PREPARING EDUCATORS TO

INVOLVE FAMILIESFrom Theory to Practice

HeatherB. WeissHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducation,HarvardFamilyResearchThvjrcr

Holly KreiderHarvardGraduateSchoolofElucation,HarvardFamilyResearchPiyject

M. ElenaLopezHarvardGraduate SchoolofEducation,HarvardFamilyResearchPmjecc

CelinaM. ChatmanUniversityofChicago,CencerjbrHumanPotentialandPublicPolity Harris GraduateSchoolofPublic PolicyStudies

Editors

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1. Education,Elementary—Parentparticipation.2. Elementaryschoolteachers—Trainingof. 3. Homeandschool.4. Child development.I. Weiss,HeatherBastow.II. HarvardFamily ResearchProject.LBIO4&5.P74 2005372.1l9’2—dc22

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Introduction:Preparing Educatorsin Family Involvement

Inésdidn’t knowwhat to do. Her daughterNina sat underthe kitchentable crying, refusingto continuewith herhomework.Inéswasexasper-ated.Nina had beenworkingon her homeworkassignmentfor thepastthree hoursand was besideherself “I don’t like it, I don’t knowwhat todo,” shecried.

In the beginningoftheyear, Nina had beenplacedin a bilingualfirst-gradeclassroom.Inéswentto theschooland talkedwith theprinci-pal to requestan all-Englishsetting. Inesfeltit wasgoodfor herdaughterto be in an all-Englishclassroomso thatNina could avoid the strugglewith English that her motherfaced. Shefelt thatfor her daughter tobecomea professionalin America,shehad to befluent in English. Inésherselfenrolled in English classesat thecommunityhigh schooland, atthe adviceofher closefriendsfromchurch, onlyspoketo herdaughterinEnglish.Inéswasgratefulthattheprincipalpermittedtheswitchbut thenfacedtheproblemofnotbeingable to help herdaughterwith homework.

At theparent-teacherconferencein the beginningof theyear, InEswas afraid to tell the teacher,Ms. Chesin,abouther difficulties helpingNina with homeworkand understandingwhat was senthome. Ninatranslatedthroughoutmostofthemeeting.WhenInésaskedthe teacherfor more direction on howto help,Ms. ChesinencouragedInés to readwith her daughterin Spanishat home.

With the springparent-teacherconferencecomingup in the nextfewweeks,Ineswaspreparedto ask againfor help with the homework,but shealso anticipatedMs. Chesinrecommendinga bilingual place-ment Shewonderedif shehad madethe wrongdecisionby choosingamonolingualclassroomfor her daughter.WouldNina bebetterservedina bilingual classroom?Howcould Inésknow?

xi

xii PREPARING EDUCATORS To INVOLVE FAMILIES

The caseof Inespoints to someof themanyfacetsof family involvementin education,including homeworkhelp,advocatingfor one’s child, andnavi-gating thechoicesof theschoolsystem.By family invo1vemei~t,we meanthe

activities that families engagein to support their children’s learning,whetherathome,at school,or in thecommunity.As thestoryof Indsillustrates,family

involvementhasmultiple dimensions,including parentalaspirations,parent-

ing behaviors,andschoolrelationships.Inéshadhigh hopesfor herdaughter’ssuccessthroughgoing to schoolandlearningEnglish.Sheofferedherselfas amodelfor herdaughterby takingEnglishclasses.Sheadvocatedherdaughter’s

classroomplacementwith the principal and participatedin parent-teacherconferences.Yet shequestionedtheoutcomeof herinvolvementandstruggled

to helpwith herchild’s homework.Like Inés,manyparentswantto beinvolvedin their children’s learning,but find it challengingbecausetheylack informa-tion on which to basetheir decisions,confidence to approachteachers,and

practical skills to help their children.Manyteacherswantto helpparents,too,but lackthe skills andschoolsup-

portsthat facilitatemeaningfulconversationswith parents.Today’steachersmeetincreasinglydiversestudentsandfamilies, with differentlanguagesandwaysofthinkingaboutlearning;theyfind parentswho work andhavelittle time to come

to school;andthoseservingpoorcommunitiesencounterfamilieswho areover-

whelmedwith thestrainsof povertyandthelackof supportsin their neighbor-

hoods. Teachers,however, who actively contactthe families of low-achievingstudentsdomakeadifferencein improvingtheirperformanceovertime (Westat

& Policy StudyAssociates,2001). Throughoutreach,families canprovide theirchildren with thehomesupportsthat align with schoolexpectations.By under-

standingfamilies, teacherscan align their instructionwith the knowledgeandresourcesthat families possessor what is referredto as family “funds of knowl-edge:>To preparefor home-schoolrelationships,including solving thecompli-

catedissuessuch as thosein Inés’ case,educatorscanbenefit from preservice

trainingandcontinuingprofessionaldevelopmentin family involvement.

Teachersneednew skills to developstrongpartnershipswith families.Their repertoireof skills should includebeingableto do thefollowing;

• Relate to parents—andfaniilies—in ways that build trust and encourageparticipation

• Communicatewith parentsthe new standardsthat areaffectingall schoolsandall children

• Learn about parentinvolvement from parents> perspectiveand not solelyfrom theschool’sofficial policies

• Communicatewith and engagefamilies who come from different socio-economicandculturalbackgroundsthantheir own

Introduction;PreparingEducatorsin Family Involvement xiii

About This Casebook

We createdthis casebookas a teachingtool to encouragetheintegrationoffamily involvementin the preparationof teachersandschooladministrators.A vast literature on family involvement confirms that when families areinvolved in children’s learning,no matterwhat their incomeor background,they havea positive influence on studentsocial and academicoutcomes(Henderson& Mapp,2002).Despitetheimportanceof family-schoolpartner-ships,teachereducationprogramsfrequentlydo notcoverfamily involvementin their curriculum(Epstein,Sanders,& Clark, 1999;Shartrand,Weiss,Kreider,& Lopez, 1997).Newteachers,in particular,feel that they lackadequateprepa-ration in working with families (Public EducationNetwork, 2003).

In developingthis casebookfor educators,we focusedonconnectingtheoryand researchto practicein family involvement.WeadoptedEcologicalSystemsTheoryasanoverarchingframeworkfor thinkingaboutthemultiple contextsofchildren’slives andfor consideringhow families,schools,andcommunitiescanbestsupportchild development.Within this framework,seventheoreticalper-spectivesserveas“lenses”throughwhich to analyzefamily involvementpractice.We also choseto use casesto capturethe complexity of the relationshipsoffamilies, schools,andcommunitiesandpaid particularattentionto developingcasesthatfocuson dilemmasof practice—.-difficultandambiguoussituationsinwhich educatorsandparentsmustnegotiatetheir differences.The casesreflectthe livesof childrenin theelementaryschoolyearsandtheir families.

ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY

EcologicalSystemsTheoryhighlightstheimportanceof contextin children’sdevelopment(Bronfenbrenner,1979, 1986a;Bronfenbrenner& Crouter,1982).Contextis understoodin termsof varioussystems’that influencethechild’sdevelopmenteitherdirectly (e.g., throughdaily routinesand interactionsthatoccurin thechild’s immediatecontext)or indirectly (i.e., throughmoredistalfactors that impact those routines and interactions).A primary tenet ofEcologicalSystemsTheoryis that everylevel of the ecologicalsystemis inter-connectedandthus caninfluenceall othersubsystems.Theseinfluencesarereciprocalratherthanunidirectional.Thus, routinesand interactionsin thechild’s classroomaffect what happensin the child’s home and vice versa.EcologicalSystemsTheoryhasthecapacityto explainhowissuessuchassocialandeconomicpolicies (considereddistantfrom a child’s everydayexperience)affect what happensin the child’s immediatecontexts.It is a theorythat ispowerful preciselybecauseit portraysthe complexityof thesemultiple levelsandhelpsexplain the mechanismsthroughwhich childrenand their familiesare influenced.

xiv PREPARING EDUCATORS TO INVOLVE FAMILIES

Ecological SystemsTheoryis representedvisually as a set of concentriccirclessurroundingthechild (See Figure FM.1). Immediatecontextsin whichthe child interactscomprisethe microsystem.Adults that nurtureand teachchildren,peersandsiblingswhoplayandsocializewith them,andsettingssuchas daycare,home,andschool constitutethe microsystem.The mesosystemis the next level of EcologicalSystemsTheoryandinvolves interactionsandrelationshipsbetweenandamongindividualsandsettingsthat comprisethemicrosystem.For example,mesosysteminteractionsinclude those betweenparentsandteachers(individuals)andamongmicrosystemsettings(e.g.,childcarecenters,afterschoolprograms,and/orschools).In this way, the mesosys-tem representsthedegreeof connection,coordination,andcontinuityacrossachild’s microsystems.

STEM

FigureFM.1 EcologicalSystemsTheory

SOURCE;Adaptedwith permission1mmZigler, E. F., & Stevenson,M. F, (Eds.)(1993). Childrenin n Changing1-Vorld: Developnientand Social Issues(p. 10). Pacific Grove,CA; Brooks/Cole.

Introduction;PreparingEducatorsin Family Involvement xv

The exosystemof the Ecological SystemsTheory is comprisedof thecontextsthat influencethechild indirectly.Thus,theexosystemexertsits influ-ence on the child via its impact on individualsand institutionsin the child’smicrosystem.Forexample,parents’workplacesmayinstitutenewwork sched-ulesthat interferewith parents’ability to readto theirchildreneachnight, whichthenaffectsthechildren’sliteracyachievement.Themacrosystemoperatesat thebroadestlevel of influenceand is comprisedof political systems,socialpolicy,culture, economictrends,and so forth. Macrosystemsdetermineto a greatextent the resources,opportunities,and constraintspresentin the lives ofchildren and families. For example,welfarereform (initiated at the nationallevel) has exertedcontrol over parents’accessto economicsupportand haschangedthe conditionsunderwhich parentsreceive that support and theways that theyprovideandcarefor their children.Culturalpracticesandbeliefsystemsaffect what parentsand teachersprioritize andvalueand how theyorganizetheir daily routinesto achievetheir goals.

Thechronosystemrepresentstheelementof time, bothin the individual’slife trajectory(e.g., infancy, childhood,adolescence,adulthood,etc.) andhis-torical context(Seealso Bronfenbrenner,1986b).This volume focuseson thedevelopmentalperiodof middle childhood,andat a time in which economicfactorsandtechnologicaldevelopmentsprofoundlyshapethecontextsandset-tings in which childrenlive. For example,economicandcultural changesinsocietyoverthepast50 yearshaveled to a dramaticincreasein dual-incomefamilies, which in turn has affected children’sdaily routinesandexperiencesthroughnonparentalcare.Furthermore,the rise of computeruseand othervisual mediahavehad a profoundimpacton how childrenspendleisuretime,learnculturalnormsandvalues,andgatherinformation.It is easyto losesightof how importantthesechangeshavebeento children’sdaily life experiencesandto fail to considerhow theyinfluencetheir development.

THE CASES: FAMILY INVOLVEMENT DILEMMAS

We createdthis casebookto addresssome of the difficulties that schoolsface in establishingcommunicationand meaningfulrelationshipswith low-incomefamilieswhoseracial, ethnic,cultural, andlinguistic backgroundsdif-fer from thoseof school staff. Thecasespresentsituationsrequiringproblemsolving that sharpenteachers’critical thinking skills and also exposethem toperspectivesof parents,students,andotherfamily membersthat theymaynotlearnaboutthrougha teacher’sdaily routine.Accordingto DennisShirley,pro-fessorat BostonCollege,teachersmustknow how to “think critically quickly,creatively,and responsively”(Harvard Family ResearchProject,2003). Suchskills arebestlearnedthroughreflectionandproblemsolvingin theclassroomand in field settings.This volume supportsskill developmentby offering

xvi PREPARING EDUCATORS TO INVOLVE FAMILIES

teachers,through the use of casesfor discussion-basedlearning, a broadunderstandingof the constraintson andopportunitiesfor engagingfamiliesin children’s education.Supplementingthis book, we at the HarvardFamilyResearchProject also host the Family Involvement Network of Educators(FINE; www.finenetwork.org),an online resourcethat provides up-to-dateresearch,bibliographies,andadditional teachingcaseson family involvementin education.

The 12 cases in this book focuson contemporaryeducationalissuesthatdefyeasyanswersbut insteadencouragecreativeinquiryandreflection.They illustrate dilemmasof practicethat occur when teachers,principals,andotherschoolpersonnelconstruct(or fail to construct)relationshipswithfamilies. Parentsand teachersfind themselvesin ambiguoussituationsinwhich theymustmakechoicesamongalternativecoursesof action.Theirsit-uationsinvite usersof this casebookto discussthesealternativesandproposeresolutions.Specifically, thedilemmasin this casebookcenteron key issuesin family involvement,suchashow families andschoolsconstructtheir rolesin children’s learning, how economicand time poverty interfere withinvolvementwishes,andcultural differencesthatarisebetweenfamilies andschools.

Despitea commondesireto seechildren makestridesin their learning,parentsand teachersoftenholddifferentviewpointsabouttherolesof familiesandschools.They experiencewhat SaraLawrence-Lightfoot(1978,p. 26) hasdescribedas theambiguitiesthatgrow outof “overlappingworlds with fuzzyboundaries:’Someof thecontestedareasof family andschoolcontrol thatarehighlighted in this casebookincludedefining academicprogress,advocatingstudentsafety,andnegotiatingafterschooltimefor children.We hopethat acarefulexaminationofthesesituationsleadsreadersto focuson theright ques-tions, thosethat go beyondthe blamingof eitherparentsor teachersfor thefailure of involvementand insteademphasizethe relationshipbetweenmean-ingful involvementopportunitiesaffordedby schoolsandparentalagency.

The dilemmasin this casebookreflect, in particular,what happensinschoolsand communitiesthatare resourcepoor,whereteachersoften do notreflectthecommunitiestheyserveandwherelow-incomeparentsstrugglewithmaking a living andmeetingschoolexpectationsof involvementat homeandin school.SeveralcasesfocusonwhatChin andNewman(2002)havedescribedas“time poverty,”referringto the competingdemandson the time of workingpoor families to earna living (often by puttingin longwork hoursand takingirregular shifts), and to support andmonitor their children’slearning. Thesecasesinvite analysisthatmovesfrom themicrocosmof interpersonalrelationsto the macrocosmof social issuesthat impactchildren’slearning.

Race,culture,and classdivisionsprovidethecontextfor mostof thecasesin this volume and presentanotherdimensionto dilemmasof practice.

Introduction;PreparingEducatorsin Family Involvement xvii

Teachers’and school administrators’perceptionsof parents’ socioeconomicbackgroundsinfluencehowtheyinteractwith parents,andwhetherornottheysupport or reject parentstrategiesof involvement (Bloom, 2001; Lareau&Horvat, 1999).All toooften,schoolpersonneltreatpoorparentsfrom adeficitperspective,which becomesa barrierto family involvement.Thelargerschoolclimate,however,influencesthe home-schoolrelationship.Whenschoolsnur-ture a strongsenseof communitywhererespectfulrelationshipsexist amongteachers,schoolleaders,andparents,classandcultural differencesdo notnec-essarilybecomebarriersto meaningfulfamily involvement(Bryk & Schneider,2002;Lewis & Forman,2002).By presentingrealworld situations,the casesinthis book invite readersto examinethemultiple perspectivesof actorsin theirspecific class,culture,and institutionalcontexts.

About Family Involvement in Education

Family involvementin educationrefersto the beliefs,attitudes,and activ-ities of parentsand other family membersto support children’s learning.Although such involvementusuallyfocuseson parents,it alsoincludesgrand-

parents,siblings,andextendedfamily memberswho havesignificant respon-sibility in a child’s upbringing. Family involvement covers a broad rangeofconstructs,including parentalaspirationsandexpectations,parentingbehav-iors, and participationin school activities. Someconsistentfindings aboutfamily involvementprocessessuggesttheir significancefor children’slearning

anddevelopment.

• Parentvaluesandexpectarionsareassociatedwith children’smotivationto learnas well as their academicachievement(Fan& Chen,2001; Scott-Jones,1995).Beneficialvaluescantakethe formof highbut realisticeducationalaspirationsandexpectations,a focuson effort ratherthanability, andthevalue placedonspecificsubjectmatter.

• Parent behaviorsaroundlearning activities such as reading, conversationsaboutschool-relatedmatters,andvisiting the public libraryarecorrelatedwithimprovementsin children’s readingcomprehension(Anderson,2000; Lee &Croninger,1994).

• Parentparticipation in school—inthe form of attendingconferencesand classeventsand volunteering—alsosupportsstudent achievement.Such involve-ment is associatedwith students’earninghigh grades,enjoyingschool,avoid-ing grade repetition, suspensionand expulsion, and participating inextracurricularactivities(Nord, Brimhall, & West, 1997).

• Parentleadership in decision-makingbodiesandthrough communityorganiz-ing brings about school policy changesand deliversnew resourcesto under-resourcedschools(Shirley, 1997).Thesechangescreatethe school conditionsthat enhancestudentachievement(Gold,Simon, & Brown,2002).

xviii PREPARING EDUCATORS TO INVOLVE FAMILIES

Far from beingstraightforward,the relationshipbetweenfamily involvementandstudentachievementis complexandvarieswith a hostof factorssuchasthe type and circumstancesof involvement.For example,one largesurveyofchildrenfrom kindergartenthroughthird gradefoundthat family involvementin the home stronglypredictedchildren’sachievementin math and reading,and that the quality of parent-teacherinteractionswas positively related tochildren’ssocioemotionaladjustment(Izzo, \*issberg,Kasprow, & Fendrich,1999). The frequencyof parent-teachercontacts,however,did not have thesamebeneficial outcomesfor children and could indicate that a parentisrespondingto a child who is notdoingwell in school.The researchnonethelesspoints to the importanceof the homeenvironmentandsuggeststhat schoolscanimprove their efforts to communicatewith parentsabouttheir children’sacademicprogressandto promoteconstructiveparent-teacherrelations.

Family involvementmustbe understoodas dynamic:Differencesin howandwhenfamily involvementmattersfor children’sschoolsuccessdevelopovertime. Somelongitudinal researchstudiessuggestthatearlier involvementleadsto strongereffectsthan laterinvolvement.In a studyof low-performingTitle Istudentsin elementaryandmiddlegrades,higherparentinvolvementincreasedstudentachievementin bothreadingandmath,butyoungerchildrenmadethemost improvement(Shaver& Walls, 1998).A study of an early interventionprogramin the Chicago public schoolsalso reportedthat parents’ schoolinvolvementwhile their childrenattendedpreschoolandkindergartenhadben-efits for childrenat age14,includinghigherreadingachievement,lower ratesofgrade retention, and fewer years in special education(Miedel & Reynolds,1999).Throughtheir participationin the earlyinterventionprogram,parentsmay have developedthe commitmentto remain involved in their children’seducationand to monitor their school progressover time. However, familyinvolvementtendsto declineaschildren movethroughthe uppergrades.Thisis unfortunatebecausefamily involvementcontinuesto havea positiveeffecton studentachievementin middle and high school (Keith & Keith, 1993;

Patrikakou,2004). The benefitsof earlyand continuousfamily involvementcarryimplicationsfor schoolsandcommunitiesto strengthentheir approachesto promotefamily involvementfrom prekindergartentotwelfth grade.

A CHILD DEVELOPMENTPERSPECTIVE

Family involvementis importantto understandin termsof child develop-ment.This casebookfocuseson family involvementin theeducationalexperi-encesof elementaryschool children (roughly ages6 to 12 years).Originallythought of as a period of relative stagnationduring which children simplyrefine all the skills they acquiredin earlychildhoodandpreparefor adoles-cence(Eccles,1999),researcherscannow identify changesin cognition,socialrelationships,and identitycommonlyassociatedwith theelementaryschool

Introduction:PreparingEducatorsin Family Involvement xix

yearsor middlechildhood (Sameroff & Haith, 1996),many of which haverelevancefor family-schoolrelationships.

During the elementaryyears, children use more sophisticatedstrategiesin their reasoningabouttheir world anddevelopreadingandmath skills, self-awareness,self-reflectionandevaluation,andperspective-taking(Canobi,Reeve,& Pattison,2003;Harter, 1988,1999;Morris, Bloodgood,Lomax,& Perney,2003).

Childrenenterformal schoolingat aboutthis time in manyculturesandstart to spenda significant portionof their lives awayfrom their families andoutside of their homes (Eccles, 1999; Erikson, 1968). They experiencenewinteractionswith significantadultssuchasteachersandotherschoolpersonnelandwith a wide rangeof peersanddiversetypesof families.Theytakeon newsocialroles andare exposedto feedbackfrom newpeopleabouttheir compe-tenciesinvariousactivities.Often,theyarepresentedwith frequentopportuni-tiesfor self-comparisonwith theirpeers.Theextentto whichthesecomparisonsareconsistentlyfavorableor unfavorablemaybeginto shapechildren’ssenseofcompetencyandesteem(Pomerantz,Ruble, Frey,& Greulich,1995).

With entry into formal schooling,childrenmustgrapplewith increasingdemandsthat theymaintaincontrol overtheir behavior(e.g., adhereto rules,bewell-behaved;Entwisle& Alexander,1998;Goldsmith,Aksan,Essex,Smider,& Vandell, 2001).At the sametime, they are beginningto be affordedmorefreedomandautonomyfrom their parentsand otheradults. To meetadults’expectationswhile exercisingmore choice, children must learn to monitortheir own behavior,judgeadults’perceptionsof themandof othersandmakeadjustmentsbasedon both of thesesourcesof information. Thesedevelop-mental tasks extendto children’s roles in family-schoolrelationships.Onestudynoted thatelementaryschoolchildrenoftentakeanactiverole in shap-ing whenandhow their parentsareinvolved in their schooling,drivenin partby their growingdesirefor autonomy(Edwards& Alldred,2000).

During this time,childrenbeginto formulatenotionsaboutwho theyare,whatthey are good or not good at, andwhat theyare capableor incapableof.This informationwill comefrom many sourcesotherthan their families,suchasteachersandotheradultsin theschools,coaches,otherparents,friends,andpeers(Eccles,1999).Children are facedthenwith the taskof making senseofthis information,integratingit with pastknowledgeof theself,andspeculatingaboutprospectsfor thefuture.In thiscritical periodof cognitiveandbehavioraldevelopment,identity formation, social comparisons,and the integrationofknowledgefrom multiple sources,it is critical that families andschoolsworktogetherto optimizechildren’spositiveexperiencesin their earlyschooling.

APPROACHES TO FAMILY INVOLVEMENT IN EDUCATION

No one best approachrepresentshow families and schools can worktogether. Several educatorshaveproposedframeworksand strategiesthat

n PREPARING EDUCATORS TO INVOLVE FAMILIES

schools and communitiescanapply andadaptto their localities.Followingare some of the more commonly used frameworksthat guide school andcommunitypractice.

3. A family-school partnership

JoyceEpstein contendsthat studentsachievegreatersuccessif families,

schools,and communitiesoperateas overlappingspheresof influence in achild’s life, interactingfrequentlyandsharingcommongoals (Epstein,1995).By emphasizingtheir overlap,Epsteinprovidesschoolswith a vision of whattheycanstrive to be: family-like schools.Theseschoolsrecognizeeachchild’sindividuality andtreateachchild as special.Likewise, school-like familiesrec-ognite childrenas studentsand reinforce the importanceof school, home-work, andotheractivitiesthatbuild on studentsuccess.

Epstein specifies six types of family and community involvement ineducationthat schoolscansupport.Type 1, parenting,encouragesfamilies tocreatehomeenvironmentsthat supportsuccessin school.Type 2, communi-cating, helps families and schoolsshare information. Type 3, volunteering,bringsparentsinto schoolbuildings.Type4, learningathome, supportsparentsas theyassisttheir children with schoolwork. Type 5, decision making; invitesparentsto participate in schools’ policy development.Type 6, communitycollaboration,seeksto integratecommunityresourcesinto schoolprogramstoenrichstudentlearningandprovidenonacademicsupport.

According to Epstein, children are likely to achieve both academicand nonacademicsuccesswhen a partnershipof support exists betweenfamilies, schools, and communities.The six types of family involvementpromotestudents’ improvedorganizationalabilities, motivation,communi-cationskills, classroomperformance,respectfor parents,andawarenessof thefuture.

2. A comprehensive school improvement model

JamesComer’sprogrambeginswith the premisethat children’s healthydevelopmentis a crucial factor in their learning(Comer, Haynes,& Joyner,1996’). Childrenlearnwell whenadultsin theirlives createa healthyclimatefortheir development.Conditionsin many poor,urbanschools,though,are notconduciveto healthychild developmentand learning.In theseschools,per-sonneldonotfully understandthedevelopmentof disadvantagedchildrenanddeveloplow expectationsof them.

Basedon Comer’sresearch,theschooldevelopmentprogramrestructuresschoolsso thatadultsin a child’s life—parents,schoolpersonnel,communitymembers—interactpositivelyandcreatea caringandpredictableenvironment

Introduction:PreparingEducatorsin Family Involvement xxi

conduciveto child developmentandlearning.A schoolplanningandmanage-

mentteam,aparentteam,andastudentandstaffsupportteamprovidemech-anismsthroughwhich to promotetheseinteractions.

Parentinvolvement is consideredto be thecornerstoneof the program.

Parentsbridgethegapbetweenhomeandschoolandbringan understandingof thesocialdevelopmentneedsandstrengthsof childrento thedaily activitiesanddecision-makingprocessin schools.(Hayneset al., 1996).

Theschooldevelopmentprogramcreatesthefollowing threemechanismsfor socialinteractionsthatsupportchild developmentandlearning:

1. The schoolplanningandmanagementteam,consistingof the principal andrepresentativeteachers,parents,andotherschoolstaff, developsandmonitorsacomprehensiveschoolplanfor theacademic,schoolclimate,andstaffdevel-opmentgoalsof theschool.

2. ‘the parentteaminvolvesparentsat threedifferentlevelsof participation.Atthefirst level, themajority of parentssupport theschoolby attendingparent-teacherconferences,reinforcinglearningat home,andparticipatingin socialactivities. At the secondlevel, someparentsservein the schoolas volunteersandpaidaidesto supportlearningactivities.At thethird level, parentswho areselectedby otherparentsserveon aschoolplanningandmanagementteam.

3. The studentandstaff support team, consistingof the school psychologist,guidancecounselor,schoolnurse,andotherstaffwith child developmentandmentalhealthexperience,consultswith teachersandtheschoolplanningandmanagementteamon child developmentandbehaviorissues.

Becauseparentsare crucial to thesuccessof theprogram,schoolsneed

to improvetheir outreachandinvolvementstrategies.Successfulschoolsbuild

trust, plan well, empower parents,and monitor activities continuouslytoimproveresponsivenessto parents(Hayneset al., 1996).

3. funds of knowledge

“Funds of knowledge~’initially conceptualizedby Luis Moll andhis col-leagues,refers to theknowledgeand skills that householdshaveaccumulatedovertime to ensurehouseholdfunctioning andwell-being(Moll, Amanti, Neff,

& Gonzalez,1992).A household’scultural andcognitive resourceshavegreat

potential for classroominstruction, a viewpoint often missing in school rela-tionshipswith immigrantandworking-classhouseholds.Forexample,by learn-ing abouttheoccupationsanddaily routinesof households,ateacheror network

ofteacherscandevelopclassroomprojectsconnectedto thelives of childrenand

theirfamilies. Childrenparticipateasactivelearnersas theyusetheir socialcon-tactsoutsidetheclassroomto gainnewknowledge.Parentsalsoparticipatein theclassroomasexpertswho shareintimate knowledgeaboutatopic.

xxii PREPARING EDUCATORS TO INVOLVE FAMILIES

The funds of knowledge approachproposesthat to increasetheeffectivenessof schools,the resources,experiences,and knowledgeresiding

in the family andcommunitymustbe placedin the foregroundof children’sschooland educationalexperiences.It reframesfamily-schoolrelationshipstomakecommunication,interactions,andcurriculumdevelopmenta two-wayprocess.Teacherslearn from parentsand family networksand vice versa.Throughdialogue,parentsand teachersserveasresourcesfor oneanotherastheycometo understandproblemsandsolutionsfrom multiple pointsof view(Civil & Quintos,2002).

The funds of knowledgeapproachrejectsone-wayattemptsto replicateand transmitschoolvaluesandactivitiesto thehome,regardlessof theculturalrelevancethesevaluesand activities havefor the families andcommunitiesthey try to influence,It is particularly relevant for transformingpracticesinschoolsthat serveminority, immigrant,andpoor children,whoseschoolper-formancelagsbehindwhite,middle-classstudents.Theapproachsuggeststhatdisadvantagedchildrencansucceedin schoolif classroomsare reorganizedtogive themthesameadvantagethatmiddle-classchildrenalwaysseemedto have

had—instructionthat puts their knowledgeand experiencesat the heartoflearning(Roseberry,McIntyre,& Gonzalez,2001).

4. Empowerment approaches

Empowermentapproacheshaveevolvedfrom family involvementresearchand practiceamong low-income communhies.Schoolsoften display deficit-orientedandstereotypicalattitudestoward low-incomefamilies. Whenfamiliesfeeldisrespectedandintimidated,theychooseto distancethemselvesfromschools.Empowermentapproachesaddressthis problemby instilling parentswith thecon-fidenceto advocatefor betterschoolsandbetteroutcomesfor children.

Onetype of empowermentapproachfocuseson the individualandworksto impart to parentsnewknowledge,skills, andopportunitiesto effectchangein communicatingandrelatingto schoolpersonnel.Forexample,the Boston-basedRight Question Project provides a simple methodologyof framingquestionsthat parentscan use in teacherconferencesand parentmeetings(Coffinan,2000).Parentscanalso besupportedin developingleadershipskillsto monitor school reform. For example, the CommonwealthInstitute forParentLeadershiptrains parentsto understandKentucky’s educationstan-dardsandto initiateschoolprojectsthatenrichstudents’learningandpromotefamily involvement(Hernandez,2000).

A secondapproachto empowermentfocuseson the collective action ofparents.It is in and throughcommunitiesthat low- to moderate-incomeandethnicallydiversefamilies cancreatethe public spaceto addressschoolcon-cerns. Through one-on-oneconversations,group dialogue,and reflection,

Introduction:PreparingEducatorsin Family Involvement xxiii

parentsand other residentsdevelopa strongsenseof community andlearnhow to use their collectivepower to advocatefor school change(Delgado-

Gaitan, 2001; Gold et al., 2002; Shirley, 1997; Warren, 2002). All too oftenschools individualize systemic problems.For example,a student might be

faultedfor poorperformance,when in reality theproblemalso lies in the lackof qualifiedteachersandinstructionalmaterials.Communityorganizingcoun-

tersthis individualizing trend by bringingpeopleinto relationshipswith oneanotherso that theycanidentifr andacton systemicproblems—overcrowding,

deterioratingschoolfacilities, lackof teacherquality,poorschoolperformance,andinadequatefunding.

EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT OF FAMILY INVOLVEMENT

Family involvement is important in relation to the educationalissuesofour time—the achievementgap andthe focus on performancestandardsand

accountability. The achievementgap between more- and less-advantagedstudentsis perhapsthemostpressingeducationalissuefor ademocraticsociety.School reform efforts that focus only on schoolpracticeshavenot madea sig-

nificant dentin closingtheachievementgap.High qualityacademicinstruction

in conjunctionwith thevaluesandpreparationaffordedby thehome,andthecommunitylearningopportunitiesthatreinforcethework of schools—thatis,a child’s socialecology—makeup thecontext in which to impacteducational

inequality. In TheBlack-WhiteTestScoreCrap, Phillips and colleaguesreportedthat traditionalmeasuresof educationandeconomicinequalitydid not explain

muchof the gapamongfive- andsix-year-oldchildren (Phillips,Brooks-Gunn,Duncan,Klebanov,& Crane,1998),Parentingpractices,however,hada sizeable

effect on children’stest scores.Additionally, thekeypredictorsof theachieve-mentgapinclude thehomelearningenvironment,thehome-schoolconnection,

and thecommunity (Barton, 2003). The interface amonghome,school, andcommunityascontextsof learningareapparentin the casesin this volume,such

as“Stayingon thePathTowardCollege”(Case7),“Afterschool for Cindy” (Case8),“Piecing It Together” (Case9), “What Words Don’t Say” (Case 10), “Raising

ChildrenAlone” (Caseii), and“Learningin theShadowof Violence” (Case12).We arealsoin atime in whicheducationpoliciesemphasizestandardsand

accountability.State anddistrict systemssometimeslose sight of the impor-tanceof family involvementin termsof beinga critical partof studentachieve-ment when worried about teacherquality and falling test scores.However,

families play animportant role in advocatingfor high performingschoolsandhavebeeninstrumental in supportingthecreationof small schoolsandafter-

school programsas measuresto improve student achievementin underper-

formingschools(Shirley, 1997; Gold, Simon& Brown,2002).In Chicago,wherelocal school councils must have a majority of parent members,elementary

xxiv PREPARING EDUCATORS TO INVOLVE FAMILIES

schools that improved reading achievementover a seven-yearperiod hadeffectivecouncils (Moore, 1998).‘The family-school connectionin relation toschool policies is capturedin the cases“Lunchtime at SunnydaleElementarySchool” (Case 4), “Defining ‘Fine’” (Case 5), “Bilingual Vbices and ParentClassroomChoices”(Case6).

How to Use the Casebook

This casebookis organizedto connectseveraltheoreticalperspectiveswithinEcologicalSystemsTheoryto theanalysisof thecases.It presentsfour sectionsof theoreticalapproachesandcorrespondingcases:microsystem,mesosystem,exosytem,andmacrosytem.Readerscanusethecasesto helpthemunderstandthe theoriesandalsoapply thetheoriesto analyzeissuesin thecases.Forexam-ple, in “Motivation to Learn,” DeborahStipekfocusesattentionon interactionsandeventsthatoccur most frequentlywithin thechild’s microsystem,such asdirectinteractionsbetweenchildrenandtheadultswho teachandparentthemin theprimarycontextsof schoolandhome.In the case“TomasitoIs Too Bigto Hold Hands,” readerscan considerhow Tomasito’s teacherand familymemberscannurtureintrinsic motivation. Thecasealso invites the applica-tion of theoreticalperspectivesfrom othersections,suchasThomasWeisner’sdescriptionof middle childhoodas an ecoculturalproject in which develop-mentalpathwaysaredeterminedby culturalactivities thatareorganizedinto achild’s daily routines.Thus,althoughthe sectionsprovidestructure,the cases,by their richnessand complexity, lend themselvesto analysesfrom multipletheoreticalperspectives.

DataSourcesfor the Cases

The data sourcesfor the cases are basedon researchconductedbymembersof the MacArthur Network on SuccessfulPathwaysthroughMiddleChildhood,andassuchfocuson childrenwhoseagesrangefrom6—12 years:

• Study: California Childhoods: Institutions, Contexts, and PathwaysofDevelopmentRelatedcases:LunchtimeatSunnydaleElementarySchool; Stayingon aPathTowardCollege

• Study:Childrenof Immigrantsand Ethnic Identity DevelopmentRelatedcase:Learningin the ShadowofViolence