PRISM: INTERDISCIPLINARY LABFOR 3D RESEARCH IN THE ARTS

AND SCIENCE

Prof. Daniel Collins Co-Director, PRISM

Arizona State UniversityTempe, Arizona, USA

dan.collin@asu.edu

Introduction:The work of the PRISM lab draws upon advances indata acquisition techniques, computer modeling andvisualization, and rapid prototyping technologies. Inaddition, the lab has made significant strides indeveloping 3D “digital libraries” and uniqueimmersive interactive display techniques. PRISMresearch continues to exploit the unique virtual spaceof the computer to pre-visualize and evaluate 3Dform, to enable comparative analyses of largequantities of 3D data, and to produce objectsimpossible to create with the human hand. The workof the lab—one outpost on the digital frontier—hasbecome a touchstone regarding an approach totechnology that is predicated upon interdisciplinaryresearch and "rapid responses" to the needs of aculture—be they technical, scientific, or artistic.

PRISM was established in 1996 at Arizona StateUniversity to foster research and the application of3D modeling and visualization to interdisciplinaryresearch at ASU. Funding from the Vice Provost forResearch and Deans of Architecture andEnvironmental Design, Fine Arts, Engineering andApplied Sciences, Business, and Liberal Artscombined to support PRISM and create a foundationfor obtaining external funding and achieving nationaland international recognition. PRISM supports theArizona Board of Regents research initiatives relatedto information science and Information Technology,and has significant potential to extend and assistresearch in biomedicine/biotechnology, materialsresearch/nanotechnology, manufacturing t e c h n o l o g y ,and technology transfer.

This paper reviews the several linked domains thatcharacterize the work of the Lab: 3D data capture(input technologies); computer aided design,modeling, and visualization (CAD); and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM); 3D Digital archiving; andInteractive Immersive display technologies (VR). Thepaper also covers PRISM efforts in the areas ofinterdisciplinary education. Finally, some speculativeremarks regarding the future goals of research in thearea of 3D visualization and prototyping are offered.

Data Acquisition: From Microscopes to Satellites As the phenomenologist Maurice Merleau-Ponty tellsus, humans use extensions of the body to betterunderstand their world. In his famous example of theblind man’s cane, the philosopher posits that thecane is a “medium of perception” for the blind manand as such is an instrument that functions as a kindof extended sense organ. (Merleau-Ponty, 1962).

In the PRISM lab, we probe felt experience withmany different “canes” or instruments which providesome kind of sensory data providing a partial pictureof the world. We understand the importance ofaccounting for both the quality of the data receivedfrom a particular instrument, as well as the biasesresulting from the use of high tech gear. In creatingan inventory of the world, one needs many probessensitive to a variety of materials and forces andoperative across a spectrum of conditions andscales. PRISM has developed expertise with a widevariety of technologies and methods of data capture.

A few examples: In partnership with other labs atASU, PRISM has rendered extremely tiny objects—e.g., blood cells, crystalline structures, largermolecules at nano scales—as three-dimensionalmodels using techniques such as Scanning Probe(SPM) and Confocal Microscopy. With SPM, objectsare measured in nanometers—units a billionth of ameter long. With Confocal Microscopy, objects aremeasured in microns—units a millionth of a meterlong. At larger scales, objects several millimetersacross—such as tiny hominid bones and teeth—havebeen digitized with manual probes or scanned using3D laser scanners to achieve resolutions as fine as125 mm. One unique outcome from this work was an

NSF project entitled “Tactile Feedback for theVisually Impaired.” Physical “tiles” that translated themicroscopic data derived from the SPM process werecreated using the rapid prototyping process known as“stereolithography.” (Figs. X and X). Visuallyimpaired students were able to actually touch scaledup, physical models of objects such as red bloodcells, chromosomes, and the pitted surface of a CD-Rom, thereby giving them a better “picture” of theirstructure and design.

3D laser scanners that produce dense “point clouds”of information have been used in figurative sculptureprojects such as the current “ForensicReconstruction of George Washington” project.Commissioned by the Mt. Vernon Association, theproject features the accurate recreation of the firstU.S. president, George Washington, at three differentages of his life.

Other PRISM projects have utilized medicaldiagnostic technologies such as MRI, CT scanners,and 3D Ultrasound to give three-dimensional form tointernal human morphology. Models of internalorgans such as the carotid artery have been createdfrom MRI scans and subsequently translated intorapid prototyped models for surgical preparation.PRISM special advisor, Gerald Farin, has donepioneering work on imaging the brain using MRIscans to create 3D models that are helpful inevaluating the degenerative effects of Alzheimer’sdisease.

Long range scanners from companies like Mensi andCyra produce high resolution 3D models of largerobjects such as architectural facades, geologicalfeatures, or archaeological sites. Using lasers andoptical triangulation, these systems can acquire dataup to 100 meters from the source object ataccuracies up to 0.21 mm (Fig. X).

Fig. 01: Model of blood cells derived from scanning probemicroscopy.

Fig. 02: “Tactile” model of same data created using rapidprototyping.

Fig. X: MENSI’s long range 3D laser scanner will scanobjects up to a 100 meters away.

Fig. X: Long-range laser scanning pilot study at FireTemple at Mesa Verde.

Left: ASU student, Cheryl Bissell, ARI director, ArelynSimon, Mesa Verde researcher Don Corbeil, and Mensi

rep. Larry Holtgrieve.

One “work in progress” utilizing this technology is aproject entitled “Laser Scanning at Mesa Verde” (Fig.X). Once inhabited by ancestral puebloan peoplesover 800 years ago, the cliff dwellings at Mesa VerdeNational Park today are the focus of researchinvolving long-range laser scanning to document,study, and preserve this World Heritage site. Builtupon the successes of earlier 3D archiving projectsat PRISM, the proposal involves teams ofresearchers from PRISM at ASU, The ArcheologicalResearch Institute at ASU, Mesa Verde NationalPark, and the Center for Southwest Studies at Ft.Lewis College in Durango, Colorado. These groupscomprise a collaborative effort to bring PRISM andASU technologies to the site for the next 3 years.Last year, a team led by PRISM researchers joinedthe scanning company Mensi and the National ParkService to conduct a pilot-study into how PRISMresearch and new scanning technologies can be putto work.

In partnership with researchers in meteorology,PRISM researchers have developed protocols forevaluating cumulus cloud development in thesouthern Arizona mountains. Entitled the SantaCatalina Mountain Cloud Project, the researchcompiles data derived from custom designed 3Dstereo digital cameras, radar, airborne soundingequipment, and ground-based observations. Fromthis raw data, a database of cloud formations iscreated which in turn enables close analysis of theprocesses by which thunderclouds are generated.The goal is to establish a long term, systematiccharacterization of convective cloud developmentunder a variety of environmental conditions.

In other PRISM research, 3D terrestrial orextraterrestrial planetary surface datasets derivedfrom satellites, such as Digital Elevation Models(DEMs), provide the basis for large scale topographicanalysis. PRISM researchers have developedsoftware tools to more effectively visualize andevaluate various kinds of topographic and terraindata.

Computer Visualization: Modeling the DataMuch as the drawings of Leonardo, Vesalius, andAlberti achieved a synthesis among techniques ofobservation, systems of measurement, and the purepleasure of representational drawing and painting,recent work in computer visualization provides a linkbetween contemporary aesthetics and science. Inmany respects, computer visualization is where aquantifiable description of the world—the traditionaldomain of the physical and life sciences—finds newexpression and meaning in enhanced methods ofrepresentation, the traditional domain of the arts andhumanities.

While the early history of computer visualization andmodeling developed out of breakthroughs inautomating aircraft and automotive manufacturing inthe 40s and 50s, more recently the entertainment,medical, and defense industries have added theirimpetus to the development of high end 3D computergraphics. Such an application driven environmentpushes the development of complex algorithms, newprogramming protocols, and more sophisticatedvisualization, modeling, and animation techniques. Atits most arcane, the task of translating quantifiableinformation into pictures falls to mathematicians,programmers, and software engineers trained inComputer Aided Geometric Design (CAGD) andComputer Graphics. Most discipline-based scientistsand artists do not have the requisite technical skills todevelop the algorithms or programs that arenecessary for translating abstract spatial conceptsinto 3D models on the screen. However, researcherscomfortable with working in three dimensions findthat their skills at visualization, conceptualization,and animation are highly valued in interdisciplinaryresearch such as conducted at the PRISM lab.

In the PRISM lab, we are seeing increasing numbersof successful collaborations between individuals withtechnical competencies and researchers fromdiscipline specialities. For example, one set ofinterrelated projects that extends the reach of expertsfrom Anthropology involves the digitization andanalysis of hominid bones. Using laser scanning,PRISM modeling strategies, and techniques fromforensic anthropology, morphological bone features

currently best described as qualitative data aretargeted and methods are developed to enablesuccessful extraction of quantitative data.

Form Realization: 3D Printing and Rapid PrototypingPRISM continues to bring three-dimensional objectsdesigned in the virtual space of the computer intotangible reality using various computermanufacturing processes.

There are numerous automated devices that cantranslate 3D CAD models into tangible form. Mostcommon are the Computer Numerically Controlled(CNC) machines that have been in service since the1970s. CNC milling enables computer controlledcutting on multiple axes in a variety of materials.Earlier electromechanical machines capable ofcutting relatively complex solids were introduced justafter World War II. Other machines regularly used inheavy industry include computer controlled plasmaand laser cutters, electro discharge machining (EDM)systems, automated hi-pressure waterjet cutters, andvarious sand and glass bead blasting technologies,to name a few. Most of these tools have uniquecontrol protocols that do not port easily from onemachine to another.

Rapid computer-based prototyping—sometimescalled "layered manufacturing"—is a relatively newfield that is gaining increasing acceptance in fields asdiverse as medicine, aerospace, industrialengineering, and sculpture. Complex three-dimensional objects such as human prostheses,molded tooling, or aerospace parts are produced bylinking Computer Aided Design (CAD) products withvarious rapid prototyping (RP) systems. It is also anideal tool for concept modeling as RP systems canprovide CAD-equipped design engineers (and digitalsculptors!) with a physical model of a proposeddesign that they can touch, examine in detail, andship to others for inspection and review. One of thebig advantages of RP over the earlier subtractivemilling processes is that the system can producecomplex 3D parts with nested elements or pre-assembled clusters of 3D objects.

These newer RP systems require the user to firstcreate a "solid” CAD model that is subsequently"sliced" (digitally) into multiple horizontal "layers" thatcan be produced in sequence by a given process.Some RP machines cut individual sheets of paper(with razor blades or lasers); others deposit thinsemi-liquid threads of wax or plastic; still others use

Fig. X: Before and After using the PRISM “watershed” algorithm to evaluate areas of similar curvature on a bone fromthe human hand. Images courtesy Matthew Tocheri, PhD candidate, ASU.

lasers to harden liquid resins, fuse synthetic "flours",or, in the most exotic processes, cause precisechemical reactions to occur at given points within agas-filled chamber (only at very small scales).

Within the field of layered object manufacturing thereis a rapidly growing number of competingtechnologies ranging from small desk-top "3Dprinters" and cutter/plotter devices to room-sized"rapid prototyping centers." Each technology has itsadvantages and disadvantages. As might beexpected, the desk-top units are relativelyinexpensive. A computer aided plotter device thatcuts individual sheets of adhesive backed craft papermachine can be purchased for less than $7500.00. Atthe other extreme, a laser "sintering" (fusing)machine over half a million dollars. In these high-endmachines, the hard-copy output is remarkable forboth the fineness of surface detail and their robuststructural integrity. Advances in the range ofmaterials available for prototyping permit particlesizes of as small as 40 microns (e.g. DTM's"TrueForm"), which can be fused for fine feature definitionsdown to .004 inches resolution. Middle range desktopmachines such as the Stratasys / Dimensionthermoplastic extrusion system (FDM) ($25-45,000.00) can achieve resolutions of .010 inches. Ashort list of the companies that manufacture RPdevices include the following: 3D Systems pioneeredthe so-called "stereolithography" systems (SLA) inwhich a bath of photosensitive resin is hardened by alaser. Stratasys specializes in a process known asFused Deposition Modeling which involves theextrusion and precise layup of a continuous thread ofhot thermoplastic. Cubital uses ultraviolet light toharden full layers of light-sensitive resin. ZCorp useswhat is essentially an inkjet technology to build uplayers of bonded powders. Their latest systemallows one to print in color.

Because of the incredible cost savings that can beachieved by shortening the production cycle inindustry, there is substantial interest in all kinds ofrapid prototyping. Many of the initial problemsassociated with rapid prototyping—toxicity, lack ofdurability, problems in translation to metal or coldcasting methods--have been solved. A handful of

companies have already perfected methods fordirectly producing production level tooling (forinjection molding machines, in particular) using RPtechnologies.

Digital LibrariesAt PRISM, writes Co-Director, Dr. Jeremy Rowe, “wehave developed a knowledge network for theacquisition, representation, query and analysis of 3Dknowledge (3DK) in a distributed environment. Ourpremise is that most 3D knowledge is inherent in andderivable from 3D geometric structures and isintegral to a wide variety of scientific applications.The 3DK network advances research of three-dimensional objects in the target areas of Bioscience,Biotechnology and Anthropology and includes wide-ranging partnerships with researchers andcollaborating labs.”

Developing a 3D Digital Library for Spatial Data:Issues Identified and Description of PrototypeThe increasing power of computing techniques tomodel complex geometry and to compare models toidentify similarities among them has created powerfulnew capabilities to analyze and interact with data representing three-dimensional (3D) objects. Thetechniques to model and extract meaning from 3Dinformation create complex data that must bedescribed, stored, and displayed to be useful toresearchers. Because two-dimensional (2D) datarepresentations afford a limited view to scientists inrelated disciplines, PRISM has developed modelingand analytic tools that raise the level of abstractionand add semantic value to 3D data. The goals of theproject have been to improve scientificcommunication and assist in generating newknowledge, particularly about natural objects, whoseasymmetry makes study using 2D representationsinsufficient. The tools developed use curvature andtopology to help researchers understand and interactwith 3D data, thus simplifying the analysis of surfaceand volume in the representation of an object. Thetools automatically extract information about featuresand regions of interest to researchers; calculatequantifiable, replicable metric data; and generatemetadata about the object being studied. To makethis information useful to researchers, the project

developed prototype interactive, sketch-basedinterfaces that permit researchers to remotelysearch, identify, and interact with the detailed, highlyaccurate 3D models of the objects. The resultssupport comparative analysis of contextual andspatial information and extend research onasymmetric man-made and natural objects.

A Gallery of PRISM ProjectsA few projects out of the hundreds that PRISM haspursued over its ten-year history are offered todemonstrate the unique combination of techniquesand talents that typify PRISM research.

3D KnowledgeIn this multi-year, NSF funded initiative, PRISMresearchers and discipline specialists are continuingdevelopment of a software library kernel, tools fordata archiving and an internet-accessible interface toenable a user to construct a customized 3D shapebrowser search engine. Test bed projects include:

Shape characterization of archaeological artifacts(bones, pots, lithics)Shapes and forms of intra-cellular bio-molecularmachines to gain insight into their functions(cells, bio-structs)Spatial symmetry in phenomena observed inexperimental simulations in Plant Biology(diatoms).

A graphical user interface permits researchers toinput, analyze, refine and limit searches of the database. The query request can be made in a variety ofmodes including text and interactive 2D/3D models.The query process permits a range of approaches toaddress the varied learning styles and analyticalapproaches of the target.

Although the initial funding period has past, theproject is continually expanded upon, developed andsupported and has influenced other PRISM researchprojects involving large databases of 3D objects.

Topographic AnalysisThe lab has made significant contributions inproviding software tools to visualize and interprettopographic data. The underlying geometry of agiven landscape can be evaluated using variousPRISM-authored tools. For example, in the imagesbelow of the mountains surrounding Telluride,Colorado, the geometry of the region is set side byside with a false color map showing areas of similarcurvature. Areas in red (Fig. X) indicate terraincharacterized by a high degree of curvature. Suchtechniques can be used to identify problematic areasin proximity to housing and recreational areas. Othermapping strategies can help in understanding thehydrology of a watershed or the distribution of floraand fauna.

Fig. X: Digital Elevation Model of a region in the RockyMountains of Colorado derived from satellite data

available from the US Geographic Service.

Fig. X: Digital Elevation Model of a region in the RockyMountains of Colorado derived from satellite data

available from the US Geographic Service.

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3D Face AuthenticationAnother on-going project utilizes optical imagingequipment developed by 3Q, Inc. (Fig. X) to create adata-base of over a thousand facial scans for aNational Science Foundation funded project entitled3D Face Authentication (Fig. X). To develop thisdatabase, PRISM has been taking the technology outto the community, providing volunteers whoparticipate in the project with a unique 3D image ofthemselves made available on the PRISM website.

The flexible, scalable model developed for complex3D facial data will provide:

a hierarchy of categories, metadata and shareddescriptive vocabulary to provide authoritycontrol over data entry, retrieval and display;support for supplementary informationassociated with the 3D facial data, reference to

identification information such as name, socialsecurity/id etc. generally present in databases;support for reference descriptive geometricmeasurements and metrics such curvature (Fig.X), volume, scale, linear dimensions;a model for archiving and storing of 3D facialdata, addressing issues such as file formats,compression, media, disaster recovery, andmigration to alternate formats;

Once the 3D facial data has been modeled andfeatures have been extracted, theseelements are automatically catalogued anddescribed using the schema developed forfacial data (Fig. X).

Fig. X: 3D imaging equipment developed by 3Q, Inc.

Fig. X: Examples of facial scans using the 3Q system.

Fig. X: Visualization of 3D face scan showing degrees ofcurvature

Fig. X: Once the 3D facial data has been modeled andfeatures have been extracted, these elements are

automatically cataloged and described using the schemadeveloped for facial data.

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3D Handwriting AnalysisAn innovative unique application applies 3Dmodeling tools developed by PRISM to an unusualsubject—analysis and recognition of handwriting.The technique extracts information about the spatialand topological clues within the strokes that comprisewritten characters, and permits more effectiveanalysis than traditional optical character recognition.The potential of this research has been recognizedby In-Q-Tel, which is funding development of thetechnology to evaluate its utility to the recognition ofhandwritten text and the differentiation of handwrittentext from printed text (Fig. X).

TelesculptureTeleSculpture is a biennial exhibition and series ofhands-on events exploring the interface between thephysical and the virtual. Using tele-communicationtools, computerized rapid prototyping, and customhardware and software, 3D models transmitted viathe Internet will be translated into tangible sculptures.A virtual exhibition on the internet is open to allsculptors working in 3D digital media. Selected workssubmitted on-line are constructed at the PRISM labat Arizona State University. In 2003 the project washosted by the Exploratorium Museum in SanFrancisco.

Decision TheaterIn the PRISM lab, a unique prototype system hasbeen developed for interacting with large scale 3Ddata sets. The Decision Theater for the New Arizonaat ASU is a learning and decision space in which thelatest understanding of complex social, economic,

and natural processes in urban settings and theirinteractions are visualized in stereo 3D. The"Decision Theater" employs the most comprehensivephysical, natural, social and economic datasetsavailable to produce modeled scenarios using state-of-the-art computer technology in a unique focus onapplications that directly engage decision-makers inreal-world problem solving. The system provides aneutral convening place for policy makers and thepublic to make decisions equipped with science-based alternative futures of metro Phoenix, Arizona.By extension and analogy, lessons learned will beapplicable to other large metropolitan areas aroundthe world.

Project examples: Phoenix Underground Water Stereo 3D Data ModelThe aquifer underneath Phoenix is a valuableresource that is difficult to visualize with maps andcharts. Using data from the Arizona Department ofWater Resources, satellite imagery, and GIS datathis 3D model explores one component of therelationship between population growth and a keywater resource.

Oklahoma City SimulationUsing advanced multi- dimensional modeling andvisualization techniques, data of a simulated anthraxrelease in Oklahoma City were used to create animmersive model. The ability to view in 3D addedintellectual value to the computational fluidmechanics models and provided new visualvalidation of the model and toxic plume propagationin the built environment.

Fig. X: Handwriting sample converted to 3Drepresentation.

Dr. Jeremy Rowe (left) and PRISM’s director, Dr.Anshuman Razdan (right), discuss the Phoenix water

basin and geologic stereo model.

Interdisciplinary Education Using "Visualization andPrototyping" TechniquesA team taught course entitled “3D Visualization andPrototyping” (Vizproto for short) utilizes the resourcesof the PRISM lab to introduce art, design, andengineering students to 3D technologies for datacapture, visualization, and form realization. Objectives for the class are as follows:

-Students learn how to use "rapid prototyping" (RP)technologies (e.g., computerized milling, stereo-lithography, etc.) for "hard-copy" sculptures ofcomplex three-dimensional forms.

-Students learn techniques for merging diverse three-dimensional representations—be they syntheticallyderived or sampled from existing three-dimensionalsources.

-Students learn to apply computerized iterativedesign principles in which the development ofprocesses and products is seen as part of a cycle ofrefinement—not a finite, sequence.

-Students learn how to integrate distributedcomputer-controlled operations via hi-end datatransfer—particularly in regards to cross-departmental networking and CAD/CAM design.

-Students are challenged to work as part of acollaborative team and develop strategies foreffectively integrating their design work with the workof others.

-Students are challenged to assess qualitative issueswith respect to design--in particular the relationship ofhand-made objects versus those created withcomputerized equipment.

-Students are encouraged to understand thesignificance of their activity historically and beprepared to discuss comparative strategies forprototype production in different technological andcultural contexts.

From a broad perspective, we are working tounderstand how our research into 3D visualizationand prototyping can serve the larger educationalmission of the University. Key questions include: Howcan technology be most effectively integrated into thelearning process? What are the benefits--and theliabilities--of having students tie their designprocesses to machines? Will these computerizedtechniques help or hinder their ability to workcollaboratively? What impact will computers and RPdevices have on the qualitative aspects of their work?Will the use of computers deepen their regard foralternative methods of working--or will it undermineour efforts to communicate an appreciation for allmethods of creating effective design? Will the relativespeed with which changes can be made to designsactually lead to better product? Will the productionmethods radically change the morphology of theobjects produced? Can challenging new ideas fromconsumers be more effectively integrated into thedesign process?

Looking to the Future What does the future hold? On a technical level, newmachines are on the boards that will expand thecapabilities of 3D Data Capture and RapidPrototyping technology into a broader range of scales

Phoenix aquifer and surface models. Data courtesy: ADWR, D. Mason, J. Block, R. Arrowsmith

Simulated toxic vapor plume model traveling across thecity from release point at right. Data courtesy: J.

Fernando, Fulton School of Engineering

and materials. Scanners that are portable and fasterare now available. What is needed is a low costalternative to fixed base CT and MRI scanners sothat both the internal and external features of anobject can be captured and analyzed. Functionalprototypes in materials ranging from hard steel toflexible rubbers are already possible. The creation oforganic structures for human skin grafting has justbeen announced by researchers in the UK.Theoretical research is currently being conductedinto the next level of volumetric data storage. If a"pixel" (literally "picture element") represents thebase level unit for typical 2D representations, thenew unit of choice is the "voxel"--a neologism thatcombines the words "pixel" and "volume." Systemsare envisioned that would be tied to enhanced voxeldata sets that allow an operator to specify not onlyvolumetric information, but material or physicalproperty characteristics. Imagine, for example, aknife blade created in a rapid prototyping machinethat would be able to be "custom crafted" to differentspecified levels of flexibility and density.

In the area of Interdisciplinary Education, I amparticularly excited about an integrated approach totechniques of visualization and prototyping that couldserve as a vehicle for innovative teaching and across-disciplinary curriculum. These technologieslend themselves readily to hands-on approaches and"active learning." Further, as all design and output ispart of an ever-expanding digital record, the archivingof raw data and product will provide opportunities topursue collaborative research across disciplines andwith other institutions. Ideally, a critical discussion willensue that looks closely at the formulation andinterpretation of data and physical prototypes derivedfrom that data. The theoretical (and legal) problemsassociated with digital imagery, virtual reality, andsimulation, and the context-dependent factors thatissue from particular methodological biases need tobe explored by interdisciplinary thinkers not afraid todraw from historical precedent, the "science" offiction, and studies in the humanities ranging fromethics, psychology, and education.

The demand for expertise in visualization, modeling,rapid-prototyping and manufacturing is exceptionally

strong right now in both the arts and sciences. It is agrowth sector for future generations of students.Access to equipment and training programs thatextend these new technologies to those communitiesand constituencies who remain technologicallyimpoverished are essential.

All of these new concepts and systems depend onthe computer for its ability to translate quantifiabledata into visual information. Using systems that arebecoming increasingly accessible to the non-technologist by virtue of improved graphicalinterfaces and hardware, artists can now move withimpunity (if not total freedom) in a domain heretoforedominated by computer scientists and engineers.While it would be a mistake to suggest that a layindividual can move easily into high end rapidprototyping, with ever improving GUI's and theubiquity of learning tools for 3D digital media, thetechnology is well within the reach of the tool saavyand the technologically inclined.

Future individuals and communities may bedistinguished by their ability to meet the challenge ofform-making with methods that are quick andresponsive—that meet the need for objects, abstractforms, or environments as they arise. Newtechnologies that utilize transparent interfaces,reduce technological restraints, and encourageinterative design processes and customized productshave the potential for changing our 3D environmentand making it more responsive to users. Design andproduction by users for users in real time, of course,depends on models of design, manufacturing,distribution, and consumerism that are only justbeginning to take shape.

As with any new technology, the real challenge willbe to not fetishize the machines or their products asends in themselves, but to focus on the quality of theactivities enabled by the technology. No one woulddispute our status as consummate tool designers andmakers. The challenge is for all of us to becomebetter tool users.

ReferencesMerleau-Ponty, Maurice, The Phenomenology ofPerception, London: Toutledge and Keegan Paul, 1962.