preparing for the pre-professional skills tests · professional skills tests (ppst) said that they...
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RESEARCHREPORT
July 2001RR-01-14
Statistics & Research DivisionPrinceton, NJ 08541
Preparing for thePre-Professional Skills Tests
Lawrence J. StrickerGita Z. Wilder
Preparing for the Pre-Professional Skills Tests
Lawrence J. Stricker and Gita Z. Wilder
Educational Testing Service, Princeton, New Jersey
July 2001
Research Reports provide preliminary and limited dissemination ofETS research prior to publication. They are available withoutcharge from:
Research Publications OfficeMail Stop 10-REducational Testing ServicePrinceton, NJ 08541
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Abstract
This study investigated the extent and nature of preparation for the Pre-Professional
Skills Tests (PPST®), the reasons for preparing or not preparing, and differences in these results
for White and minority-group test takers and for middle-class and working-class test takers.
Recent PPST test takers were surveyed. Preparation for the PPST was limited and mainly
involved activities that were free or inexpensive, such as taking a sample test. The reported
reasons for not preparing and the empirical correlates of measures of preparation were primarily
attitudinal. Ethnic-group and social-class differences in the extent and nature of test preparation
were minimal, but there were some differences in reported reasons and correlates of preparation,
primarily less awareness of test preparation resources by White and middle-class test takers and
few correlates of test preparation for Black test takers.
Key words: PPST, test preparation, attitudes, ethnicity, social class
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Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to Gail S. Rys for arranging the pilot testing; Drew H. Gitomer for reviewing the
questionnaire; Susan J. Miller for assisting in the pilot testing; Cheri L. Ashton and Bert Palencia
for providing PPST data; Debra E. Friedman for coordinating the data collection; Gerry A.
Kokolis, Ting Lu, Norma A. Norris, and Michelle Najarian for carrying out the computer
analysis; and Daniel R. Eignor, Donald E. Powers, and Richard J. Tannenbaum for reviewing a
draft of this report.
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Introduction
In a recent focus-group study, a substantial number of students who had taken the Pre-
Professional Skills Tests (PPST) said that they did little or no preparation for the test (Wilder &
Stricker, 1998). Moreover, only one person acknowledged ever hearing of LearningPlus®, a
computerized instructional program that covers the same skills evaluated by the test (reading,
mathematics, and writing) and provides test preparation for the PPST and another Praxis I test,
the computer-based Praxis I: Academic Skills Assessments. Similarly, in a 1996 survey of Praxis
I test takers, 31% reported that they had not prepared for the test (Gordon S. Black Corporation,
1996). This massive lack of preparation is particularly surprising in view of the high-stakes
nature of the PPST when it is used for admission to teacher education programs and for teacher
certification, as well as in light of the high failure rates on this test, especially for members of
minority groups (e.g., Garcia, 1985; Minnesota Board of Teaching, 1991; Smith, 1987; Snow,
1995). The students in the focus groups offered several explanations for this lack of preparation,
notably (a) the belief that one simply cannot prepare for basic skills tests and (b) the cost in time
and money for test preparation. Still, solid evidence is lacking. As a matter of fact, very little is
known about why students prepare or do not prepare for any kind of test, including classroom
tests (Van Etten, Freebern, & Pressley, 1997).
Clearly, it would be in everyone�s interest if test preparation were more universal. This
would minimize an extraneous source of variation in test performance (e.g., Anastasi, 1981;
Messick, 1981) and might increase the number of test takers passing the PPST and qualifying for
teacher education and teacher certification. There appears to be a demand for test preparation
courses provided by test publishers. In a 1997 survey of a national sample, 75% of the
undergraduates reported that testing organizations should offer such courses (Rowan & Blewitt
Incorporated, 1998). And there is dissatisfaction with ETS�s current efforts at test preparation. In
surveys of Praxis I test takers in 1996 and in 1997�98, 19% in 1996 and 14% in 1997�98
reported that ETS materials did not provide good preparation on test taking strategies (Gordon S.
Black Corporation, 1996, 1998). At the same time, though, there is also evidence that examinees
do not use the test preparation resources that are readily available. In a 1997 study of six
institutions that provide LearningPlus to their students, few students used it and those who did
used it very little (Wilder & Cline, 1997).
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The puzzling juxtaposition between the lack of preparation for the PPST and the high
failure rate for this high-stakes test, as well as the social consequences of these failures, makes it
evident that a better understanding is needed of the reasons many test takers do not prepare for
the PPST. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to survey the test preparation of recent
PPST test takers to illuminate (a) the extent and nature of test preparation; (b) the reasons for
preparing or not preparing; (c) interest in new kinds of test preparation material and services; and
(d) differences in these results for subgroups of special interest: White and minority-group test
takers, and middle-class and working-class test takers (as indexed by parental education).
Method
Sample
The sample was drawn from the 4,486 test takers taking the PPST at the June 12, 1999,
administration: one-fifth of White test takers (N=708) and all of the remaining test takers, Black
(N=591), Hispanic (N=96), Asian (N=132), other ethnicity (N=132), and unknown ethnicity
(N=231), a total of 1,890 test takers. A total of 951 (50.3%) test takers responded to the survey:
383 White, 285 Black, 45 Hispanic, 75 Asian, 68 other ethnicity, and 95 with unknown ethnicity.
Measures
Questionnaire
A questionnaire was devised to assess preparation for the PPST, reasons for preparing
and possible correlates of preparation, and reactions to possible changes in test preparation
material and services. (This questionnaire appears in the Appendix.) The questionnaire was pilot
tested with a group of 10 teacher education students at the University of Delaware who had
recently taken the PPST for teacher certification. The questionnaire took approximately 5 to 10
minutes to complete. The variables on the questionnaire follow: 1
1. Test preparation activities. This is a 13-item scale (Q. 2, subquestions 1 to 13), �Which
of these things did you do to prepare for the recent PPST?� (e.g., �I took a sample PPST�),
adapted from Powers (1988, 1998), with four alternatives (�Yes, I did this�; �No, too costly�;
�No, too time-consuming�; �No, other reason�). The score was the number of �Yes, I did this�
responses.
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2. Test preparation time. This is a single item (Q. 3), �Altogether, about how many hours
did you spend preparing for the recent PPST?� with seven alternatives (�None� to �More than 40
hours�).
3. Preparation relative to the SAT® or ACT. This is a single item (Q. 5), �Compared to
the recent PPST, how much did you prepare for the SAT or ACT?� with seven alternatives
(�Much more for the SAT/ACT� [1] to �Much less for the SAT/ACT� [7]).
4. Reasons for preparing more for the SAT or ACT. This is a single item (Q. 6), �If you
prepared MORE for the SAT or ACT than the PPST: Why?� with nine alternatives (e.g., �I
thought the PPST was not as important�).
5. Information received about the PPST�Timing. This is a five-item scale (Q. 8,
subquestions 1 to 5), �When did you first find out these things about the PPST?� (e.g., �The
PPST is required by your college or for hiring/licensing as a teacher�), with five alternatives
(�1997 or earlier�; �1998�; �1999�; �Don�t recall�; �Never�). The score was the number of
�Never� responses.
6. Own opinions about the PPST. This is a four-item scale (Q. 11, subquestions 1 to 4),
�Before you took the PPST recently: What were your opinions about the test?� (e.g., �Difficulty
of the test�), with five alternatives (e.g., �Very difficult� to �Not at all difficult,� plus �Don�t
know�). The items assess attitudes about the PPST that may affect preparation for it. The score
was the number of �Very�� and �Somewhat�� responses.
7. Own confidence about the PPST. This is a single item (Q. 11, subquestion 5), �Before
you took the PPST recently: What were your opinions about the test?� (i.e., �Confidence that you
would pass the test�), with five alternatives (�Very confident� [4] to �Not confident at all� [1],
plus �Don�t know�).
8. Friends� opinions about the PPST. This is a four-item scale (Q. 12, subquestions 1 to
4), �Before you took the PPST recently: What did you think were the general opinions of your
college friends about the test?� paralleling Own Opinions about the PPST.
9. Friends� confidence about the PPST. This is a single item (Q. 12, subquestion 5),
�Before you took the PPST recently: What did you think were the general opinions of your
college friends about the test?� (i.e., �Confidence that they would pass the test�), paralleling Own
Confidence about the PPST.
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10. Professors� opinions about the PPST. This is a four-item scale (Q. 13, subquestions 1
to 4), �Before you took the PPST recently: What did you think were the general opinions of your
professors about the test?� paralleling Own Opinions about the PPST.
11. Friends� preparation. This is a single item (Q. 7), �How much did most of your
college friends prepare for the recent PPST?� with five alternatives (�A lot� [4] to �Not at all�
[1], plus �Don�t know).�
12. Test anxiety. This is a single item (Q. 14), �How anxious do you usually get when
you take important tests?� with six alternatives (�Extremely anxious� [5] to �Not anxious at all�
[1], plus �Don�t know�).
13. Academic self-esteem. This is a single item (Q. 15), �How do you think you compare
to other college students in academic ability?� with eight alternatives (�Very much above
average� [7] to �Very much below average� [1], plus �Don�t know�).
14. Academic locus of control. This is a single item (Q. 16), �How much of your success
in school depends on your own effort and ability rather than luck or favoritism?� with five
alternatives (�All of it� [4] to �None of it� [1], plus �Don�t know�).
15. Information received about the PPST�Source. This is a five-item scale (Q. 9,
subquestions 1 to 5), �How did you first find out these things about the PPST?� paralleling
Information Received about the PPST�Timing, with six alternatives (�ETS material�;
�Professors or college staff�; �College friends�; �Another way�; �Don�t know�; and �Never
did�). The four scores were the number of �ETS material� responses, number of �Professors or
college staff� responses, number of �College friends� responses, and number of �Another way�
responses.
16. Reasons for taking the PPST. This is a single item (Q. 1), �Why did you take the
PPST recently?� with four alternatives (�To enter a teacher education program�; �To meet
requirements of the teacher education program I am enrolled in�; �To be licensed or certified by
a state or city�; and �Other�).
17. SAT or ACT taken. This is a single item (Q. 4), �Did you take the SAT or ACT?�
with four alternatives (�I took the SAT only�; �I took the ACT only�; �I took both the SAT and
ACT�; and �I did not take the SAT or ACT�). The score was the number of tests taken.
18. Changes in test preparation material and services. This is a four-item scale (Q. 10,
subquestions 1 to 4), �Based on your experience with the PPST, how much would these changes
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help students taking the test?� (e.g., �More information about the PPST�s content and format�),
with five alternatives (�Very helpful� to �Not helpful at all,� plus �Don�t know�).
Other Variables
Additional variables were derived from the registration form and Background
Information Questionnaire completed by the test takers when they registered for the test, from
the PPST itself, and from archival data from several sources for the test takers� colleges
(specifically, the schools where training relevant to the PPST was received). These variables
consisted of demographic variables needed to categorize subsamples in the analyses and possible
correlates of preparation for the PPST�characteristics of test takers themselves and their
colleges. The variables follow:
1. Age (age in years at the test administration)
2. Sex
3. Ethnicity (White, Black, Hispanic, Asian, Other)2
4. Parental education (Both parents have high school education or less; one or both
parents have college education.) (Note that for brevity these two categories are described in this
report as high school educated and college educated parents.)
5. Years since school (number of years since college or graduate school; �Currently
attending college or graduate school� to �More than 10 years�)
6. Enrolled in teacher education program (�Currently�; �Formerly�; �Never�)
7. Undergraduate GPA (�below 1.5� [1.25] to �3.5�4.0� [3.75])3
8. College: Control (Public, Independent, Catholic, Protestant and other religious;
National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 1998b)
9. College: Historically Black college (NCES, 1998a)
10. College: Carnegie Classification (Research Universities to Associate of Arts
Colleges; Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1994)
11. College: Selectivity (entrance difficulty in 1997; Most Difficult to Noncompetitive;
Peterson�s, 1997)
12. College: Number of PPST takers (current test administration)
13. Current PPST tests taken (number in current test administration)
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14. Previous PPST tests taken (number in October 1997 to April 1999 test
administrations)
15. PPST Reading score (This is a scaled score, ranging from 150 to 190.)
16. PPST Writing score (This is a scaled score, ranging from 150 to 190.)
17. PPST Mathematics score (This is a scaled score, ranging from 150 to 190.)
Procedure
A letter describing the purpose of the study, along with the questionnaire and a return
envelope, was mailed to each test taker on June 10, 1999, to arrive immediately after the test
administration on June 12. A follow-up letter, with another questionnaire and return envelope,
was mailed to each test taker on July 1, 1999, three weeks after the initial letter. (Both letters
appear in the Appendix.)
Analysis
The representativeness of the respondents was appraised by chi-square analyses of the
categorical background variables, and t tests of the means for the continuous background
variables and PPST scores for respondents and nonrespondents.
The overall extent of test preparation was evaluated by frequency distributions of these
variables for the total sample.
Ethnic-group and social-class differences in Reasons for Preparing More for the SAT or
ACT were assessed by frequency distributions computed separately for the ethnic groups and for
test takers with high school educated and college educated parents. Multiple responses precluded
significance tests of group differences for these variables. (Ethnic-group and parental education
differences for the other test preparation variables were analyzed in the correlational analyses
described below.) The data for White test takers were weighted (by a factor of five) to
compensate for their undersampling.
The convergence between the four key test preparation variables (Number of Test
Preparation Activities, Test Preparation Time, Preparation Relative to SAT or ACT, and
Information Received about PPST�Timing: Number of �Never� Responses), their correlates,
and differences in relationships across ethnic groups and social classes were evaluated from the
product-moment intercorrelations of the questionnaire measures and other variables. The
7
intercorrelations were computed using a pair-wise missing-data program for the total sample, and
separately for White and Black test takers and for test takers with high school educated and
college educated parents. (Small sample sizes precluded separate analyses for test takers with
Hispanic, Asian, or other ethnicity.) The data for White test takers were weighted in the analyses
for the total sample and for the parental education subsamples. Dummy codes were used for Test
Preparation Time, Sex, Ethnicity, Parental Education, Years Since School, Enrolled in Teacher
Education Program, College: Control, College: Historically Black College, College: Carnegie
Classification, College: Selectivity, and Reasons for Taking the PPST.4
The multiple correlations of the six sets of dummy variables were computed with each of
the four key test preparation variables. The sets were Ethnicity, Years Since School, Enrolled in
Teacher Education Program, College: Control, College: Carnegie Classification, and Reasons for
Taking the PPST.5
The overall reactions to Changes in Test Preparation Material and Services were
evaluated by frequency distributions for the total sample. Ethnic-group and social-class
differences in this variable were appraised from frequency distributions computed separately for
the ethnic groups and for test takers with high school educated and college educated parents, and
accompanying chi-square analyses of the group differences in the distributions. The data for
White test takers were weighted in the analyses for the total sample and for the parental
education subsamples.
Both statistical and practical significance were considered in evaluating the results. For
statistical significance, a .05 alpha level was used in all analyses. For practical significance,
indexes that reflect a �small� effect size, accounting for 1% of the variance, was used: a W of .10
in the chi-square analyses, a d of .20 in the t test of means, and an r or R of .10 in the correlation
analyses (Cohen, 1988). In analyses involving weighted data, the actual N, not the weighted N,
was used in calculating chi-square and W, and in assessing the statistical significance of r and R.
(In assessing the statistical significance of R when there was missing data, the smallest N for the
constituent intercorrelations was used.)
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Results
Comparisons of Respondents and Nonrespondents
The frequency distributions of the categorical background variables for the respondents
and nonrespondents and the chi-square tests are summarized in Table 1. The means of the
continuous background variables and the t tests are summarized in Table 2. Only two differences
in these two sets of analyses were statistically and practically significant: Sex�more
respondents (82%) than nonrespondents (74%) were women (χ2 = 18.46, p < .01, W = .10), and
Current PPST Tests Taken�respondents took more PPST tests (M = 2.39) than nonrespondents
(M = 2.10) in the current administration (t = 6.28, p < .01, d = .29).
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Table 1
Frequency Distributions of Categorical Background Variables, for Respondents andNonrespondents______________________________________________________________________________
Percentage Variable Respondents Nonrespondents χ2 W______________________________________________________________________________
Sex (N = 948) (N = 935) 18.46* .10a
Male 18 26Female 82 74
Ethnicity (N = 951) (N = 939) .00 .00White 40 35Black 30 33Hispanic 5 5Asian 8 6Other 7 7Unknown 10 14
Parental education (N = 806) (N = 770) 1.01 .03High school or less 33 31College or more 67 69
Years since school (N = 869) (N = 818) .86 .02Currently attending 74 73Under three years 16 16Four or more years 9 11
Enrolled in teacher education program (N = 866) (N = 813) .48 .02Currently 44 45Formerly 16 15Never 40 40
College: Control (N = 741) (N = 703) 3.54 .05Public 70 73Independent 6 6Catholic 5 3Protestant and other religious 19 17
College: Historically Black College (N = 751) (N = 721) 3.96 .05Yes 14 18No 86 82
(Table continues)
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Table 1 (continued)
_____________________________________________________________________________
Percentage Variable Respondents Nonrespondents χ2 W______________________________________________________________________________
College: Carnegie Classification (N = 743) (N = 717) 6.58 .07Research universities I and II 16 15Doctoral universities I and II 14 13Master�s colleges and 42 48 universities I and IIBaccalaureate colleges I and II 25 20Associate of arts colleges and 4 4 specialized institutions
College: Selectivity (N = 719) (N = 695) 3.01 .05Most difficult or very difficult 4 4Moderately difficult 71 66Minimally difficult or 26 30 noncompetitive
______________________________________________________________________________
Note. Percentages may not total to 100% because of rounding error.*p < .01. aW > .10.
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Table 2
Means of Continuous Background Variables and PPST Scores, for Respondents andNonrespondents______________________________________________________________________________
Variable Respondents Nonrespondents t dN Mean S.D. N Mean S.D.
______________________________________________________________________________
Age 950 28.85 10.34 937 27.18 8.65 3.81* .18
GPA 859 3.09 4.78 809 3.02 4.67 2.98* .15
College�Number of 751 17.70 17.88 721 18.10 18.77 .41 -.02 PPST test takers
Current PPST tests taken 951 2.39 .92 939 2.10 1.14 6.28* .29a
Previous PPST tests taken 951 1.17 2.24 939 1.20 2.27 .28 -.01
PPST Reading score 732 175.84 6.80 620 175.68 6.82 .43 .02
PPST Writing score 749 174.16 4.91 647 173.42 4.72 2.87* .15
PPST Mathematics score 795 173.75 9.23 700 172.11 8.88 3.49* .18______________________________________________________________________________
* p < .01. ad > .20.
Frequency Distributions of Test Preparation Variables
Individual Test Preparation Activities
The frequency distributions for individual test preparation activities appear in Table 3,
and the frequency distributions for the number of these activities appears in Table 4. The most
common activities were �I read the free ETS booklet, Tests at a Glance�Praxis I: Academic
Skills Assessment� (70%); �I took a sample PPST� (51%); �I used books on test preparation�
(43%); �I studied books or material from college courses� (32%); and �I took an actual PPST at
a previous administration� (21%). �Too costly� and �Too time-consuming� were equally
common reasons for not doing these activities, but neither accounted for 20% or more of the
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reasons for any activity (Table 3). The number of activities ranged from 0 (15%) to 10�13 (1%);
the median was 2.3 activities (Table 4).
Test Preparation Time
The frequency distribution for the time spent preparing for the PPST appears in Table 5.
Nineteen percent reported spending no time preparing, at one extreme, and five percent reported
spending more than 40 hours, at the other extreme. The median was 4.9 hours.
Preparation Relative to the SAT or ACT
The frequency distribution for preparation time for the PPST relative to the SAT or ACT
appears in Table 6. The percentage reporting that they prepared more for the SAT or ACT than
for the PPST (43%) was greater than the percentage reporting that they prepared more for the
PPST than for the SAT or ACT (30%).
Reasons for Preparing More for the SAT or ACT
The frequency distribution for the reasons for preparing more for the SAT or ACT than
for the PPST appears in Table 7 for the total sample. The corresponding frequency distributions
for the ethnic groups and for test takers with high school educated and college educated parents
appear in Tables 8 and 9, respectively.
Total sample. The most common reasons given were �I thought my PPST scores would
be good enough without preparation� (35%); �I had some other reason� (26%); �I plan to take
PPST again if my scores are not good enough� (25%); �I did not know about resources for test
preparation� (25%); and �I thought it was not possible to prepare for the PPST� (20%).
Ethnicity. The White and Black groups differed appreciably on four reasons. (Small
sample sizes precluded comparisons for other ethnic groups.) �I thought it was not possible to
prepare for the PPST� and �I did not know about resources for PPST preparation� were more
frequent responses for White test takers (21% and 26%, respectively) than for Black test takers
(13% for both reasons). �I plan to take PPST again if my scores are not good enough� and �I had
some other reason� were more frequent responses for Black test takers (36% and 39%,
respectively) than for White test takers (23% and 24%, respectively).
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Parental education. The parental education groups differed on three reasons. �I did not
know about resources for PPST preparation� was a more frequent reason for test takers with
college educated parents than for test takers with high school educated parents (28% vs. 13%). �I
plan to take PPST again if my scores are not good enough� and �I had some other reason� were
more frequent responses for test takers with high school educated parents than for test takers
with college educated parents (30% and 32% vs. 24% and 25%).
Information received about the PPST�Timing. The percentage of �Never� responses for
individual kinds of information received about the PPST appears in Table 10 and the frequency
distribution of the number of these responses appears in Table 11. The percentage of �Never�
responses was consistently low, ranging from 2% for �The PPST is required by your college or
for hiring/licensing as a teacher� to 12% for �Sample PPST questions on tests� (Table 10).
Seventy-seven percent of the test takers had no �Never� responses, at one extreme, and 0% had
five such responses; the median was 0 �Never� responses (Table 11).
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Table 3
Frequency Distributions for Individual Test Preparation Activities______________________________________________________________________________
Percentage Yes, No, No, No,I did this too costly too time- other
Activity consuming reason N______________________________________________________________________________
I read the free ETS booklet, 70 3 7 20 2,444 Tests at a Glance�Praxis I Academic Skills Assessment
I took a sample PPST 51 6 11 33 2,424
I took an actual PPST at a 21 6 6 66 2,304 previous administration
I studied books or materials 32 2 14 52 2,375 from college courses
I used flash cards, audio 10 6 19 66 2,381 cassettes, or other study aids
I used books on test preparation 43 6 10 40 2,447
I took a test preparation course 5 14 16 66 2,416
I received private tutoring or 8 15 12 65 2,398 coaching
I studied with other students 10 2 11 78 2,327
I used computer software on 9 11 9 72 2,402 test preparation
I watched video cassettes on 1 8 13 78 2,351 test preparation
I watched television courses on 1 5 13 81 2,330 test preparation
I used an Internet (on-line) 8 3 11 78 2,341 computer information service on test preparation______________________________________________________________________________
Note. Percentages may not total 100% because of rounding error.
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Table 4
Frequency Distribution of Number of TestPreparation Activities______________________________________
Number of PercentageActivities (N = 2,146)______________________________________
0 13
1 20
2 20
3 18
4 12
5 7
6 3
7 2
8 1
9 1
10 to 13 1______________________________________
Note. Percentage may not total 100% becauseof rounding error.
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Table 5
Frequency Distribution of Test PreparationTime__________________________________
Time Percentage(hours) (N = 2,480)
__________________________________
None 19
1 to 5 35
6 to 10 18
11 to 20 12
21 to 30 8
31 to 40 3
More than 40 5
__________________________________
Note. Percentage may not total 100%because of rounding error.
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Table 6
Frequency Distribution of Preparation Relative tothe SAT or ACT____________________________________________
Preparation Percentage(N = 1,649)
____________________________________________
Much more for the SAT/ACT 17
Somewhat more for the SAT/ACT 14
Slightly more for the SAT/ACT 12
About the same for the SAT/ACT 27
Slightly less for the SAT/ACT 5
Somewhat less for the SAT/ACT 6
Much less for the SAT/ACT 19____________________________________________
Note. Percentage may not total 100% because ofrounding error.
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Table 7
Frequency Distribution of Reasons for Preparing More for the SAT or ACT, for Total Sample______________________________________________________________________________
Reason Percentage(N = 655)
______________________________________________________________________________
I thought my PPST scores would be good enough without preparation 35
I had some other reason 26
I plan to take PPST again if my scores are not good enough 25
I did not know about resources for PPST preparation (books, courses, etc.) 25
I thought it was not possible to prepare for the PPST 20
I thought PPST preparation resources (books, courses, etc.) cost too much 12
I could not find resources for PPST preparation (books, courses, etc.) 9
I thought PPST preparation took more time than I had 9
I thought the PPST was not as important 4______________________________________________________________________________
Note. Percentages may not total 100% because of multiple responses.
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Table 8
Frequency Distribution of Reasons for Preparing More for the SAT or ACT, for Ethnic Groups______________________________________________________________________________
Percentage for Ethnic Group
White Black Hispanic Asian OtherReason (N = 515) (N = 69) (N = 11) (N = 19) (N = 15)______________________________________________________________________________
I thought my PPST scores would be good 36 32 36 37 20 enough without preparation
I had some other reason 24 39 27 26 33
I plan to take PPST again if my 23 36 54 37 20 scores are not good enough
I did not know about resources for PPST 26 13 18 10 27 preparation (books, courses, etc.)
I thought it was not possible to prepare 21 13 18 5 33 for the PPST
I thought PPST preparation resources 13 13 9 16 7 (books, courses, etc.) cost too much
I could not find resources for PPST 10 6 9 16 7 preparation (books, courses, etc.)
I thought PPST preparation took more 8 7 0 21 13 time than I had
I thought the PPST was not as important 5 1 0 0 7______________________________________________________________________________
Note. Percentages may not total 100% because of multiple responses.
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Table 9
Frequency Distribution of Reasons for Preparing More for the SAT or ACT, for Test Takers withHigh School Educated and College Educated Parents
______________________________________________________________________________
Percentage for Parents� Education Group
High School CollegeReason (N = 124) (N = 491)______________________________________________________________________________
I thought my PPST scores would be good enough 35 36 without preparation
I had some other reason 32 25
I plan to take PPST again if my scores are not good enough 30 24
I did not know about resources for PPST preparation 13 28 (books, courses, etc.)
I thought it was not possible to prepare for the PPST 24 20
I thought PPST preparation resources (books, courses, etc.) 9 14 cost too much
I could not find resources for PPST preparation 12 9 (books, courses, etc.)
I thought PPST preparation took more time than I had 5 8
I thought the PPST was not as important 2 4______________________________________________________________________________
Note. Percentages may not total 100% because of multiple responses.
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Table 10
Percentage of �Never� Responses for Individual Kinds of Information Received about PPST_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Information Percentagea
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Sample PPST questions on tests 12 (2,308)
Passing scores on the PPST required by your college or by states/cities for 10 (2,342) hiring/licensing
States and cities that require the PPST for hiring/licensing as a teacher 8 (2,332)
Details about the content and format of the PPST (different subtests, 6 (2,309) types of questions, time limits, etc.)
The PPST is required by your college or for hiring/licensing as a teacher 2 (2,398)______________________________________________________________________________
aThe total N appears in parentheses.
Table 11
Frequency Distribution of Number of �Never�Responses for Information Received about PPST________________________________________
Number of Percentage�Never� Responses (N = 2,034)________________________________________
0 77
1 14
2 6
3 2
4 to 5 0________________________________________
Note. Percentages may not total 100% because ofrounding error.
22
Correlations with Test Preparation Measures
Intercorrelations of Test Preparation Measures
The intercorrelations of the four test preparation measures appear in Table 12 for the total
sample. The corresponding correlations for White and Black test takers, and for test takers with
high school educated and college educated parents appear in Tables 13 and 14, respectively. (The
signs of the correlations with Information Received about PPST�Timing: Number of �Never�
Responses were reflected so that positive correlations with all test preparation measures
consistently represent high preparation.)
Total sample. All of the intercorrelations were statistically and practically significant,
ranging from .58 between Test Preparation Time and Number of Preparation Activities to .16
between Test Preparation Time and Information Received about PPST�Timing: Number of
�Never� Responses.
Ethnicity. With the exception of one negligible correlation for Black test takers (Number
of Preparation Activities with Preparation Relative to the SAT or ACT), all of the
intercorrelations of the test preparation measures were significant for both White and Black test
takers. The correlations ranged from .14 to .57 for the former, and from .08 to .56 for the latter.
Parental education. All of the intercorrelations of the test preparation measures were
significant for both parental education groups. The correlations ranged from .20 to .62 for
test takers with high school educated parents, and from .16 to .56 for test takers with college
educated parents.
23
Table 12
Intercorrelations of Test Preparation Measures, for Total Sample______________________________________________________________________________
Variable (1) (2) (3) (4)______________________________________________________________________________
(1) Number of test preparation activities .58 .20 .34
(2) Test preparation time .29 .16
(3) Preparation relative to the SAT or ACT .19
(4) Information received about the PPST�Timing: Number of �Never� responses
______________________________________________________________________________
Note. Ns vary from 1,352 to 2,146. Correlations that are both statistically (p < .05, two-tail) andpractically (r > .10) significant are underlined. Signs of correlations with Information Receivedabout the PPST�Timing: Number of �Never� Responses have been reflected.
Table 13
Intercorrelations of Test Preparation Measures, for White and Black Test Takers______________________________________________________________________________
Variable (1) (2) (3) (4)______________________________________________________________________________
(1) Number of test preparation activities .57 .23 .36
(2) Test preparation time .56 .31 .14
(3) Preparation relative to the SAT or ACT .08 .23 .21
(4) Information received about the PPST � .28 .19 .22Timing: Number of �Never� responses
______________________________________________________________________________
Note. The intercorrelations for White test takers appear above the diagonal and those for Blacktest takers below it. Ns vary from 216 to 337 for the former and from 137 to 223 for the latter.Correlations that are both statistically (p < .05, two-tail) and practically (r > .10) significant areunderlined. Signs of correlations with Information Received about the PPST�Timing: Numberof �Never� Responses have been reflected.
24
Table 14
Intercorrelations of Test Preparation Measures, for Test Takers with High School Educated andCollege Educated Parents
______________________________________________________________________________
Variable (1) (2) (3) (4)______________________________________________________________________________
(1) Number of test preparation activities .62 .26 .29
(2) Test preparation time .56 .22 .20
(3) Preparation relative to the SAT or ACT .18 .30 .29
(4) Information received about the PPST� .37 .17 .16Timing: Number of �Never� responses
______________________________________________________________________________
Note. The intercorrelations for test takers with high school educated parents appear above thediagonal and those for test takers with college educated parents appear below it. Ns vary from335 to 581 for the former and from 926 to 1,442 for the latter. Correlations that are bothstatistically (p < .05, two-tail) and practically (r > .10) significant are underlined. Signs ofcorrelations with Information Received about the PPST�Timing: Number of �Never�Responses have been reflected.
Correlations of Questionnaire Measures, Background Variables, and PPST Scores with Test
Preparation Measures
The correlations of the questionnaire measures, background variables, and PPST scores
with the four test preparation measures appear in Table 15 for the total sample. The
corresponding correlations for White and Black test takers and for test takers with high school
educated and college educated parents appear in Tables 16 and 17, respectively. (Again, the
signs of the correlations with Information Received about PPST�Timing: Number of �Never�
Responses were reflected, as already explained.)
Total Sample. The questionnaire measures, background variables, and PPST scores had
extensive patterns of statistically and practically significant correlations with the test preparation
measures. Ten variables correlated consistently with all of the test preparation measures: Own
25
Opinions about the PPST (.29 to .37), Own Confidence about the PPST (-.18 to -.23), Friends�
Opinions about the PPST (.15 to .29), Friends� Preparation (.14 to .30), Previous PPST Tests
Taken (.16 to .44), Current PPST Tests Taken (-.13 to -.42), PPST Reading Score (-.11 to -.26),
PPST Writing Score (-.14 to -.23), and PPST Mathematics Score (-.20 to -.39).
Ethnicity. The questionnaire measures, background variables, and PPST scores had
extensive patterns of significant correlations with the test preparation measures for the White and
Black test takers. Some variables had consistent correlation with all of the four preparation
measures. In both samples, there was one such variable: Friends� Opinions about the PPST (.10
to .28 for the White sample, and .14 to .31 for the Black sample). In the White sample only, there
were six such variables: Own Opinions about the PPST (.30 to .39), Own Confidence about the
PPST (-.19 to -.30), Test Anxiety (.17 to .34), Previous PPST Tests Taken (.16 to .47), Current
PPST Tests Taken (-.13 to -.45), and PPST Mathematics Score (-.22 to -.38). And in the Black
sample only, there was one such variable: Professors� Opinions about PPST (.16 to .26). Of these
variables, only one variable�Professors� Opinions about the PPST, in the Black sample�did
not have consistent correlations with the preparation measures in the total sample.
Parental education. The questionnaire measures, background variables, and PPST scores
had extensive patterns of significant correlations with the preparation measures for test takers
with high school educated and college educated parents. Some variables had consistent
correlations with all of the preparation measures. In both samples, there were two such variables:
Own Opinions about PPST (.39 to .41 for the high school educated sample and .26 to
.36 for the college educated sample) and Friends� Opinions about the PPST (.13 to .33 for the
high school educated sample and .14 to .27 for the college educated sample). In the high school
educated sample, there was one variable: Age (.14 to .30). And in the college educated sample,
there were seven variables: Own Confidence about the PPST (-.15 to -.27), Friends� Preparation
(.12 to .21), Test Anxiety (.11 to .30), Previous PPST Tests Taken (.15 to .45), Current PPST
Tests Taken (-.13 to -.40), PPST Writing Score (-.13 to -.23), and PPST Mathematics Score
(-.14 to -.41). Of these variables, only one variable�Age, in the high school educated sample�
did not have consistent correlations with the preparation measures in the total sample.
26
Frequency Distributions of Test Preparation Changes
The frequency distribution for Test Preparation Changes variables appear in Table 18 for
the total group. The corresponding frequency distributions for the ethnic groups and for the test
takers with high school educated and college educated parents appear in Tables 19 and 20,
respectively.
Total sample. The majority of the test takers reported that three of the four changes in test
preparation��More information about the PPST�s content and format� (59%), �More information
about existing PPST preparation resources� (60%), and �More review courses in writing or
mathematics� (56%)�would be �very helpful.� And many (46%) reported that �More information
about when and where the PPST is required� would be �very helpful.�
Ethnicity. The ethnic groups had statistically and practically significant differences on one
of the four variables. More Black than White test takers reported that �More review courses in
writing or mathematics� would be helpful (χ2 = 40.55, p < .01, W = .22). For example, 82% of
Black test takers and 51% of White test takers reported it would be �very helpful.�
Parental education. Test takers with high school educated and college educated parents had
significant differences on two of the four variables. More of the test takers with high school
educated parents reported that �More information about the PPST�s content and format�
(χ2 = 17.11, p < .01, W = .15) and �More review courses in writing or mathematics�
(χ2 = 21.51, p < .01, W = .16) would be helpful. For example, 65% of test takers with high school
educated parents and 56% of test takers with college educated parents reported that more
information about content and format would be �very helpful.� And 67% of test takers with high
school educated parents and 50% of test takers with college educated parents reported that more
review courses would be �very helpful.�
Tabl
e 15
Cor
rela
tions
of Q
uest
ionn
aire
Mea
sure
s, B
ackg
roun
d V
aria
bles
, and
PPS
T Sc
ores
with
Tes
t Pre
para
tion
Mea
sure
s, fo
r Tot
al S
ampl
e__
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
__
Test
Pre
para
tion
Mea
sure
R
elat
ive
toIn
form
atio
n�V
aria
ble
Act
iviti
esa
Tim
ebSA
T or
AC
TcN
ever
d
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
Ow
n op
inio
ns a
bout
the
PPST
.37
.34
.30
.29
Ow
n co
nfid
ence
abo
ut th
e PP
ST-.2
3-.1
8-.2
2-.1
8
Frie
nds�
opi
nion
s abo
ut th
e PP
ST.2
9.1
5.2
0.2
6
Frie
nds�
con
fiden
ce a
bout
the
PPST
-.07
-.08
-.27
-.08
Prof
esso
rs� o
pini
ons a
bout
the
PPST
.21
.07
.08
.22
Frie
nds�
pre
para
tion
.30
.21
.14
.24
Test
anx
iety
.30
.25
.15
.19
Aca
dem
ic se
lf-es
teem
-.09
-.07
-.05
-.06
Aca
dem
ic lo
cus o
f con
trol
.11
.08
.13
.07
Info
rmat
ion
rece
ived
abo
ut th
e.1
2.0
8.0
4.1
4
PPST
�So
urce
: ETS
mat
eria
l
Info
rmat
ion
rece
ived
abo
ut th
e PP
ST�
.09
-.05
-.02
.25
So
urce
: Pro
fess
ors o
r col
lege
staf
f(T
able
con
tinue
s)
27
Tabl
e 15
(con
tinue
d)__
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
__
Test
Pre
para
tion
Mea
sure
R
elat
ive
toIn
form
atio
n�V
aria
ble
Act
iviti
esa
Tim
ebSA
T or
AC
TcN
ever
d
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
Info
rmat
ion
rece
ived
abo
ut th
e PP
ST�
-.04
-.01
.11
.06
So
urce
: Col
lege
frie
nds
Info
rmat
ion
rece
ived
abo
ut th
e PP
ST�
.05
.13
.04
.05
So
urce
: Ano
ther
way
Age
.20
.30
.21
.04
Sex
.09
.04
.03
.03
Ethn
icity
.20
.21
.06
.10
Pare
ntal
edu
catio
n-.0
7-.0
8-.1
9-.1
0
Yea
rs si
nce
scho
ol.1
7.1
9.0
8.1
1
Enro
lled
in te
ache
r edu
catio
n pr
ogra
m.1
7.1
7.0
6.0
5
Und
ergr
adua
te G
PA-.0
5.0
3.1
0-.0
3
Col
lege
: Con
trol
.07
.11
.11
.08
Col
lege
: His
toric
ally
Bla
ck C
olle
ge-.1
9-.1
9-.0
3-.1
0
Col
lege
: Car
negi
e C
lass
ifica
tion
.11
.07
.16
.10 (Tab
le c
ontin
ues)
28
Tabl
e 15
(con
tinue
d)__
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
__
Test
Pre
para
tion
Mea
sure
R
elat
ive
toIn
form
atio
n�V
aria
ble
Act
iviti
esa
Tim
ebSA
T or
AC
TcN
ever
d
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
Col
lege
: Sel
ectiv
ity-.1
0-.1
3-.1
4-.0
7
Col
lege
: Num
ber o
f PPS
T ta
kers
-.09
-.11
-.06
.03
Rea
sons
for t
akin
g th
e PP
ST.2
4.1
9.1
1.0
9
SAT
or A
CT
take
n-.1
0-.1
4.0
0-.0
3
Cur
rent
PPS
T te
sts t
aken
-.42
-.24
-.13
-.17
Prev
ious
PPS
T te
sts t
aken
.44
.22
.18
.16
PPST
Rea
ding
scor
e-.2
6.1
7-.1
1-.2
3
PPST
Writ
ing
scor
e-.2
3-.1
4-.1
8-.1
9
PPST
Mat
hem
atic
s sco
re-.3
9-.2
8-.2
0-.2
7__
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
__
Not
e. N
s var
y fr
om 9
73 to
2,4
32. C
orre
latio
ns th
at a
re b
oth
stat
istic
ally
(p <
.05,
two-
tail)
and
pra
ctic
ally
(r ≥
.l0)
sign
ifica
nt a
reun
derli
ned.
Sig
ns o
f cor
rela
tions
with
Info
rmat
ion
Rec
eive
d ab
out P
PST�
Tim
ing:
Num
ber o
f �N
ever
� R
espo
nses
hav
e be
enre
flect
ed.
a Num
ber o
f Tes
t Pre
para
tion
Act
iviti
es. b Te
st P
repa
ratio
n Ti
me.
c Prep
arat
ion
Rel
ativ
e to
SA
T or
AC
T. d In
form
atio
n R
ecei
ved
abou
tPP
ST�
Tim
ing:
Num
ber o
f �N
ever
� R
espo
nses
.
29
30
Tabl
e 16
Cor
rela
tions
of Q
uest
ionn
aire
Mea
sure
s, B
ackg
roun
d V
aria
bles
, and
PPS
T Sc
ores
with
Tes
t Pre
para
tion
Mea
sure
s, fo
r Whi
te a
nd B
lack
Tes
t Tak
ers
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
Test
Pre
para
tion
Mea
sure
Whi
te T
est T
aker
s
Bla
ck T
est T
aker
s
Rel
ativ
e to
Info
rmat
ion-
-R
elat
ive
toIn
form
atio
n�V
aria
ble
Act
iviti
esa
Tim
ebSA
T or
AC
TcN
ever
dA
ctiv
ities
aTi
meb
SAT
or A
CTc
Nev
erd
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
Ow
n op
inio
ns a
bout
the
PPST
.39
.34
.35
.30
.22
.21
.15
.10
Ow
n co
nfid
ence
abo
ut th
e PP
ST-.3
0-.1
9-.2
5-.1
9.0
4-.0
9-.1
7.0
4
Frie
nds�
opi
nion
s abo
ut th
e PP
ST.2
8.1
0.2
3.2
5.2
3.1
4.2
2.3
1
Frie
nds�
con
fiden
ce a
bout
the
PPST
-.05
-.07
-.31
-.08
-.03
-.09
-.18
.03
Prof
esso
rs� o
pini
ons a
bout
the
PPST
.18
.01
.08
.22
.26
.16
.16
.17
Frie
nds�
pre
para
tion
.22
.10
.16
.23
.39
.27
.09
.16
Test
anx
iety
.34
.25
.17
.19
.14
.18
.08
.00
Aca
dem
ic se
lf-es
teem
-.17
-.11
-.09
-.06
.22
.17
.08
.07
Aca
dem
ic lo
cus o
f con
trol
.10
.08
.19
.08
.02
-.06
-.12
.05
Info
rmat
ion
rece
ived
abo
ut th
e PP
ST�
.13
.07
.02
.15
.03
.08
.03
.05
So
urce
: ETS
mat
eria
l
Info
rmat
ion
rece
ived
abo
ut th
e PP
ST�
.07
-.05
-.01
.27
.27
.01
.02
.23
So
urce
: Pro
fess
ors o
r col
lege
staf
f(T
able
con
tinue
s)
Tabl
e 16
(con
tinue
d)__
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
__
Test
Pre
para
tion
Mea
sure
Whi
te T
est T
aker
s
Bla
ck T
est T
aker
s
Rel
ativ
e to
Info
rmat
ion�
Rel
ativ
e to
Info
rmat
ion�
Var
iabl
eA
ctiv
ities
aTi
meb
SAT
or A
CTc
Nev
erd
Act
iviti
esa
Tim
ebSA
T or
AC
TcN
ever
d
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
Info
rmat
ion
rece
ived
abo
ut th
e PP
ST�
-.03
-.01
.11
.07
-.10
-.01
.10
.07
So
urce
: Col
lege
frie
nds
Info
rmat
ion
rece
ived
abo
ut th
e PP
ST�
.11
.14
.06
.05
-.20
-.02
-.04
-.04
So
urce
: Ano
ther
way
Age
.19
.31
.22
.03
.11
.15
.18
-.13
Sex
.09
.05
.02
.01
.09
.05
.03
.04
Ethn
icity
----
----
----
----
Pare
ntal
edu
catio
n-.0
6-.0
8-.2
0-.1
2-.0
6.0
2-.2
5-.0
6
Yea
rs si
nce
scho
ol.1
5.1
8.1
0.1
4.1
5.1
3.1
3.0
6
Enro
lled
in te
ache
r edu
catio
n pr
ogra
m.1
5.1
8.0
8.0
6.2
4.1
3.1
6.1
7
Und
ergr
adua
te G
PA-.0
5.0
5.1
1-.0
3.1
2.1
7-.0
3.0
5
Col
lege
: Con
trol
.09
.16
.12
.09
.13
.09
.10
.13
Col
lege
: His
toric
ally
Bla
ck C
olle
ge.0
1-.1
0.0
2-.0
5.2
3-.1
7-.0
9-.1
8
Col
lege
: Car
negi
e C
lass
ifica
tion
.12
.08
.17
.11
.24
.14
.25
.16
(Tab
le c
ontin
ues)
31
Tabl
e 16
(con
tinue
d)__
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
__
Test
Pre
para
tion
Mea
sure
Whi
te T
est T
aker
s
Bla
ck T
est T
aker
s
Rel
ativ
e to
Info
rmat
ion-
-R
elat
ive
toIn
form
atio
n--
Var
iabl
eA
ctiv
ities
aTi
meb
SAT
or A
CTc
Nev
erd
Act
iviti
esa
Tim
ebSA
T or
AC
TcN
ever
d
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
Col
lege
: Sel
ectiv
ity-.1
1-.1
4-.1
3-.0
7-.0
3.0
0-.2
5-.1
3
Col
lege
: Num
ber o
f PPS
T ta
kers
-.09
-.11
-.04
.04
-.09
.00
-.03
-.09
Rea
sons
for t
akin
g th
e PP
ST.2
5.2
0.1
2.0
9.2
0.1
3.1
0.1
4
SAT
or A
CT
take
n-.0
8-.1
2.0
0-.0
3-.1
1-.1
9.0
0.0
2
Cur
rent
PPS
T te
sts t
aken
-.45
-.26
-.13
-.17
-.29
-.17
-.05
-.16
Prev
ious
PPS
T te
sts t
aken
.47
.25
.20
.16
.26
.09
.12
.09
PPST
Rea
ding
scor
e-.1
8-.0
9-.0
8-.2
2-.1
8-.1
0-.2
2-.1
6
PPST
Writ
ing
scor
e-.1
7-.0
5-.2
0-.1
7-.0
7-.0
6-.1
3-.1
3
PPST
Mat
hem
atic
s sco
re-.3
8-.2
3-.2
2-.2
7-.1
7-.1
0-.2
6-.0
7__
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
__
Not
e. N
s var
y fr
om 1
58 to
375
for W
hite
test
take
rs a
nd fr
om 9
4 to
279
for B
lack
test
take
rs. C
orre
latio
ns th
at a
re b
oth
stat
istic
ally
(p <
.05,
two-
tail)
and
prac
tical
ly (r
≥ .l
0) si
gnifi
cant
are
und
erlin
ed. S
igns
of c
orre
latio
ns w
ith In
form
atio
n R
ecei
ved
abou
t the
PPS
T�Ti
min
g: N
umbe
r of �
Nev
er�
Res
pons
es h
ave
been
refle
cted
.
a Num
ber o
f Tes
t Pre
para
tion
Act
iviti
es. b Te
st P
repa
ratio
n Ti
me,
c Prep
arat
ion
Rel
ativ
e to
SA
T or
AC
T. d In
form
atio
n R
ecei
ved
abou
t PPS
T�Ti
min
g:N
umbe
r of �
Nev
er�
Res
pons
es.
32
Tab
le 1
7
Cor
rela
tions
of Q
uest
ionn
aire
Mea
sure
s, B
ackg
roun
d V
aria
bles
, and
PPS
T Sc
ores
with
Tes
t Pre
para
tion
Mea
sure
s, fo
r Tes
t Tak
ers w
ith H
igh
Scho
olEd
ucat
ed a
nd C
olle
ge E
duca
ted
Pare
nts
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
Test
Pre
para
tion
Mea
sure
Hig
h Sc
hool
Edu
cate
d Pa
rent
s
C
olle
ge E
duca
ted
Pare
nts
Rel
ativ
e to
Info
rmat
ion�
Rel
ativ
e to
Info
rmat
ion�
Var
iabl
eA
ctiv
ities
aTi
meb
SAT
or A
CTc
Nev
erd
Act
iviti
esa
Tim
ebSA
T or
AC
TcN
ever
d
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
Ow
n op
inio
ns a
bout
the
PPST
.41
.32
.37
.39
.36
.34
.27
.26
Ow
n co
nfid
ence
abo
ut th
e PP
ST-.1
3-.1
7-.1
4-.2
1-.2
7-.1
7-.2
5-.1
5
Frie
nds�
opi
nion
s abo
ut th
e PP
ST.3
3.1
3.2
1.2
5.2
7.1
4.2
0.2
7
Frie
nds�
con
fiden
ce a
bout
the
PPST
-.09
-.09
-.36
-.14
-.03
-.07
-.25
-.05
Prof
esso
rs� o
pini
ons a
bout
the
PPST
.11
.06
.06
.20
.24
.06
.07
.23
Frie
nds�
pre
para
tion
.56
.21
.17
.30
.21
.20
.12
.20
Test
anx
iety
.28
.29
.18
.01
.30
.22
.11
.23
Aca
dem
ic se
lf-es
teem
-.05
-.08
-.01
.19
-.11
-.08
-.06
-.12
Aca
dem
ic lo
cus o
f con
trol
.08
.06
.15
.21
.13
.08
-.11
.04
Info
rmat
ion
rece
ived
abo
ut th
e PP
ST�
.05
.08
.04
.16
.13
.06
.02
.13
So
urce
: ETS
mat
eria
l(T
able
con
tinue
s)
33
Tabl
e 17
(con
tinue
d)__
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
__
Test
Pre
para
tion
Mea
sure
Hig
h Sc
hool
Edu
cate
d Pa
rent
s
C
olle
ge E
duca
ted
Pare
nts
Rel
ativ
e to
Info
rmat
ion�
Rel
ativ
e to
Info
rmat
ion�
Var
iabl
eA
ctiv
ities
aTi
meb
SAT
or A
CTc
Nev
erd
Act
iviti
esa
Tim
ebSA
T or
AC
TcN
ever
d
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
Info
rmat
ion
rece
ived
abo
ut th
e PP
ST�
.07
-.01
-.02
.17
.10
-.05
-.03
.28
So
urce
: Pro
fess
ors o
r col
lege
staf
f
Info
rmat
ion
rece
ived
abo
ut th
e PP
ST�
-.08
-.06
.15
.00
-.02
.01
.08
.08
So
urce
: Col
lege
frie
nds
Info
rmat
ion
rece
ived
abo
ut th
e PP
ST�
.14
.12
.01
.10
.04
.14
.08
.04
So
urce
: Ano
ther
way
Age
.22
.30
.18
.14
.16
.30
.16
-.05
Sex
.07
.00
-.07
-.03
.08
.03
.08
.05
Ethn
icity
.20
.18
.17
.08
.21
.21
.07
.12
Pare
ntal
edu
catio
n--
----
----
----
--
Yea
rs si
nce
scho
ol.2
2.2
5.0
5.1
1.1
5.1
6.1
0.1
3
Enro
lled
in te
ache
r edu
catio
n pr
ogra
m.2
3.2
2.1
1.2
1.1
4.1
5.0
8.0
4
Und
ergr
adua
te G
PA.0
6.0
9.0
9.2
4-.1
0.0
1.1
2-.1
3
Col
lege
: Con
trol
.20
.13
.06
.20
.07
.14
.14
.14
Col
lege
: His
toric
ally
Bla
ck C
olle
ge-.2
0-.0
7.0
0-.1
1-.1
9-.2
5-.0
1-.0
9(T
able
con
tinue
s)
34
Tabl
e 17
(con
tinue
d)__
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
__
Test
Pre
para
tion
Mea
sure
Hig
h Sc
hool
Edu
cate
d Pa
rent
s
C
olle
ge E
duca
ted
Pare
nts
Rel
ativ
e to
Info
rmat
ion�
Rel
ativ
e to
Info
rmat
ion�
Var
iabl
eA
ctiv
ities
aTi
meb
SAT
or A
CTc
Nev
erd
Act
iviti
esa
Tim
ebSA
T or
AC
TcN
ever
d
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
Col
lege
: Car
negi
e C
lass
ifica
tion
-.21
.07
.16
.24
.07
.08
.14
.16
Col
lege
: Sel
ectiv
ity-.1
4-.1
1-.0
2-.0
5-.0
8-.1
5-.1
6-.0
7
Col
lege
: Num
ber o
f PPS
T ta
kers
-.29
-.18
-.05
-.26
-.01
-.08
-.05
.10
Rea
sons
for t
akin
g PP
ST.3
2.2
8.1
6.2
4.2
4.1
8.1
2.1
0
SAT
or A
CT
take
n-.0
9-.1
1.0
0-.0
5-.0
9-.1
4.0
0.0
2
Cur
rent
PPS
T te
sts t
aken
-.43
-.26
-.04
-.10
-.40
-.22
-.13
-.18
Prev
ious
PPS
T te
sts t
aken
.41
.23
.15
.09
.45
.22
.15
.17
PPST
Rea
ding
scor
e-.2
1-.1
9-.2
0-.0
2-.2
9-.1
8-.0
3-.3
0
PPST
Writ
ing
scor
e-.2
1-.2
0-.2
8-.1
1-.2
3-.1
3-.1
3-.1
9
PPST
Mat
hem
atic
s sco
re-.3
6-.3
2-.2
2-.1
0-.4
1-.2
6-.1
4-.2
9__
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
__N
ote.
Ns v
ary
from
207
to 6
91 fo
r tes
t tak
ers w
ith h
igh
scho
ol e
duca
ted
pare
nts a
nd fr
om 7
09 to
1,5
64 fo
r tes
t tak
ers w
ith c
olle
ge e
duca
ted
pare
nts.
Cor
rela
tions
that
are
bot
h st
atis
tical
ly (p
< .0
5, tw
o-ta
il) a
nd p
ract
ical
ly (r
≥ .l
0) si
gnifi
cant
are
und
erlin
ed. S
igns
of c
orre
latio
ns w
ith In
form
atio
nR
ecei
ved
abou
t PPS
T�Ti
min
g: N
umbe
r of �
Nev
er�
Res
pons
es h
ave
been
refle
cted
.
a Num
ber o
f Tes
t Pre
para
tion
Act
iviti
es. b Te
st P
repa
ratio
n Ti
me.
c Prep
arat
ion
Rel
ativ
e to
SA
T or
AC
T. d In
form
atio
n R
ecei
ved
abou
t PPS
T�Ti
min
g:N
umbe
r of �
Nev
er�
Res
pons
es.
35
36
Table 18
Frequency Distribution for Changes in Test Preparation Material and Services, for Total Sample________________________________________________________________________________
Percentage
Very Somewhat Slightly Not Helpful Don�tChange Helpful Helpful Helpful at All Know N________________________________________________________________________________
More information about the PPST�s content and format 59 27 8 2 4 2,444
More information about when 46 29 14 6 5 2,424 and where the PPST is required
More information about existing 60 22 11 3 4 2,430 PPST preparation resources (courses, books, computer software, etc.)
More review courses in writing 56 24 10 4 6 2,448 or mathematics________________________________________________________________________________
Note. Percentages may not total 100% because of rounding error.
37
Table 19
Frequency Distribution for Changes in Test Preparation Material and Services, for Ethnic Groups_________________________________________________________________________________
Percentage
Very Somewhat Slightly Not Helpful Don�t Change Helpful Helpful Helpful at All Know N χ2 W _________________________________________________________________________________
More information 24.08 .17a
about the PPST�s content and format
White 56 30 8 2 4 1,885 Black 79 14 3 2 3 281 Hispanic 73 20 7 0 0 44 Asian 58 23 14 1 4 74 Other 70 18 6 2 4 66
More information 17.93 .15a
about when and where the PPST is required
White 43 31 16 6 5 1,865 Black 60 22 8 6 4 280 Hispanic 64 24 7 4 0 45 Asian 49 23 16 7 5 74 Other 58 18 12 4 8 66
More information about 26.24 .18a
existing PPST preparation resources (courses, books, computer software, etc.)
White 57 24 13 3 4 1,870 Black 80 11 3 1 5 281 Hispanic 75 14 9 0 2 44 Asian 59 25 7 1 8 75 Other 67 16 10 2 4 67
More review courses in 40.55* .22a
writing or mathematics
White 51 26 12 5 6 1,890 Black 82 11 3 1 4 279 Hispanic 78 11 4 2 4 45 Asian 62 20 10 1 7 74 Other 72 13 9 3 3 67
_________________________________________________________________________________Note. Percentages may not total 100% because of rounding error. * p < .01. aW > .10.
38
Table 20
Frequency Distribution Changes in Test Preparation Material and Services, for Test Takers with HighSchool Educated and College Educated Parents_________________________________________________________________________________
Percentage
Very Somewhat Slightly Not Helpful Don�t Change Helpful Helpful Helpful at All Know N χ2 W _________________________________________________________________________________
More information 17.11* .15a
about the PPST�s content and format
High school 65 25 5 4 1 680 educated parents
College 56 29 8 2 5 1,584 educated parents
More information 7.98 .10a
about when and where the PPST is required
High school 49 30 11 7 3 676 educated parents
College 44 29 16 5 6 1,569 educated parents
More information about 4.98 .08 existing PPST preparation resources (courses, books, computer software, etc.)
High school 65 20 10 3 3 675 educated parents
College 57 23 12 2 5 1,575 educated parents
More review courses in 21.57* .16a
writing or mathematics
High school 67 18 6 5 4 686 educated parents
College 50 27 13 4 6 1,583 educated parents
_________________________________________________________________________________Note. Percentages may not total 100% because of rounding error. * p < .01. aW > .10.
39
Discussion
Extent and Nature of Test Preparation
Preparation for the PPST is, indeed, limited, judging from the present results. This
outcome is consistent with the focus-group study of PPST takers (Wilder & Stricker, 1998) and
the survey of Praxis I test takers (Gordon S. Black Corporation, 1996).
The greater preparation for the SAT than for the PPST observed in this study is congruent
with two surveys of SAT takers (Powers, 1988, 1998). Only 3% to 9% of the SAT takers
reported that they did not prepare at all for the SAT; the comparable figure was 19% in the
present study.
Although test takers engaged in a variety of preparation activities, the most common ones
were free or inexpensive, such as reading free material provided by ETS or taking a sample test;
costly activities, such as test preparation courses or tutors, were infrequent. This contrast
between inexpensive and costly activities is generally consistent with the findings in surveys of
SAT takers (Powers, 1988, 1998). A major difference between the present study and these
surveys is that appreciably more SAT takers than PPST takers reported that they had participated
in a test preparation course (over 15% to 18% for SAT takers vs. 5% for PPST takers) and had
taken an actual test (SAT or PSAT) previously (over 63% to 81% for SAT takers vs. 22% for
PPST takers).
These two differences probably reflect the divergent test-taking cultures for the SAT and
PPST. SAT preparation courses are probably more widely available than PPST courses. SAT
courses are offered by many high schools (47% to 52% in the two surveys of SAT takers;
Powers, 1988, 1998) and by many commercial organizations. In contrast, though no firm data are
available, it appears that few colleges and universities offer PPST preparation courses. And at
least one nationwide test preparation company, Kaplan Educational Centers, does not offer such
courses. The restricted availability of PPST preparation courses may be attributed to the smaller
number of PPST takers: In the1998�99 testing year, 2,348,759 students took the SAT
(K. Morrison, personal communication, November 14, 2000) and approximately 117,000
students took the PPST (R. J. Tannenbaum, personal communication, November 2, 2000).
Alternatively, it may reflect smaller demand for preparation by PPST takers, though the present
findings about interest in test preparation products and services suggest otherwise.
40
The greater tendency for SAT takers than for PPST takers to have taken the actual test
previously (either the SAT or PSAT for SAT takers) is probably due to two factors. One is the
widespread use of the PSAT, which is required in many schools. In 1999�00, 2,290,939 students
took that test (B. Schubert, personal communication, March 9, 2001). The second is how the
SAT and PPST are evaluated by test users: continuously for the SAT and pass-fail for the PPST.
SAT takers commonly take the test in their junior year in high school and retake it in their senior
year in an effort to improve their scores, and thereby enhance their chances of acceptance by the
college or university of their choice. In contrast, PPST takers only need to pass the test, and
hence only retake it if they fail.
An important aspect of the findings is the absence of ethnic-group or social-class
differences in the extent and nature of test preparation. Although this result is bothersome
because of the higher failure rates for minority groups, it suggests that the reasons for lack of
preparation for the PPST lie elsewhere.
Possible Reasons for Not Preparing
The reported reasons for not preparing and the empirical correlates of the preparation
measures provide some insight into the lack of preparation. The reasons and the correlates are
primarily attitudinal. Test takers who report that they prepare the least also report that they are
confident that they will do well on the test, are not test anxious, think that the test is easy and
preparing for it is unimportant, think that their peers share these beliefs, and think that their peers
do little preparation, too. Ignorance of test preparation resources and experience in taking the
PPST also seem to play a role, but a lesser one, and issues of time or money appear to have little
or no involvement.
These findings are generally congruent with the observations in a qualitative study of
preparation for classroom tests that preparation depends on students believing that it would make
a difference (Van Etten et al., 1997). When students perceived that the outcome of the test was
determined by their ability or their prior knowledge rather than by their effort in preparing, they
prepared less. Applying this observation to the PPST, insofar as PPST takers believe that they
will perform well enough to pass the test or that it is impossible to prepare for it (presumably
because the PPST assesses basic skills), they would be expected not to prepare. The present
41
findings about the relevance of peer opinions and behavior are also consistent with another
observation in the qualitative study: Others (peers and families) influence preparation.
Subgroup differences in reported reasons and correlates of preparation, particularly less
awareness of test preparation resources by White and middle-class test takers and fewer
correlates of test preparation for Black test takers, suggest that the processes underlying lack of
preparation vary in some ways with ethnicity and social class. These differences also need to be
taken into account in planning interventions to improve test preparation that will be maximally
effective.
A major theme running through the findings is that test takers� attitudes that they will do
well on the test was an important contributor to their lack of preparation. In fact, these attitudes
were only weakly related to actual test performance (e.g., Own Confidence correlated .30 to .34
with the PPST scores in the total sample). Hence, the test takers were not accurate forecasters of
their test performance, the upshot being that some did not prepare enough and failed as a
consequence. The inaccuracy of these forecasts is not surprising, for only about half of the test
takers reported taking a sample PPST and even fewer reported taking an actual PPST, and thus
did not have a good basis for assessing their test performance. (SAT takers, in contrast, are much
more likely to have obtained good feedback, either from a sample test or from having taken an
actual SAT or PSAT; Powers, 1988, 1998). This inaccuracy is exacerbated by differences in
passing scores from state to state and from college to college. An obvious remedy would be to
foster greater opportunities for accurate feedback about likely PPST performance that test takers
can use to gauge their need for preparation.
Changes in Test Preparation Material and Services
The findings about possible changes in test preparation material and services make it
clear that there is considerable interest among all test takers, but especially among minority and
working-class test takers, in all kinds of test preparation, running the gamut from more
information about the PPST to more review courses in writing and mathematics. At the same
time, it must be borne in mind that many of these same test takers did not use test preparation
material that is already easily available to them, such as Tests at a Glance�Praxis I: Academic
Skills Assessment and the sample tests in the Pre-Professional Skills Tests (PPST) Guide.
42
Test Preparation and PPST Performance
The inverse relationships between test preparation and PPST performance is noteworthy.
The most likely explanation for this seemingly counterintuitive relationship may simply be that
test takers who prepare most do so because they are the most deficient in the abilities assessed by
the PPST (e.g., Powers & Hecht, 1982). Such a relationship has been found in other studies of
test preparation for admissions tests, such as the Graduate Record Examinations® (GRE®)
General Test (Powers, 1985) and the Graduate Management Admission Test® (GMAT®)
(Powers & Hecht, 1982).
Conclusion
The longstanding and important phenomenon that stimulated this study�many people do
not prepare for the PPST, though everyone knows it is difficult�appears to be explicable in
terms of test takers� attitudes. There is good reason to hope that their misperceptions can be
corrected by accurate feedback. An experimental demonstration of this point is clearly in order.
43
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Notes1 The scoring of single items is shown in brackets.2 The Hispanic category consists of Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Other Hispanic; the Asian
category consists of Asian, Southeast Asian, and Pacific Islander; and the Other category
consists of Native American and Other.3 The scoring is shown in brackets.4 The codes for the dummy variables were:
a. Test Preparation Time (11 to 20 hours, 21 to 30 hours, 31 to 40 hours, More than 40
hours=1; None, 1 to 5 hours, 6 to 10 hours=0)
b. Sex (female=1, male=0)
c. Ethnicity (White=1, All others=0; Black=1, All others=0; Hispanic=1, All others=0;
Asian=1, All others=0; Other=1, All others=0)
d. Parental Education (College educated=1; Not college educated=0)
e. Years Since School (Currently attending=1, All others=0; Less than 1 year and 1�3
years=1, All others=0; 4�6 years, 7�10 years, More than 10 years=1, all others=0)
f. Enrolled in Teacher Education Program (Currently=1, All others=0; Formerly=1, All
others=0; Never=1, All others=0)
g. College: Control (Public=1, All others=0; Independent=1, All others=0; Catholic=1,
All others=0; Protestant and other religious=1, All others=0)
h. College: Historically Black College (Yes=1, No=0)
i. College: Carnegie Classification (Research Universities I and II=1, All others=0;
Doctoral Universities I and II=1, All others=0; Master�s Colleges and Universities=1; All
others=0; Baccalaureate Colleges I and II=1, All others=0; Associate of Arts Colleges and
Specialized Institutions=1, all others=0)
j. College: Selectivity (Moderately Difficult, Very Difficult, and Most Difficult=1;
Noncompetitive or Minimally Difficult=0)
k. Reasons for Taking the PPST (Enter=1, All others=0; Requirements=1, All others=0;
Enter and Requirements=1, All others=0; License=1, All others=0; Enter, Requirements, and
License=1, All others=0; Miscellaneous=1, All others=0)5One dummy variable was excluded from each set to avoid collinearity: Other for Ethnicity,
Miscellaneous for Reasons for Taking the PPST, 4 years or More for Years Since School,
46
Never for Enrolled in Teacher Education Program, Protestant and Other Religious for College:
Control, and Associate of Arts Colleges and Specialized Institutions for College: Carnegie
Classification.
Appendix
Survey of PPST Preparation
Initial Letter Sent to PPST Takers
Follow-up Letter Sent to PPST Takers
