated knowledge may be disseminated
through farmer-to-farmer interactions, usually involving neighbours or friends, which take
place during personal visits at community gathering, social clubs, at traditional and social
functions, and more especially at beer meetings.
Several traditions that have implications of protecting wildlife are practised in Swaziland. They include the timing of the traditional hunting, which is done during the months of July and August. The period is set such that there will be no new born game which will be prone to being killed during the hunting season, as most of the game start giving birth in October onward. According to tradition the grasslands should also be burned during the same period as that of the traditional hunting period. Table 15 : Some examples of indigenous knowledge used for community-based
resource management in Swaziland.
Domain Examples 1. Tradition to protect
species • Traditional hunting in July/August of the year. • Use of rare animals for selected clans such as loin skin made from
leopard skin reserved for the Royal family. 2. Use of totems and
taboos • Totems associated with surnames. • Taboos associated with plants.
3. Use of stories to protect wildlife.
• Story of chameleon and gecko.
4. Farming systems. • Shifting cultivation (Lucabe) • Cultivation of some certain crops on land after being fallowed (e.g.
Bambara groundnuts).
5. Passing of historic information by use of names.
• Naming of places based on wildlife predominantly found in the area. • Naming of persons based on historic events and wildlife.
6. Naming of plants based on their use and importance.
• Mahlanganisa (Ochna arborea) used as splints for bone fractures. • Velabahleke (Pyrenacantha grandiflora) used as an emetic for good
luck
7. Prediction of weather pattern.
• Prediction of approach of wet weather from cry of phezukwemkono bird • Prediction of floods from heights of nests of emahlokohloko birds on
trees next to rivers. 8. Description of soil
fertility. • Sidzakeni, which is fertile land. • Esihlabatsini, which is sandy soil.
9. Harvesting of plant material for traditional medicine.
• Cutting of small portion of bark (emagcolo). • Removal of side roots (timpandze).
10. Preservation of food. • Umncweba (Sun drying of meat). • Lukhotse (Grinding and drying of maize).
85
During this period the grasses would have produced seeds for propagation, and also there will
be no new borne game which could be prone to destruction by fire. The Swazi tradition has it
that only certain clans can use products of some rare animals for traditional purposes.
Examples of such are the loin skins (emajobo) made from leopard skin that is reserved for
the royal family. This means that few members of the community have a right to wear
leopard skin emajobo. Another example of projection of rare species by prohibiting their
usage is that of red feathers (ligwalagwala). Ligwalagwala is a rare bird in Swaziland, and
only members of the royal family have a right to wear the red feathers of the bird.
There are some totems associated with surnames, and the totems can be based on wild
animals or wild plants. According to culture a clan will respect and protect (and not eat) the
wild animal or wild plants that is its totem. Examples of totems are a zebra (for Dube) and a
bird (for Nyoni). There are some taboos associated with plants, such as some plants not being
used for household needs such as timber and firewood. Some of these plants do not multiply
and propagate easy, and others have other usefulness such as producing fruits. An example of
such a tree that is not to be used as firewood and timber is Umlahlabantfu (Zizyphus
mucronata). The tree is used for bearing corpse at burial, and it is rarely found in some
places in the country. Another tree that is not used as firewood is Sihlangu (Maytenus
undata). The tree is often used for making wooden spoons.
Stories are often told about how bad or humble some wildlife is. There are instances whereby
those animals that are useful to humanity and rare are portrayed as good animals. One instant
is that of the chameleon (lunwabu) and the gecko (imfulo). The story goes that the creator
sent the two animals to a destination with different message to the same destination. The
chameleon was to deliver a message that human beings were to rise after death, and the gecko
was to deliver a message that human beings were not to rise after death. The message to be
received first was suppose to be taken as final. The gecko is said to have outran the
chameleon and delivered the message first, and that ii why human beings do not rise after
death. This has lead to chameleon being taken as friendly animals and thus not to be harmed.
Shifting cultivation was practised for a long time in order to maintain soil fertility in the
fields. Certain crops are often grown in land that had previously been under fallow. The crops
mixed cropping for maximum output were selected carefully.
86
Historic information is often passed by way of naming places or persons. Places are often
named after wildlife that was dominant in the area. One such example is the area called
Mhlambanyatsi (where buffaloes swim). There is a river passing through the area, and it is
said that buffaloes used to swim through the river, indicating that they were plenty of them
during that time. People are often named after events such is someone called Sikhonyane
(locust). Such a person would have been born during the outbreak of locusts in the country.
The names of plants often describe what they are used for. As an example the plant Ochna
arborea is called Mahlanganisa (that which mends fractures). The plant is used as a splint
for bone fractures. Another example is that of Velabahleke (Prynacantra grandiflora), and it
is used as an emetic for good luck.
The cry of one bird called Phezukwemkhono is taken as a sign of the beginning of the wet
season, and farmers start getting their farming inputs in order once they hear its cry. It is
believed that emahlokohloko (kind of bird) are able to predict the approach of floods. When
floods are likely to happen during that rainy season it is said the birds nest very high on the
trees next to rivers, but when they are not likely to occur they nest low on the trees.
The description of the soil can give information to the land user about its fertility and
potential land use. If the soil is called sidzakeni, then the soil is known to be fertile and crops
such as maize and pumpkins are grown under such soil, while on the other hand if it is called
esihlabatsini the soil is known to be sandy.
Different methods are used to preserve food for times of shortage. One such method is the
grinding and drying of maize (lukhotse) and the other one is the sun drying of meat
(umncweba).
Traditional healers often harvest plant material for traditional medicine in small quantities.
They do not harvest the whole plant, and when cutting barks (emagcolo) they remove small
portions, and do not remove the barks all around the plant. When digging roots (timpandze)
they often remove only the side roots.
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IV. Synthesis and Conclusion
It is evident that for success in protection of land resources, the community members should
be involved, and they should see the benefits of protecting the resources.
Several indigenous knowledge practices are being used in the country, but there is lack of
documentation. No comprehensive research has been done to compile information on
indigenous knowledge for community-based resource management in Swaziland. The
ongoing national exercise on codification of customs and culture is more likely to concentrate
on customs and culture related to laws of the country, and the area of indigenous knowledge
for protection of resources will benefit very little from it.
There is need for research to be done at national level to determine the indigenous knowledge
used at grass root level, and the research should follow the participative approach in order to
involve the members of communities fully. The findings of such research should be published
and publicised in different forms.
The establishment of an indigenous knowledge centre would facilitate the publicising of
indigenous knowledge for resource management in the country and it would contribute
positively to the management of resources. The use of information technology would be a
vital tool in collecting and disseminating information on indigenous knowledge in the
country. One country that has utilised information technology to facilitate research and
information exchange is Uganda. The Makerere University in Uganda, and Indiana
University Workshop in Political Theory and Policy Analysis developed a Web page which
focuses on indigenous knowledge in environmental conservation in Africa. Databases should
be created for data collection and dissemination. The created databases should be compatible
with those developed by other researchers in the continent in order to facilitate exchange of
information.
V. References
Dube, M.A. and Musi, P.J. (1998). A Situation Analysis of Indigenous Knowledge in
Swaziland: Implications for Sustainable Agriculture. Research Report, University of
Swaziland, Luyengo.
88
Hunter D. (1996). Traditional Pest Control and Agricultural Development in the Atolls of the
Maldives. Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor. 4 (3) 10-12.
Keregero, K.J.B., Dlamini, B.M., and Subair, S.K. (1999). Inventory of utilisation of
agricultural research technologies in Swaziland. Research Highlights, No. 1 March 1999: 1-
3, University of Swaziland Research Center.
Keregero, K.J.B., and Dlamini, B.M. (1999). Womens’ Creation and Utilisation of Rural
Technology in Swaziland. Research Highlights, No. 1 March 1999: 3-5, University of
Swaziland Research Center.
Maikhuri, R.K., Nautiyal, S., Rao, K.S., and Semwal, R.L. (2000). Indigenous Knowledge of
Medicinal Plants and Wild Edibles among three Tribal Subcommunities of the Central
Himalayas, India. Indigenous knowledge Monitor Articles.
URL:http://www.nuffic.nl/ciran/ikdm/8-2/maikhuri.html
Manyatsi, A.M., Vilane, B.R.T., and Dlamini, R.M. (2000). Assessment of Technologies
Currently in use at the Grassroots Levels in Swaziland. Ministry of Natural Resources and
Energy. Mbabane.
Mopoi, N., Toyang, N. J., Django, S., Ndi, C., and Wirmum, C. (2000) Ethnoveterinary
Healing Practices of Fulani Pastoralists in Cameroon: combining the natural and the
supernatural. Indigenous knowledge Monitor Articles.
URL:http://www.nuffic.nl/ciran/ikdm/8-2/ngeh.html
Murdoch, G. (1968). Soils and Land Capability of Swaziland. Swaziland Ministry of
Agriculture, Mabane. Swaziland.
Osunade, M. A.A. (1992) Land Resource Appraisal by Small Farmers of Swaziland.
UNISWA Research Journal, 6: 93-104.
Osunade, M. A.A. (1992) Soils and the Small Farmers of Swaziland. UNISWA Research
Journal, 6: 71-82
Rhoades, R. and Bebbington, A. (1988). Farmers who Experiment: An Untapped Resource
for Agricultural Development. Lima, CIP.
89
SWAZI INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND THE SWAZI WORLD VIEW
Hebron L. Ndlovu Department of Theology and Religious Studies
University of Swaziland. E-Mail : [email protected]
Abstract In this paper it is argued and demonstrated that the major beliefs and practices prevalent
in Swazi indigenous religion reflect and embody the underlying philosophy and culture of
the Swazi. Drawing examples from three main features of the Swazi World View, the
inextricable link and synthesis between Swazi traditional religion and the indigenous world
view and knowledge of the Swazi are demonstrated. The paper concludes with the
contention that a critical empirical study of Swazi traditional religion provides invaluable
insights into the key indigenous ideas, values, and skills (i.e., local knowledge) which
shape the people’s behaviour and are expressed in behaviour.
I. Introduction There are two main assumptions under girding this paper. First, I view Swazi indigenous
religion is viewed as an authentic belief system which shapes the thoughts and behaviour of
many Swazi. To many adherents of Swazi religion, this indigenous religion is a dynamic
tradition which provides salvation to many Swazi today. Like other Bantu (cf Mbiti
1974:110-111), the Swazi understand salvation in terms of material and general well-being
characterized by good health, contentment, a family with children and grandchildren, and
grand-grand children, and a healthy relationship with the Ancestor.
The second assumption is that Swazi indigenous traditional religion as a socially
standardized institution which is highly valued by in Swazi society .The main reason is that
Swazi religion performs vital social functions of society which include the legitimation of
dominant social values and traditions, the fostering of family stability, provision of primary
health care, and promotion of national solidarity. The most notable representatives of Swazi
religion are the tangoma (or the diviners), tingedla (herbalists), the chiefs, aristocrats, and the
Ingwenyama (or the King) and the Indlovukati (or the Queen Mother) (Ndlovu, 1997).
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II. Conceptual Framework and Methodology
This paper is informed by phenomenological and anthropological conceptions of the role of
African Traditional Religions in modern African societies. According to most scholars,
African traditional religions constitute and encompass the total way of life of the African
peoples. African traditional religions are defined as the indigenous religions of the Bantu-
Speaking peoples of Africa which have been handed down from generation to generation
since the advent of homo sapiens in the African continent.
In his book, African Religions and Philosophy (1989), Mbiti explains that many scholars
prefer to speak of African Traditional Religions in the plural because there are about three
thousand peoples and each ethnic group has its distinct religious system which is coloured by
its peculiar cultural history. Consequently one can speak of Swazi , Zulu, or Ndebele
traditional religion. Given the inextricable link between African religions and their
corresponding cultures, Mbiti even makes a bold assertion that : "Africans are notoriously
religious. Religion is the strongest element in the traditional background and exerts probably
the greatest influence upon the thinking and living of the people concerened" (1989:1)
A similar view is also expressed by Hopfe in his book Religions of the World who asserts
that: "Religion is one of the keystones of African culture. A basic understanding of African
Religion will provide an awareness of the customs, the family, appreciation of land, of death
and life beyond" (1991:60).
Following Hopfe, Mbiti, and other scholars such as Olupona (1991), examples from Swazi
indigenous religion will be given to demonstrate the fact that African indigenous religion
play a crucial role in guiding the thoughts, local knowledge, and the behaviour of the Swazi.
With regard to anthropological conceptions, this paper will be informed by the interpretive
approach which posits the view that religion is essentially a cultural system which can best be
interpreted from the perspective of the ethos and world view of the believer. Geertz (1973,
1983) and Ortner (1978), for example, perceives religion as a system of symbols which
attempt to affirm, dramatize, and embody the character and world view of given culture. This
perception suggests that one of the functions of religion is to depict a symbolic world which
will be intellectually satisfactory in that it will be fused with the prevailing world view of the
believer.
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According to Geertz (1973), The term "world view" is commonly used in reference to the
intellectual aspect of a given culture, namely, the underlying philosophy of a particular
group of people. In other words, a people's world view refers to the way people see or think
about the world. Every group of people have a coherent picture or framework by which
they understand the world. That is, every group of people have a picture of the way in
which the universe, living organisms, human beings, and society are related to one
another. A people's world view, therefore, is a coherent set of ideas and beliefs which
enable the people to understand the world and the place of humanity in the world.
In a similar vein, use these conceptions will be used to describe the link between Swazi
indigenous religion and the Swazi world view. In addition, examples will be drawn from my
own interpretive studies of Swazi traditional religion (1997, 1998) to show that most of the
basic indigenous beliefs held by many Swazis actually reflect and embody the key features of
the Swazi world view, which include: (a) the concept of a Supreme Being, (b) The Concept
of Time , and (c) Cosmic Unity.
III. The Swazi World View as Reflected in Swazi Indigenous Religion
1. The Concept of a Supreme Being
All known African societies acknowledge and recognize the existence of the Supreme Being
who created and continues to sustain the world. African myths tell the story of a God who
create the world and then withdrew himself into heaven because of mistakes made by some
animals. God is remote, unknowable, yet He is the Creator and Owner of everything.
Generally, the African perceive the Creator God as human being or rather a super human
being. Typically the creator is presumed to be a male , an elder, or a very old man with a grey
beard. In short, God has a proper name, human qualities, and is a male.
According to the myths of many African peoples the creator God, is worshipped from time to
time. For example, the Yoruba of Nigeria worshipped God. Other West African tribes who
worshipped the Supreme Being: The Ashanti, The Dogon, the Ambo. In these societies God
was actively worshipped.
The Bantu of Southern Africa, on the other hand, turn to God as a last resort when the
ancestors have failed. Here, the ancestors serve as intermediaries or junior chiefs in the
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otherworld and carry men's requests to God. The bottom line is that, for many Southern
African societies, God is remote, and many Africans pray to Him only in moments of special
need. For example, in Swazi religion no regular rituals are is conducted in honour of
Mvelincanti (God).
Setiloane (1976) also affirms the primacy of Ancestors in African Traditional Religions. He
states that the ancestors are part and parcel of their living relatives. The Ancestors
communicates with their living relatives through the wind, the rain, snakes, birds, and other
human beings. In particular, the ancestors have the power the bless or curse the living
(Setiloane, 1976).
The Swazi Ancestors :
In Swazi society, when somebody dicist is believed that he/she joins the world of the
ancestors; Period. Ancestors do not stay with God (Mvelinchanti). Their main concerns are
with the living, their relatives, and not with Mvelinchati. Ancestors look back, not ahead.
Real life is here and not in heaven. So their focus is on this world.
The Diviners are called by the ancestors and they are possessed by ancestors; Period. Their
job is to combat all types of human afflictions: famine, disease, death, and malice (witchcraft:
hatred, envy, jealousy). Thus the remoteness of the creator helps explain the primacy of the
ancestors in African Traditional Religion.
3.2. The African Concept of Time
For Mbiti, the African Concept of Time is the key to our understanding of the basic religious
and philosophical concepts of ATR. In other words, the African concept of time may help
explain the beliefs, attitudes, and practices, and general way of life of the African Peoples.
What is Time in an African Context? Mbiti contends that in Africa, Time is a composition of
events which are taking place now and those which are inevitably or immediately to occur.
That is, time denotes events which are certain to occur or events which fall within the natural
rhythm of the natural phenomena such as day and night, climatic changes, and life cycles
(birth, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, procreation, death).
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Thus, in Africa, Time is Two-dimensional, comprising the present and the past. In Contrast to
the linear concept of time prevalent in Western thought which denotes Indefinite past,
present, and infinite future, the African concept of time emphasizes the present and the past.
African People, therefore, tend to focus on what has happened and what happens rather than
what lies ahead in the future. In short, time is experienced. Hence the remote future, which
cannot be experienced, does not make sense to the conservative African.
IV. Evidence and Examples
1. The Absence of African verbs and adverbs denoting the distant future.
Mbiti argues that most African languages have no verb tenses to cover the distant
future. In African thought, the future actually means the present and immediate future
That is, events that are happening now and those that are about to occur. In short, for
Africans, time is experienced; and the most significant moment is now and the past.
Thus Mbiti subdivides African Time into two main periods, namely:
a) The Sasa Period
b) The Zamani period
a) Sasa
The Sasa period covers the present and the immediate future. For example:
I am coming, I came (I have just come).
There are no concrete words to refer to events that will take place say in two
or three years' time. "People have little or no active interests in events that lie
in the future beyond, at most two years from now: and the languages
concerned lack the words by which such events can be conceived".
b) The Zamani period
The Zambian Period covers the past, the immediate past, and the distant past.
For example: I came (yesterday), I came (before yesterday), I came (no
specific date).
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2. Cyclical Time.
Mbiti also argues that Africans also conceptualize time in accordance with the cycles of
natural phenomena such as days and nights and the changes of the seasons and the moon.
Cyclical time also falls under present time and the past. That time is perceived as a cycle is
affirmed and reflected in rituals:
V. Examples from Swazi Religion:
i. Rites of renewal in which the old is replaced by the new: The case of the
Incwala ceremony. A new year celebration. The old year is replaced by the
new year.
ii. Naming ceremony: A child is named after an ancestor. The ancestor who
represents the past is brought back to the living.
iii. Kubuyisa ceremony: a deceased member of the family is brought back to the
family. After this ceremony he becomes an ancestor and he/she looks after the
interests of his/her relatives.
iv. History, for the African, History moves backward. Time is a series of
memorable events involving national heroes. At the family level, history is the
recollection of the great deeds, values, and injunctions of family ancestors.
v. Social Morality Life : Social morality is rooted in tradition, that is the past.
The elder, the grandfather, the grandmother, the aunt, the uncle, father, are
accorded much respect.
vi. Life-Affirmation : The African concept of time help us appreciate and
understand African attitudes toward life, namely a positive attitude. People are
encourage to strive for the enjoyment of life . For the Swazi, the good life
includes the enjoyment of food, drink, and sex. Thus, when it comes to
salvation, the African will strive for a holistic salvation now or today. For
instance, traditional healers , diviners, Adrian initiated Churches all call for
salvation in the present world.
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VI. Cosmic Unity
The African concept of being
In contrast to the traditional western world view which considers being as static and
mechanical, in African thought being is viewed as animated and dynamic. For example,
Temples in his influential work entitled Bantu Philosophy, (1969) explains that in Bantu
philosophy, every being alive and it acts on another being., hence a being that does not act is
a non-being - it does not exist. He contends that he Bantu concept of Being is best explained
by the term "vital-force" or "life force" since very being is thought to be alive and dynamic.
Therefore, beings in the world may be differentiated according to the capacity of their life-
forces they possess. This suggests that not all beings possess the same life-force. Each being
possesses a life-force of its own. For example, umuntfu or a person is a vital-force that is
endowed with intelligence and will, while animals, plants, and inanimate objects represent
vital forces which are not endowed with human reason. Thus, each being has been endowed
by God with a certain force which is capable of strengthening the vital energy of the strongest
being of creation, namely Man/Humankind.
Interdependence of Beings.
The major implication of this philosophy is that all aspects of life are interdependent on one
another and these beings are linked by a network of relationships. No being exists as an
independent force that operates on its own. All creatures exist and function within the
framework of interdependence and interrelationship. Thus in Swazi religion the human being
is to respect nature. Through rituals people learn the interdependence of plants, animals,
humans, and inanimate objects. The example of the Incwala: plants, leaves, roots, barks,
water, fire, the ocean, the moon, the dark moon, bright moon, sacred objects are mixed
together to renew and strengthen the King. The same applies to healing rituals.
With regard to humans, the African believe that no man is an individual nor an island. Every
person is a public figure since he or she represents a family, his lineage, clan, his region, his
nation, and so on. This indigenous world view has been translated into a social philosophy
commonly called Ubuntu.
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In Bantu philosophy the interaction and interdependence of beings is viewed as a benefit
rather than a burden. The reason is that it leads to the maintenance of harmonious
relationships among various beings. This harmony, in turn, leads to the mutual strengthening
of the beings involved and enhances the growth of life.
Thus in African thought the goal of life is harmony and integration, which implies mutual
participation of all beings in keeping with the rhythm of nature or the universe.
As Echunga Meth rightly puts it: " The main objective of an African is to live a life in
harmony with humanity and with nature. Man strives to be in harmony with God, the Deities,
and his fellowmen both the living and the dead; He feels himself in intimate rapport and tries
to maintain harmonious relationships with the animals, vegetable, and elements and
phenomena in the universe" .
To the traditional Bantu, therefore, the good life, on one hand, is characterized by cosmic
unity, that is, the integration, communion, and harmony of all beings. On the other hand, the
opposite of cosmic unity is disintegration, disharmony and individualism. This constitutes
Evil.
VII. Conclusion
The foregoing remarks regarding the Swazi ideas and understandings of God, time, and,
cosmic unity suggest that the African peoples possess some deep insights and philosophy
about life which, regrettably, have not yet been positively affirmed and articulated by many
African thinkers. There is pressing need therefore to uncover and unpack the rich wisdom of
Africa which is embodied in African Traditional Religions.
VIII. References
Geertz, C (1973). Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books.
Geertz, C. (1983) Local Knowledge. New York: Basic Books.
Ikengah-Meth, E. Comparative Studies of African Traditional Religions. Onitsha,
Nigeria:IMICO Publishers.
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Mbiti, J. (1989)African Religions and Philosophy. London: Heinemann.
Ndlovu, H. (1997). Phenomenology of Religion. Institute of Distance Education, University
of Swaziland . Kwaluseni, Swaziland.
Ndlovu, H. (1998). The Autonomy of African Traditional Religions: the case of Swazi
Religion. UNISWA Research Journal, vol. 12.
Olupona, J.K. (1991). Introduction. In Olupona, J.K., ed., African Traditional Religions in
Contemporary Society. St. Paul, Minnesota: Paragon House.
Ortner,S.(1978). Sherpas Through Their Rituals. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cambridge, UK.
Setiloane, G(1976). The Image of God Among the Sotho Tswana. Rotterdam:A.A.Balkema.
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SERMINAR WAY FORWARD Introduction
Two documents were presented for discussion during the last and second day of the seminar.
The first document entitled Directory of Institutions Working on Gender, Biodiversity and
Local Knowledge Systems in Swaziland was a product of data collection using structured
personal interviews with the institutions. From this document an annotated bibliography was
made which only showed institutions that were actively involved in gender, biodiversity and
local knowledge systems in Swaziland as evident by the research done. This then formed the
second document.
The seminar way forward was done by randomly dividing the participants into three groups,
according to the three themes (Gender, Biodiversity and Local Knowledge Systems. Each
group was given the task of studying and analysing the document; “Directory of Institutions
Working on Gender, Biodiversity and Local Knowledge Systems in Swaziland” together
with the complementary views expressed during the paper presentations and thus report back
their recommendations. The guiding objectives of the group work comprised the following:
• Document Refinement.
• Challenges.
• Way forward.
• Preparing a report for discussion – to do this a chairman and recorder had to be elected.
Group presentations Group One : Gender. The recommendations made by the gender group comprised the following : 1. Creating awareness through education
Gender sensitization to marginalized groups: should be carried out at national level
through :
• incorporating gender issues in all development programmes
• incorporating gender issues in formal and non formal education
programmes.
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Reviewing : i. the socialisation process through gender lines by :
• equipping girls with assertive skills.
• sharing duties along gender roles.
ii. the framework of gender analysis particularly duties that have cash attached to them
and these are reflected in the labour statistics.
iii. cultural practices such as the mourning which requires the wearing of black gowns,
particularly for women who have to mourn the death of their spouse for long periods
of time compared to their male counterparts. This hinder the social and economic
development
iv. innovative technology such that the technology is gender positive by enforcing the
positive use of appropriate technology.
Participatory Methodologies and existing community structures should be used to
• involve all members of the constituencies in gender issues
• implement gender projects and programmes
Empowerment of women should be encouraged , particularly in :
• decision making with respect to HIV/AIDS and the use of contraceptives
• having equal access to resources such land, finance etc.
The directory should be reviewed yearly by:
• conducting periodic upgrades
• restructuring the system to be more responsive to gender issues.
• incorporating more gender sensitive institutions into the document such as:
i) Home Economics Extension (Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives).
ii) Swaziland national Trust Commission (S.N.T.C)
iii) Yonge Nawe.
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Group Two : Biodiversity.
1. Document refinement through :
the incorporation of the following biodiversity institutions :
- Big Game Parks.
- Yonge Nawe.
- Swaziland farmer development foundation (SFDF).
- Tinyanga temdzabu (Traditional healer’s association).
- Department of Geology (Ministry of Works).
- Attorney General’s Chambers (Ministry of Justice).
- Trade Section of Ministry of Foreign affairs and trade (MOFA& T)
- United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
2. Challenges
These comprised:
� Coordination – should be forged between the biodiversity institutions
and other relevant institutions which are doing complementary work.
� Awareness/Publicity.
� Usefullness – the document must be made useful through wide
circulation and publication, particularly to the grass-root level.
3. Way-forward
The way forward as proposed by the biodiversity group comprised the following :
� Filling up the gaps or missing information on the directory.
� Devise strategy for publicizing the findings of the directory.
� Support research related to biodiversity.
� Define levels at which organizations and institutions work
� Establishing a forum for meeting and exchanging ideas.
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Group Three : Local Knowledge Systems.
1.0 Document Refinement
1.1 The refinement of the Directory comprised inclusion of the following institutions
which deals with indigenous knowledge systems :
• Faculty of Health Sciences – University of Swaziland (UNISWA).
• Institutions dealing with trade – Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade.
• Attorney general’s Office - Ministry of Justice and constitutional Affairs.
• Ministry of Enterprise and Employment.
• Law enforcement agencies.
• Co-operatives and the Home Economics Section – Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives (MOAC).
• Correctional Services.
1.2 Re-organize the directory by categorizing according to gender, biodiversity and
indigenous knowledge systems using an index.
2.0 Challenges
The challenges that needs to be addressed in future pertaining to indigenous knowledge
systems in Swaziland were highlighted as shown next.
• Lack of documented information
• Problems with gray literature
• Problems of protection of intellectual property rights.
• Lack of verification of indigenous knowledge.
• Lack of co-ordination in studies and use of indigenous knowledge.
• Lack of code of ethics governing Indigenous Knowledge issues.
3.0 Way- forward
The way forward was summarized as shown below :
• Undertake research and compilation on Indigenous Knowledge.
• Undertake community–driven documentation of Indigenous Knowledge.
• Establishment of a national competent authority body to coordinate Indigenous
Knowledge issues.
• Need to have an active and functional National Research Council.
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CONCLUSSIONS
There is need to conduct further research in all the three themes of the Seminar as evident in
the way forward presented by each group. Limited funds are available for interested
researchers who want to conduct research within the three themes and beyond, as noted by
the UNISWA Research Center acting director.
The National Research Council that was not functional for a long period of time was
resuscitated in the year 2000. Hopefully it will address the concern shown by the third group
– that of the need of a functional National Research Council.
The country coordinator of the links project (Dr. P.M. Dlamini) was unanimously voted to act
as a Focal Point for activities related to the three themes of the seminar. He was to liaise with
the other existing committees such as the Biodiversity committee to try and address the
problem of periodic meetings for further work in the three area (gender, biodiversity and
local knowledge systems).
