Principles of Environmental Engineering and Science Second Edition

Macken%ie L. Davis Michigan State University-East Lansing

Susan J. Masten Michigan State University-East Lansing, MI McMaster University-Hamilton, ON

fB McGraw-Hili t:M Higher Education

Boston Burr Ridge, IL Dubuque, IA New York San Francisco SI. Louis Bangkok Bogot8. Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal New Delhi Santiago Seoul Singapore Sydney Taipei Toronto

Contents

Preface xi

Acknowledgments XIII

Aboutthe Authors XIV

About the Cover Artist xv

1 Introduction I

Sustainability [9

Acts, La ws, ell1d Regulations [9

1-1 WHAT IS ENVJRONMENTAL SCIENCE? 2 Natural Scienee 2 Environmental Science 2 Quamitative Environmental Seience 2

1-2 WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING? 3 Engineering 3 Environmental Engineering 3

1-3 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 3 Overview 3 Hydrology 4 Water Treatment 4 Wastewater Treatment 8 Air Pollution Control 9 Solid emd Hazardous Waste 9

1-4 HOW ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERS AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTISTS WORK TOGETHER 10

1-5 INTRODUCTION TO PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE 11 Where Do We Start? 11 A Short Outline ofThis Book 11

1-6 ENVIRONMENTf\L SYSTEMS OVERVIEW 12 Systems as Such 12 Water Resource Management System 13 Air Resource Managemel1/ System 17 Solid Waste Management [7 Multimedia Systems 19

1-7 ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION AND REGULATION 19

1-8 ENVIRONMENTAL ETH[CS 22 Case I: To Add 01' Nut 10 Add 22 Case 2: You Can 't Do Everything At Once 23

iv

Chapter Review 23 Problems 24 Discussion Questions 25 References 29

2 Chemistry 31

Case Study: To MTBE 01' Not tu MTBE? 32 2-1 INTRODUCTION 32

2-2 BASIC CHEMICAL CONCEPTS 33 Atoms, Elements, and the Periodie Table 33 Chemical Bonds and Intermolecular Forces 34 The Mole, Molar Units, and Aetivity Units 36 Chemical Reaetions and Stoiehiometry 37 Chemieal Equilibrium 44 Reaetion Kinetics 56

2-3 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 61 Allwnes, Alkenes, and Alkynes 62 Aryl (Aromatic) Compounds 63 Funetional Graups and Classes of Compounds 63

2-4 WATER CHEMISTRY 64 Physical Properties of Water 64 States ofSolution Impurities 65 Concentration Units in Aqueous Solutions

01' Suspensions 66 Buffers 69

2-5 SOlL CHEMTSTRY 75

2-6 ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY 76 Fundamentals (~r Gases 78 Chapter Review 80 Problems 81 Discussion Questions 86 References 86

3 Biology 89

Case Study: Poison Warer? 90

913-1 INTRODUCTION

3-2 CHEMTCAL COMPOSITION OF LIFE 91 Carbohydrates 91 Nuc/eie Acids 93 Proteins 96 Lipids 96

Contenl; I v

:M) THE CELL 98 Reoclors 149

Prokaryoles and Eukaryoles 100 Reaelor Analysis 150

Cell Membrane 101 4-4 ENERGY BALANCES 158 Ce/! Organelles of Eukaryoles 103 FirSI Law ofThermodynamics 158 Cell Organelles of Plal11 Cells 109 Fundamentals 159 Ce/! Organelles (!f Prokaryoles 109 Second Law ofThermodynamics 166

23 3-4 ENERGY AND METABOLlSM 109 Chapter Review 168 24

Cells, MalIei; and Energy 110 Problems 169,­-) Discussion Questions 1763-5 CELLULAR REPRODUCTION IJ229 References 177The Cell Cycle 1/2

Asexual Reproduclion IJ4 31 Sexual Reproduetion 1/4 5 Ecosystems 179 32 3-6 DIVERSITY OF L1VING THINGS 1/5

Case Sludy: DDT-Curse 01' Blessing? 180 'J 3-1 PROKARYOTES 116'- 5-1 INTRODUCTION 18J

Archaea 117 Ecosyslems 181

Baeleria 117 5-2 HUMAN INFLUENCES ON3-8 PROTISTS 120

ECOSYSTEMS 181 Protozoa 120

5-3 ENERGY AND MASS FLOW 182Algae 122 Bioaccumulation 187Slime Molds and Water Molds 125

5-4 NUTRIENT CYCLES 1893-9 FUNGI 125 Carbon Cyc/e 189Chytridiomycola 125 Nilrogen Cyc/e 190Zygomycola 125 Phosphorus Cyc/e 193Aseomycota 125 Sulfur Cyc/e 194Basidiomyeola 126

Deuleromyceta 126 5-5 POPULATION DYNAMICS 195 BaClerial Population Growlh 1953-10 VIRUSES 127 Animal Populalion Dynamics 1973-11 MICROBIAL DISEASE 128 Human Populalion Dynan,ies 202

3-12 MICROBIAL TRANSFORMATIONS 129 5-6 LAKES: AN EXAMPLE OF MASS AND .16 Chapter Review 130

ENERGY CYCLING IN AN ECOSYSTEM 205,9 Discussion Questions 131 Slratifieatio/1 anel Tumover i/1 Deep Lakes 206

5 References 132 Biologieal Zones 207

6 Lake ProduClivily 208

4 Materials and Energy EUlrophicalion 212 ()

1 Balances J33 5-1 ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS TO

PROTECT ECOSYSTEMS 2J4:6 4-1 INTRODUCTION 134

Chapter Review 215b 4-2 UNIFYING THEORIES 134 Problems 216

Conservation of MaIleI' 134 Discussion Questions 219

Conservalion ofEnergy 134 References 219

Conservalion 01Maller and Energy 134

4-3 MATERIALS BALANCES 135 Fundamenlais 135 6 Risk Perception, Assessment, Time os a FaClor 136 and Management 221 More Complex Syslems 137

Case Sludy: No Swimming! 222 Efficiency 140

6-1 INTRODUCTION 222The S,a,e ofMixing 143 lncluding Reaetions 145 6-2 RISK PERCEPTION 222

vi I Contents

6-3 RISK ASSESSMENT 224

Data Collection and Evaluation 225 Toxicity Assessmen/ 225 Exposure Assessl11en/ 231 Risk Characlerization 237

6-4 RISK MANAGEMENT 238 Chapter Review 238 Problems 239

Discussion Questions 241 References 241

7 Hydrology 243

Case Study: The Dying ofa Sea 244

7-1 FUNDAMENTALS OF HYDROLOGY 246

The Hydrological Cycle 246

7-2 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION,

EVAPORATION, INFILTRATION, AND

STREAMFLOW 254

Precipilation 254

Evaporation 257 Infiltralion 260 Streamfiow 262

7-3 GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY 264 Aquifers 265

7-4 GROUNDWATER FLOW 269

7-5 WELL HYDRAULICS 273 Definition ofTerms 273 Cone ofDepression 275

7-6 SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER

AS A WATER SUPPLY 280

7-7 DEPLETION OF GROUNDWATER

AND SURFACE WATER 28\

Water Use 28\ Land Subsidence 28J

Chapter Review 283

Problems 284

Discussion Questions 286 References 286

Sustainable Energy, Mineral and Soil Resources 289

Case Study: A New Precious Metal-Copper! 290

8-1 INTRODUCTION 290

Sustainable Development 290

8-2 ENERGY RESOURCES 291 Coal Fonnation 29J Petroleum Formation 292 Fossil Fuel Reserves 293 Nuclear Energy 295

8

8-3

8-4

8-5

8-6

9

9-1 9-2

9-3

Environmen/allmpacts 290

Terrain Effec/s 299

Suslainable Energy Sources 2<)9

Energy Conservo/ion 306

MINERAL RESOURCES 310 Rese,-ves 310 Environmentalll11pacts 3J J

Resource COl1serva/ion 312

SOlL RESOURCES 3J5 El1.ergy Storage 315 Plant Production 315

PARAMETERS OF SOlL SUSTAINABILITY 3 I6

Nutrient Cycling 316 Soil Acidit)' 318 Soil Salinity 318 Tex/ure and Structure 319

SOlL CONSERVATION 3\9 SoU Man.agement 319

SoU Erosion 320 Chapter Review 326 Problems 326 Discussion Questions 328

References 328

Water Quality Management 331

Case Swdy: There She Slows! 332

INTRODUCTION 334

WATER POLLUTANTS

AND THEIR SOURCES 335 Point Sources 335

Nonpoint Sources 335 Oxygen-Demanding Material 335 Nutrients 336 Pathogenic Organisms 338 Suspended Solids 338

Salts 339 Pesticides 339

Pharl11aceuticals and Personal Care Produc/s 341

Enducrin.e-Disrupting Chel11icals 342

Other Organic Chemicals 343 Arsenic 343

Toxic Metals 344

Heat 345

Nanopanicles 346

WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT

IN RIVERS 346

Effect of Oxygen-Demanding H0stes

on Rivers 347

Biochemical Oxygen Demand 347

Contents I vii

91'; Laboratory Measurement ofBiochemical Chlorine Reactions in Water 440 tl9 Oxygen Demand 352 Chlorine Dioxide 441 99 Additional Notes on Biochemical Ozonation 441 6 Oxygen Denwnd 355 Vltroviolet Radiation 442

10 Nitrogen Oxidation 356 1<)-7 OTHER TREATMENT PROCESSES 10 DOSag Cun1e 357 FOR DRINKING WATER 442 I1 Effect ofNutrients Oll Water Qualit)' Membrane Processes 442 12 in Rivers 373 Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) 443

:1:' 9'-4 WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT Carbon Adsorption 443

5 IN LAKES 374 Aeration 443

)5 Control of Phosphorus in Lakes 374 10-8 WATER PLANT RESIDUALS

lli Acidification ofLakes 378 MANAGEMENT 444

16 9-5 WATER QUALITY IN ESTUARIES 385 Mass-Balance Analysis 445 Sludge Treatment 4468 9-6 WATER QUALITY IN OCEANS 386 Vltimate Disposal 4519-7 GROUNDWATER QUALITY 389

9 Chapter Review 451Contaminant Migration in Groundwaters 389 () Problems 452

Chapter Review 393 Discussion Questions 4549 Problems 394

() References 455Discussion Questions 399

6 References 399 .6

11 Wastewater Treatment 457 10 Water Treatment 403 Case Study: Cuyahoga River Burning 458

Case Study: Walkerton-The Town Where 11-1 INTRODUCTION 459 Kids Died jrom E. coli 404 Wastewater Treatment Perspective 459

10-1 INTRODUCTION 405 11-2 CHARACTERISTICS OF DOMESTIC Water Qualiry WASTEWATER 460407 Physical Charoueristics 408 Physical Characteristics 460 Chemical Characteristics 408 Chemical Characteristics 460 Microhiological Characteristics 408 Characteristics of lndustrial Wastewater 461 Radiological Charaeteristics 409 11-3 WASTEWATER TREATMENT U.S. Water Quality Standards 409 STANDARDS 463 Water Classification and Treatment Systems 410 Pretreatment of lndustrial Wastes 464

10-2 RAPID MIXING. FLOCCULATION. 11-4 ON-SITE DISPOSAL SYSTEMS 465 AND COAGULATION 412 Alternative On-Site Treatment Col/oid Stability and Destabilization 413 anel Disposal Systems with Water 465 Coagulants 413 On-Site Treatment Clnd Disposal Systems Mixing and Floeculation 416 for Vnfavorable Site Conditions 469

10-3 SOFTENING 419 Other On-Site Treatment Hardness 419 and Disposal Options 471 Lime-Soda Softening 425 Alternative On-Site Treatment-Dispusal Ion-Exchange Softening 428 Systems Without Water 471

10-4 SEDIMENTATION 430 11-5 MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER Overview 430 TREATMENT SYSTEMS 473 Determination ofSel/ling Velociry (vs) 431 11-6 UNIT OPERATIONS Determination of Overflow Rate (vo) 433 OF PRETREATM ENT 474

10-5 FILTRATION 434 Bar Rocks 474 10-6 DISINFECTION 437 Grit Chambers 474

Disinfection Kineties 438 Macerators 476 Disinfectants and Disinfection By-Products 438 Equalization 476

viii I Contents

11-7 PRIMARY TREATMENT 480 12-4 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS 529 11-8 UNIT PROCESSES OF SECONDARY Effects on Materials 529

TREATMENT Effects on Vegetation :HO481 Overview 48] Effeets on Health 531 Role ofMicroorganisms 481 12-5 ORIGIN AND FATE OF AIR Population Dynamics 482 POLLUTANTS 536 AClivated Sludge 483 Carbon Monoxide 536 Trickling Filters 495 Hazardous Air Pol/utants (HA Ps) 537 Oxidation Ponds 497 Lead 537 Rotating Biological Contactors 499 Nitrogen Dioxide 537

11-9 DISINFECTION 500 Photoehemieal Oxidants 5JR Sulfur Oxides 5JX11-10 ADVANCED WASTEWATER Partieulates 540TREATMENT 500

Filtration 500 12-6 MICRO AND MACRO AIR POLLUTION 540 Carbon Adsorption 501 Indoor Air Pol/ution 540 Phosphorus Removal 501 Acid Rain 544 Nitrogen Control 502 Ozone Depletion 546

Global Warming 54711-11 LAND TREATMENT FOR SUSTAINABILITY 503 12-7 AIR POLLUTION METEOROLOGY 555 Slow Rate 505 The Atnwspherie Engine 555 Overland Flow 505 Turbulence 556 Rapid Injiltration 505 Stability 557

Terrain Effeets 55911-12 SLUDGE TREATMENT 505 Sources and Characteristies 12-8 ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION 561 of Various Sludges 506 Faetors Affecting Dispersion

Solids Compwations 506 ofAir Pol/ulants 561 Sludge Treatment Processes 508 Dispersion Modeling 562

11-13 SLUDGE DISPOSAL 515 12-9 INDOOR AIR QUALITY MODEL 568 Ultinwte Disposal 515 12-10 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL Land Spreading 515 OF STATIONARY SOURCES 571 Landjilling 515 Gaseous Pol/utants 571 Dedicated Land Disposal (DLD) 515 Flue Gas Desulfurization 574 Utilization 515 Control Technologiesfor Nitrogen Oxides 575 Sludge Disposal Regulations 515 Particulale Pollutanls 576 Chapter Review 516 Control Teehnologies for Mercury 579 Problems 5]7 12-11 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL Discussion Questions 521 OF MOBILE SOURCES 579 Rel'erences 521 Engine Fundamentals 579

Control ofAutomobile Emissions 58!

12-12 WASTE MINIMIZATION 12 Air Pollution 523 FOR SUSTAINABILITY 582

Case Study: The Fog 524 Chapter Review 583 Problems 58412-1 INTRODUCTION 525 Discussion Questions 585Air Pollution Perspective 525 References 58612-2 FUNDAMENTALS 525

Pressure Relationships

and Units of Measure 525 13 Solid Waste Engineering 589

Relativity 525 Case Study: Too Mueh. Waste, Tao Lillle Spaee 590 Adiabatic Expansion and Compression 525 13-1 INTRODUCTION 591

12-3 AIR POLLUTION STANDARDS 526 Magnitude of the Problem 592

Contents I ix .'

529 13-2 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID WASTE 593 14-5 HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT 641 529 Waste Minimization 64113-3 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT 596 530 Waste Exchange 64413-4 SOLID WASTE COLLECTION 596531 Recycling 644

13-5 WASTE AS RESOURCE 597 14-6 TREATMENT TECHNOLOG IES 645Background and Perspective 597

536 Biological Treatment 645Green Chemistry and Green Engineering 598536 Chemical Treatment 647Recycling 598537 Physical/Chemical Treatment 650Composting 602537 Incineration 655Source Reduction 603537 I StaIJi/ization-Solidification 662

13-6 SOLID WASTE REDUCTION 604538 14-7 LAND DISPOSAL 662Combustion Processes 604538 I Deep Weil InjeClion 662Types of lncinerators 606540

Land Treatment 663Public Health and Environmentallssues 608540 The Secure Landfill 663Other Thermal Treatment Processes 609540 14-8 GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION 13-7 DISPOSAL BY SANITARY LANDFILL 609544

AND REMEDIATION 667Site Selection 610546

The Process ofContamination 667Operation 611547 EPA 's Groul1dwater Remediation Procedure 667Environmental COllsiderations 613 Mitigation and Treatmenl 669Leachate 613 Chapter Review 676Methalle ami Other Gas Production 617 Problems 677Lalldfill Design 620 Discussion Questions 682

Landfill CIosure 62J References 682Chapter Review 621

Problems 622

Discussion Questions 624 15 Noise Pollution 685 References 624

15-1 INTRODUCTION 686

Properties ofSound Waves 68768 14 Hazardous Waste Sound Power and Illtensity 688

Management 627 Levels and Ihe Decihel 68971 Case Study: Not a Good Time atthe Beach 628 Characterization ofNoise 69171

74 14-1 INTRODUCTION 628 15-2 EFFECTS OF NOISE ON PEOPLE 695 Dioxins and PCBs 628 The Hearing Mechanism 6955

6 14-2 EPA'S HAZARDOUS WASTE Normal Hearing 698

9 DESIGNATION SYSTEM 630 Hearing Impairment 700

Damage-Risk Criteria 70214-3 RCRA AND HSWA 631 Speech Inte1erence 702"9 Congressional Actions 011 Hazardous Waste 631 Annoyance 7039 Cradle-to-Grave COl!cept 631 Sieep Interference 704I Generator Requiremellts 633 Effecis on Pe10rmance 705Transporter Regulations 634 Acoustic Privacy 705Treatment, Storage, ond Disposal

Requiremel1ls 635 15-3 RATING SYSTEMS 706;3 Underground Siorage Tanks 637 Goals of a Noise-Rating System 706

The LN Concept 70614-4 CERCLA AND SARA 638 The Leq Concept 707The Supe/fund Law 638 The Ldn Concept 708The National Priority List 638

The Hazard Ranking System 638 15-4 COMMUNITY NOISE SOURCES

The National COl1lingency Plan 639 AND CRITER1A 708

Liability 640 Transportation Noise 708

Supe/fund Amendments Other Internal Combustion Engines 709

and Reauthorization Act 640 Construction Noise 710

X I Contents

Zoning and Siring Considerarions

Levels ro Proreet Healrh and Welfare

15-5 TRANSMISSION OF SOUND

OUTDOORS

Inverse Square lLlw

Radiarion Fields ofaSound Souree

DireCliviry

Airborne Transmission

15-6 TRAFFIC NOISE PREDICTION

Lcq Prediction

Ldn Predieriol1

15-7 NOISE CONTROL

Souree-Parh-Reeeiver Coneepr

Conrra! 0/ Noise Souree by Design

Noise Conrral in rhe Transmission Path

Conrral ofNoise Souree by Redress

Prareer rhe Receiver

Chapter Review Problems Discussion Questions References

16 lonizing Radiation 16-1 FUNDAMENTALS

Aromic Srrueture

Radioaerivily and Radiarion

Radioacrive Decay

Radioimropes

Fission

The Produerion of X-Rays

Radiarion Dose

16-2 BIOLOGlCAL EFFECTS OF

IONIZING RADIATION

Sequenria! Pallern ofBi%gical Effeers

Dererminanrs of Biologieat Effeets

711 Aeute Effecrs 744 712 Relarion ofDose ro Type ofAeute

Radiation Syndrome 744

712 Delayed Effeers 745 712 Generie Effecrs 747

714 16-3 RADIATION STANDARDS 748 714 16-4 RADIATION EXPOSURE 750 715 Exrernal and Inrernal Radiarion Hazards 750 716 Natural Background 750 716 X-Rays 751 716 Radionuclides 752 717 Nuclear Reaeror Operarions 752

RadioaClive Wasres 753717 717 16-5 RADIATION PROTECTION 753 719 Reduerion 0/ Exrernal Radiarion Hazards 753 721 Reduerion of Inrernal Radiarion Hazards 757 721 16-6 RADlOACTIVE WASTE 758 722 Types of Wasre 758 723 Managemenr ofHigh-Level 726 RadioaClive Wasre 759 727 Wasre Isolarion Pilor Planr 760

Managemenr of Law-Level

Radioaerive Wasre 760729 Lang-Term Managemenr and Containmenr 763

730 Chapter Review 765 730 Problems 766 731 Discussion Questions 767 733 References 767 736 737 738 Appendix 740 A Propenies of Air. Water, and

Selected Chemieals 769 742 Credits 775742 742 Index 777