prasch-reagan normandy pdf - voices of...

VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40

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1RONALDREAGAN,“REMARKSATACEREMONYCOMMEMORATINGTHE40THANNIVERSARYOFTHENORMANDYINVASION,D-DAY,”POINTEDUHOC,FRANCE(6JUNE1984)

and

RONALDREAGAN,“REMARKSATAUNITEDSTATES-FRANCECEREMONYCOMMEMORATINGTHE40THANNIVERSARYOFTHENORMANDYINVASION,D-DAY,”OMAHABEACH,COLLEVILLE

SURMER,FRANCE(6JUNE1984)

AllisonM.PraschUniversityofMinnesota

Abstract:ThisessayanalyzestwospeechesdeliveredbyPresidentRonaldReaganonJune6,1984,withinthebroadercontextofReagan'sColdWarforeignpolicyrhetoric.InhisremarksatPointeduHocandOmahaBeach,ReaganprovidedavividnarrativeofD-DayandappliedthemorallessonsofWorldWarIItothepresentColdWarstrugglebetweenU.S.democracyandSovietcommunism.KeyWords:RonaldReagan;D-Day;ColdWar;PointeduHoc;OmahaBeach;Epideictic

OnJune6,1984,PresidentRonaldReagandeliveredtwospeechesinNormandy,France,markingthefortiethanniversaryofD-Day:oneatPointeduHocandtheotheratOmahaBeach.Inbothspeeches,ReaganpraisedthemenwhostormedthebeachesandscaledthecliffsofNormandy,usingthestoryofD-DaytoreaffirmtheWest'scommitmenttodemocracyinEurope.HecomparedthestrugglesofWorldWarIItothechallengesstillfacingEuropeandemocracies,pledgingthattheUnitedStateswouldstandwithothernationsdefendingfreedomagainstthethreatposedbytheSovietUnion.ForReagan,thishistoriccelebrationoftheAlliedvictoryatD-DaywasanopportunemomenttorecommittheUnitedStatesanditsWesternalliestotheColdWarstrugglebetweendemocracyandcommunism.

Inthisessay,Ianalyzebothspeeches—Reagan'saddressatPointeduHocandhisremarksatOmahaBeach—asindependentandyetinterrelatedrhetoricalmomentswithinReagan'slargerColdWarforeignpolicynarrative.BothspeechesexemplifyReagan’scommonthemesofU.S.patriotism,moralresolve,andcommitmenttotheWesterndemocraticalliance.IfirstdescribehowReagan'sspeechesonthefortiethanniversaryofD-Dayechoedthemesfromhis1982AddresstotheBritishParliamentandhis1983speechtotheNationalAssociationofEvangelicals.Ithenanalyzeeachspeechseparately,drawingonthearchivesoftheReaganLibrarytoilluminatetheWhiteHouse'sgoalsforReagan'sremarksandshowinghowthosegoalsweremanifestedinthespeechesthemselvesthroughaclosereadingofbothtexts.

AllisonPrasch:[email protected]:March2016VoicesofDemocracy,ISSN#1932-9539.Availableathttp://www.voicesofdemocracy.umd.edu/


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Finally,IshowhowReagan'scommemorationofD-Daywaslaterrepurposedbyhis1984presidentialcampaign,andhowsuccessiveU.S.presidentshavecontinuedthetraditionofrememberingD-DaybyspeakingatNormandy.

RonaldReagan'sColdWarDiplomacy

WhenRonaldReagandefeatedincumbentJimmyCarterinthe1980presidential

election,manysawReagan'slandslidevictoryasadirectrejectionoftheCarter’spoliciesathomeandabroad.1AccordingtoaNewYorkTimes/CBSNewsPoll,votersoustedCarterbecauseoftwomainissues:thefailingU.S.economyandthenation'sforeignpolicyfailures,includingitstroubledrelationshiptotheSovietUnion.TheNewYorkTimesreportedthattwo-thirdsofvoters"citedeconomicproblemssuchasunemployment,taxesandinflationasakeyreasonfortheirvote."Moreover,thosepolled,byamarginofalmosttwo-to-one,saidtheywantedtheUnitedStatestobe“moreforceful”indealingwiththeSovietUnion“evenifitincreasedtheriskofwar.”2"WhenRonaldReagantookofficeinearly1981,"writesPaulFessler,"theUnitedStatesappearedweakandfaltering.Inforeignaffairs,theUnitedStates,stillreelingfromdefeatinVietnam,facednotonlyaSovietUnionexpandingintoAfghanistanbutalsoamajorhostagecrisisinIran....ItseemedasifAmerica'sself-imageasaconfidentandstronginternationalsuperpowerwasfadingintoadistantmemory."3ReagancounteredthisperceptionofaweakenedAmericainhisinauguraladdress,pledgingthatasthenationtookstepsto"renewourselveshereinourownland,wewillbeseenashavinggreaterstrengththroughouttheworld.Wewillagainbetheexemplaroffreedomandabeaconofhopeforthosewhodonotnowhavefreedom."4

Earlyinhisfirstadministration,asReaganimplementedpoliciestorevitalizetheeconomy,healsodeliveredseveralimportantforeignpolicyaddressesthatoutlinedhisviewsontheColdWar,communism,andtheSovietUnion.Ina1997interview,Anthony"Tony"Dolan,oneofReagan'schiefspeechwriters,explainedthatReagan'sforeignpolicyrhetoricfrom1981to1983displayedthe"evolutionofacounter-strategytotheSoviets"thataccomplishedtwothings:

First,itreject[ed]thenotionthatyoucannotbemorallycandidandconfronttheSovietUnion.Inotherwords,itestablishesasortofdualstrategy—aparadoxicalstrategy—ofcandorandreconciliation.Toughrhetoricandatthesametimeanofferofdiplomaticengagement—manyoffersofdiplomaticengagement.Butitdidsomethingelse:Itrejectedcontainment.ItsaidtheSovietUnionisabouttocollapseandwe'regonnapushit.That'sallit'severreallyneeded.Andwe'renotgoingtostayonoursideofthefiftyyardlineanymore.5

Thirty-fiveyearslater,itisdifficulttofullyappreciatetheboldnessofthisapproach.Butafteralonghistoryofdétente,withU.S.presidentsstrivingtoappeasetheSovietUnion,Reagantookamoreaggressiveand,inasense,idealisticapproach.Reagan'sstrength,writesColdWarhistorianJohnLewisGaddis,"layinhisabilitytoseebeyondcomplexitytosimplicity.Andwhathesawwassimplythis:thatbecausedétenteperpetuated—andhadbeenmeanttoperpetuate—theColdWar,onlykillingdétentecouldendtheColdWar."6


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Twospeechesinparticular—Reagan’s1982AddresstoMembersoftheBritishParliament,andhis1983speechtotheNationalAssociationofEvangelicals—setforthhisnewvisionofAmericanforeignpolicyandprovidedafoundationforhislaterspeechesinNormandy.ReaganAttorneyGeneralandconfidanteEdwinMeeselaterwrotethatthesetwospeechesweresignificantbecausethey"setforth[Reagan's]viewofcommunism,theSovietsystem,andtherequiredfreeworldresponseincomprehensivefashion."7Thus,abriefconsiderationofReagan's1982speechatWestminsterandhisso-called“EvilEmpire”speechthefollowingyearisnecessarytoappreciatefullythecontextforhisspeechesatNormandyin1984.

OnJune8,1982,ReaganspoketomembersoftheBritishParliamentintheRoyalGalleryofWestminster.Inthisspeech,thepresidentpromisedsupportforEuropeannationsseekingfreedomfromSovietdomination,intheprocesspredictingthat"themarchoffreedomanddemocracy...willleaveMarxism-Leninismontheash-heapofhistory."HealsospokeofthespecialpartnershipbetweentheUnitedStatesandGreatBritain,onethatwascementedduringWorldWarIIandfosteredbyPresidentRooseveltandPrimeMinisterChurchill.Asleadersontheworldstage,ReagandeclaredthattheUnitedStatesandGreatBritainhadaresponsibilitytolearnfromthemistakesofWorldWarIIandactas"[f]reepeople,worthyoffreedomanddeterminednotonlytoremainsobuttohelpothersgaintheirfreedomaswell."8Reflectingontheaddressafterhispresidency,Reagancalledit"oneofthemostimportantspeechesIgaveaspresident."Henotedthatalthoughmanyconsidered1982awatershedyearforhisdomesticandeconomicpolicyinitiatives,"therealstoryof1982isthatwebeganapplyingconservatismtoforeignaffairs."9TheWestminsterAddresswasReagan'sopportunitytochartanewcourseforU.S.foreignpolicyandrenewtheUnitedStates'partnershipwithGreatBritain.AlthoughReagan'swillingnesstorelegateSovietcommunismtothe"ash-heapofhistory"strucksomecriticsasrecklessandnaïve,hispredictionprovedcorrectovertime.10

ThesecondspeechthatbearsmentionisRonaldReagan'sMarch8,1983addressattheannualmeetingoftheNationalAssociationofEvangelicalsinOrlando,Florida.Althoughthespeechwasdesignedforareligiousaudience,Reagan'sremarksreceivedbothpraiseandcriticismfordescribingcommunisminexplicitlymoralterms.Hecalledonhisaudiencetoresistthetemptation"toignorethefactsofhistoryandtheaggressiveimpulsesofanevilempire,tosimplycallthearmsraceagiantmisunderstandingandtherebyremoveyourselffromthestrugglebetweenrightandwrongandgoodandevil."Reaganalsomaintainedthatthestrugglebetweendemocracyandcommunismwasnotultimatelyamatterofmilitarymight,butaspiritualchallenge—“atestofmoralwillandfaith."11InsteadofsimplypresentingU.S.democracyandSovietcommunismastwocompetingviewsoftheworld,Reaganpronouncedonegoodandtheotherevil,withtheU.S.onthesideofwhatwasrightandgood.Assuch,thenationhadaresponsibilitytoextenddemocraticlibertiestothosestilloppressedbySovietcommunism.12

ThesetwospeechesestablishedanimportantfoundationforReagan'slaterspeechesatNormandyinatleasttwoways.First,thepresident'saddressatWestminsterandhis“EvilEmpire”speechemphasizedtheneedforashareddemocraticalliancebetweentheUnitedStatesandotherWesterndemocracies,mostnotablyGreatBritain.In1982,thepresidentemphasizedthevitalityofaU.S.-Britishpartnershipthroughouthistory.HeremindedhisBritishaudience(andtheU.S.audienceathome)thatthetwonationshadworkedtogethertodefeatNaziGermany,therebylinkingtheworldsituationin1941withthecurrentstruggleagainst


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Sovietcommunism.Reaganarguedthat"[i]fhistoryteachesanythingitteachesthatself-delusioninthefaceofunpleasantfactsisfolly,”andhepraisedPrimeMinisterWinstonChurchill'scourageousleadershipduring"thedarkdaysoftheSecondWorldWar."Thechoicein1982wasthesameasitwasduringWorldWarII:WouldtheUnitedStatesandGreatBritainstandstrongorlet"freedomwitherinaquiet,deadeningaccommodationwithtotalitarianevil?"Attheendofhisspeech,Reaganansweredhisownquestion:"[T]ogether...[l]etusnowbeginamajorefforttosecurethebest—acrusadeforfreedomthatwillengagethefaithandfortitudeofthenextgeneration."13ThisexplicitlinkbetweentheAlliedcauseinWorldWarIIandthepresentsituationcontinuedinReagan'sD-Daycommemorationsin1984.

ThesecondwaythesespeechesprovidedafoundationforReagan'srhetoricatNormandywasinhisportrayaloftheColdWarasamoralstrugglebetweengoodandevil.Reagan'sdeclarationthatcommunismwasan"evilempire"wasradicalin1983;allpreviousU.S.presidentshadarguedforapolicyofaccommodationanddétentetowardstheSovietUnion.WhenReaganspokeatNormandyin1984,hesoftenedhistonebutstillhintedattheunderlyingspiritualethicoffightingtotalitarianism.ReaganreferredtotheAllies'"rockhardbeliefthatProvidencewouldhaveagreathandintheeventsthatwouldunfoldhere;thatGodwasanallyinthisgreatcause"(PointeduHoc,15).14NamingGodasan"ally,"thepresidentarguedthatProvidencewasonthesideofthosewhofoughtNaziGermany.HestatedthattheAllieswere"boundtodaybywhatboundus40yearsago,thesameloyalties,traditions,andbeliefs"(PointeduHoc,24).LinkingthepresentstrugglebetweendemocracyandcommunismtoWorldWarII,ReaganimplicitlyarguedthatGodwasonstillonAmerica’ssidein1984.

SettingtheStageatNormandy

RonaldReagan's1984visittoNormandywaspartofaten-dayEuropeantourdesigned

tostrengthenU.S.tieswithitsWesternallies,particularlyGreatBritain,France,andIreland."[O]urobjective,"wroteNationalSecurityAdvisorRobertC.McFarlanetoDeputyChiefofStaffMichaelK.Deaver,"bythetimethetripiscompleted,willbetoreassertU.S.interestinastrongerandviableEuropewithinalargerpolicycontextembracingboththeAtlanticandPacificcommunities,whilestressingshareddemocraticvalues."15Accordingtothe“PublicDiplomacyActionPlan”thatMcFarlaneincludedwithhismemorandumtoDeaver,the"PrimaryPerception"theWhiteHousesoughttoadvancewasthatofa"StrongPresidentandtheAmericanRenewal:assertiveleadershipisessentialtoworldpeaceandprosperity."16

TheWhiteHousechosespecificgeographiclocationsthatwouldhighlightthesethemes.InanApril1984memo,WilliamFlynnMartin,theDirectorofInternationalEconomicAffairsfortheNationalSecurityCouncil,notedthatcertainplaceswouldplayasignificantroleinthepresident'strip.HewrotethatReagan'svisitstoIreland,Normandy,andLondonwould"providethePresidentwithanidealbackdropforhisthemesofpeaceandprosperityandtheimportanceofAlliedsupportandcooperationintheachievementofboth."17But,asSecretaryofStateGeorgeP.Schultznoted,thepresident'svisittoNormandywasparticularlysignificant:"ThepublicrelationshighlightofyourtriptoEuropewillundoubtedlybethecelebrationsinNormandy....Theintensemediainterestprovidesanopportunityforyoupersonally,andalliedleadersasagroup,toreachanunprecedentedaudienceonbothsidesoftheAtlantic."18


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HistorianDouglasBrinkleyprovidessomeinsightintohowReagan'svisittoNormandywouldlinkthesacrificesofWorldWarIIwiththepresentmoment.HerecallsaTimecoverstorythatranonMay28,1984,entitled"D-Day:FortyYearsAftertheGreatCrusade."AnunderlinedcopyofthisarticlesitsinthespeechwritingfilesattheReaganLibrary.LanceMorrow,theauthorofthearticle,wrotethatWorldWarIIveteranswould"goupagaintoPointeduHocandshaketheirheadsagaininwonderatthemenwhoclimbedthatsheercliffwhileGermansfireddownstraightintotheirfaces."Ofmoreimportance,however,isMorrow'sclaimthatthefortiethanniversaryofD-Daywould"becometheelectionyearsymboloftheReaganadministration'sNewPatriotism."AccordingtoMorrow,

TheceremoniesinNormandywillcelebratethevictoryandmournthedead.Theywillalsomournthemoralclaritythathasbeenlost,asenseofcommonpurposethathasallbutevaporated.Neveragain,perhaps,wouldtheAlliessohandsomelycollaborate.TheinvasionofNormandywasathunderouslyheroicblowdealttotheevilempire.Neveragain,itmaybe,wouldwarseemsounimpeachablyright,sonecessaryandjust.Neveragain,perhaps,wouldAmericanpowerandmoralitysoperfectlycoincide.19

Inthisarticle,Brinkleyexplains,Morrowdemonstrated"howtheD-Daystoryhadspellbinding,redemptivequalitiesthatReagancouldselltoColdWarAmerica....Morrow,perhapsplacinghimselfintothePresident'smind-setorpsyche,explainedD-DaytoTimereadersasanAmericanreligiousfableorsterlingfolkloremoment."20Ofcourse,Morrow'sdecisiontodescribeNaziGermanyas"theevilempire"wasmostcertainlyadirectreferencetoReagan'searliercharacterizationoftheSovietUnion.AlthoughtheextenttowhichthisarticleinfluencedtheReaganspeechwritersisnotclear,itaccuratelypredictedhowReagan'sspeechesatPointeduHocandOmahaBeachwouldtapintothemythicheroismofD-Day.

ReaganmadethreestopsinNormandyonJune6,1984—PointeduHoc,OmahaBeach,andUtahBeach—anddeliveredpreparedremarksatthefirsttwosites.Inowanalyzebothofthesespeechesinturnthrougharchivalsources,historicalaccounts,andclosetextualcriticismtoilluminatehowReaganusedthisoccasiontohonorthesoldierswhofoughttoliberateFrancefromNazityrannyandcalluponhispresent-dayaudience"tocontinuetostandfortheidealsforwhichtheylivedanddied"(PointeduHoc26).

ReaganatPointeduHoc

AlthoughRonaldReaganwoulddelivertwoaddressesonthefortiethanniversaryofD-

Day,theWhiteHousesawPointeduHocasespeciallysignificant.21InaMay1984memorandumtoReagan,SecretaryofStateGeorgeP.SchultzwroteofPointeduHoc:

ItwashereonJune6,1944thattheUSArmyRangersscaledthecliffsunderheavyfireandsecuredtheareatoprotectthelandingsatOmahaandUtahBeaches…Hereyouwillmakeyourprincipalstatementoftheday--a15minutespeechstressingthebraveryofthefallenandthesurvivorsofthisbattleand


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emphasizingthatNormandymarkedthebeginningofacontinuousU.S.commitmenttothesecurityofEurope.22

Inthismemo,SecretarySchultzstressedtheforeignpolicygoalsofReagan’saddress:memorializethedead,honortheliving,andshowhowtheeventsofD-DayworkedtostrengthenU.S.-Europeantiesinthefuture.AspeechdraftfromtheNationalSecurityCouncilcommentedonthesymbolismofPointeduHoc:“TheCliffswhichfallawaytothisoftenroughseawitnessedextraordinaryheroism.Fortyyearsago—aspartofagreatAlliedeffort—braveAmericanRangersscaledtheseheightsunderfire.Thisceremonyandthisplacehonorsthem.”23ThepersuasivepowerofPointeduHocasplacecontinuedthroughoutsuccessivespeechdraftsleadinguptoReagan’saddress.AhandwrittennoteonthetopofaMay21,1984speechdraftsummarizedthespeech’soverarchingtheme:“PointeduHocasymbolofourselflesseffort—againstimpossibleoddsmenwillingtodogreatdeeds.”24ThisnotationhintedattheconnectionReaganwoulddrawbetweentheU.S.ArmyRangers’heroicactionin1944andtheUnitedStates’ongoingcommitmenttodefendingdemocracyagainstSovietexpansion.25

WhiteHousespeechwriterPeggyNoonanwastaskedwithwritingReagan'sspeechatPointeduHoc.InhermemoirofheryearsattheWhiteHouse,shedescribedthechallengeofcraftingaspeechthatwoulduse"big,emotionalwordsandimagesso[theWhiteHouseOfficeof]advanceandMikeDeaverwouldbehappy"butalsoretellthestoryofD-Daysoanyone,youngorold,wouldunderstandwhatthedaysymbolizedfortheAlliesin1944andfreedom-lovingnationsin1984."IthoughtthatifIcouldgetatwhatimpelledtheRangerstodowhattheydid,"shewrote,"Icoulduseittosuggestwhatimpelsuseachdayasweliveasanationintheworld.Thiswouldremindbothusandouralliesofwhatitisthatholdsustogether."26

Noonanwrotefortwoaudiences:theU.S.publicwatchingthespeechonthemorningnews,andReagan'simmediateaudienceinFrance,particularlythesurvivingU.S.ArmyRangerswhohadclimbedthecliffs.SheknewthatthespeechwouldbebroadcastliveintheUnitedStates,27andsheimaginedthe"kidswatchingTVathomeinthekitchenatbreakfast."BydescribingtheeventsofD-Day,Noonanwantedtoplace"itallintimeandspaceformyselfand,byextension,fortheaudience.Ifwereallylistentoandhearthesnapoftheflags,therealityofthatsound...willhelpusimaginewhatitsoundedlikeonD-Day.AndthatwouldhelpusimaginewhatD-Dayitselfwaslike....Historyisreal."28Byusingtheimagesofsightandsmellandsound,Noonansaidshe"wantedAmericanteenagerstostopchewingtheirRiceKrispiesforaminuteandhearaboutthegreatnessofthosetoughkidswhoarenowtheirgrandfathers....Pause,sinkin,bringitbacktonow,historyisreal."29ThegoalwastohelptheU.S.audience,althoughfarremovedfromthesceneofbattle,toconnectpasthistorywiththepresent.

AsimportantastheU.S.publicwas,Noonanstructuredthespeechsothepresidentcouldspeakdirectlytotheheroesofhisstory:thesurvivingU.S.ArmyRangerswhowereintheaudienceforthespeech.Inthemidstofherpreparations,theheadofReagan'sadvanceofficetoldNoonanthatthemenwhoscaledthecliffsofPointeduHocwouldbesittingrightinfrontofReaganashespoke.Noonanlaterrecalledhowthisinformationchangedherapproachtothespeech:"[T]heRangersweregoingtobesittingalltogetherinthefrontrows,sittingrighttherefivefeetfromthepresident....Wellthenheshouldreferdirectlytothem.Heshouldtalktothem.Heshoulddescribewhattheydidandthensay—....'ThesearetheboysofPointedu


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Hoc.'"30Bytalking"directlytothem,"Reagancouldcelebratetheirheroicactionsandcallonhisaudiencetoshowsimilarresolveandbraveryinthefightbetweendemocracyandcommunism.

PresidentReaganspokewithhisbacktotheEnglishChannel,withthe"boysofPointeduHoc"seatedonbothsidesofhim.Thisstagingwasdeliberate.AmiscellaneousnotescratchedonthebackofaWhiteHousenotepaddescribedthesetup:"RRstandsinfrontofmemorialdaggerw/Rangers,Mrs.Rudder&Mrs.Reaganseatedinfrontonsamelevel–Inhorseshoe–vetsdependents[,]otherveterans[,]VIP–militarybrass[,]official.RRwon'tevenbeannounced.Nooneelsespeaks."31Thisarrangementhadseveralimportanteffects.AlthoughU.S.presidentsmostoftenspeakfromanelevatedpodiumorplatformatsomedistancefromtheaudience,Reagansituatedhimselfonthe"samelevel"astheU.S.ArmyRangers.Thepresidentandthe"boysofPointeduHoc"werefeaturedtogetherontheelevatedstage,withthelargeraudienceassembledaroundthestageina"horseshoe"formation.Thisallowedtworhetoricalexchangestooccursimultaneously.Inthefirst,Reaganspokedirectlytoanintimategroupofsixty-twoU.S.ArmyRangerswhohadfoughttosecuretheverygroundonwhichtheysat.Inthesecond,theU.S.ArmyRangersworkedalongsideReaganassilentsymbols,theirphysicalpresencetestifyingtothissacredoccasionandwhatD-Daymeantforfuturegenerations.Forthebroaderaudienceassembledaroundthestage,itwasimpossibletolookatReaganwithoutseeingtheU.S.ArmyRangersoneitherside.Thesecondpartofthenoterevealsanunusualdeparturefromprotocol.Thepresidentwasneverannouncedtotheaudience,butinsteadsimplywalkedupbehindthepodium(whichdidnotcontainthetypicalpresidentialseal)andbegantospeak.Thisdecisionworkedasasubtlereminderthatthepresidentwasnotthefeaturedheadlinerofthisevent.Instead,"theboysofPointeduHoc"werethemainattraction.

Reaganbeganhisaddressbyrecallingwhatwasbeingcommemorated:"We'reheretomarkthatdayinhistorywhentheAlliedarmiesjoinedinbattletoreclaimthiscontinenttoliberty"(PointeduHoc,1).Inthisopeningpassage,ReaganinvitedtheaudiencetoimaginethehistoricalcontextofJune6,1944."For4longyears,muchofEuropehadbeenunderaterribleshadow.Freenationshadfallen,Jewscriedoutinthecamps,millionscriedoutforliberation.Europewasenslaved,andtheworldprayedforitsrescue"(PointeduHoc,1).Thelackofconjunctionsunderscoredtherelationshipsamongtheseevents,andReagan'sdualuseof"cried"emphasizedthehorrorofNazioccupationandtheconcentrationcamps,asifthesufferingcontinued,unbound,withnoendinsight.Thesestylisticdevicescreatedadistinctrhythmthatsetthetone—solemn,reverent,patriotic—fortherestofthespeech.

Inaddition,ReaganusedwordsthatvividlyfusedthepresentmomentwiththepastactionsoftheheroicAlliedforces.Heshiftedabruptlyfromthepasttothepresenttodescribetheimmediatescene—“alonely,windsweptpointonthenorthernshoreofFrance"—andtocontrastthatscenetothemayhemofbattlefortyyearsearlier(PointeduHoc,2).Althoughtheairwasnow"soft,"Reaganremindedhisaudiencethat"40yearsagoatthismoment,theairwasdensewithsmokeandthecriesofmen,andtheairwasfilledwiththecrackofriflefireandtheroarofcannon"(PointeduHoc,2).Thesepowerfulmetaphorsofsight,sound,andsmellmadetherealitiesofwarviscerallypresent.Boomingverbs,suchas"crack"and"roar,"anchoredthesentence,causingittoflowrhythmicallyandheavily,almostlikethesharppoppingofartillery.


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Afterpositioningtheaudienceintimeandplace,ReaganreferredrepeatedlytothephysicalspaceasacatalystfortheU.S.ArmyRangers'actions.

Atdawn,onthemorningofthe6thofJune,1944,225RangersjumpedofftheBritishlandingcraftandrantothebottomofthesecliffs.Theirmissionwasoneofthemostdifficultanddaringoftheinvasion:toclimbthesesheeranddesolatecliffsandtakeouttheenemyguns.TheAllieshadbeentoldthatsomeofthemightiestofthesegunswerehereandtheywouldbetrainedonthebeachestostoptheAlliedadvance.TheRangerslookedupandsawtheenemysoldiers--theedgeofthecliffsshootingdownatthemwithmachinegunsandthrowinggrenades.AndtheAmericanRangersbegantoclimb.Theyshotropeladdersoverthefaceofthesecliffsandbegantopullthemselvesup.WhenoneRangerfell,anotherwouldtakehisplace.Whenoneropewascut,aRangerwouldgrabanotherandbeginhisclimbagain.Theyclimbed,shotback,andheldtheirfooting.Soon,onebyone,theRangerspulledthemselvesoverthetop,andinseizingthefirmlandatthetopofthesecliffs,theybegantoseizebackthecontinentofEurope.(PointeduHoc,2-3)

Inthispassage,Reaganreliedonwhatwasvisuallyevidentandphysicallypresent:the"sheeranddesolatecliffs,"thebeachheadatthe"bottomofthesecliffs,"andthehazardousclimbtothe"topofthesecliffs."Throughhisrepeatedreferencesto"thesecliffs,"ReaganremindedhisaudiencethattheyweresittingontopoftheverycliffswheretheU.S.ArmyRangershadfoughtanddied.Insodoing,Reaganbroughtthepresentaudienceintothepast,invitingthemtorespondkinestheticallytotheimageoftheRangersjumpingofflandingcraftandrunningtowardthecliffsuponwhichtheywereseated.ItwouldbenearlyimpossibletolistentoReagan'snarrativeasamemberoftheimmediateaudienceandnotrealizethatonewasseatedintheexactspotfromwhichtheGermansoldiersfireddownupontheRangers“withmachinegunsand...grenades.”Inthatmomentofcommemoration,withflagsandhonorguardsandwell-dresseddignitaries,thecontrastbetweenpastandpresentwasstark.TheU.S.ArmyRangersscaledthecliffssothisaudience,manyofwhomwerebutchildrenonJune6,1944,couldcommemoratetheirheroicsacrificefortyyearslater. Uptothispointinthespeech,ReaganhadbeendescribingtheAlliedadvanceonPointeduHocasaneventinthepast.AlthoughthepresidenthadconnectedtheimmediatesceneofD-Daytothepresent("thesecliffs"werethesamein1944and1984),hecouldhavebeenreferringtoaneventthattookplacetwohundredyearsearlier.However,afterrecountinghowtheU.S.ArmyRangersclimbedtothetopofthesecliffsand,indoingso,"begantoseizebackthecontinentofEurope,"Reaganintroducedthehumanactorswholinkedthepastwiththepresent.

Twohundredandtwenty-fivecamehere.After2daysoffighting,only90couldstillbeararms.BehindmeisamemorialthatsymbolizestheRangerdaggersthatwerethrustintothetopofthesecliffs.Andbeforemearethemenwhoputthemthere.ThesearetheboysofPointeduHoc.Thesearethemenwhotookthecliffs.Thesearethechampionswhohelpedfreeacontinent.Thesearethe


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heroeswhohelpedendawar.Gentlemen,IlookatyouandIthinkofthewordsofStephenSpender'spoem.Youaremenwhoinyour"livesfoughtforlife...andleftthevividairsignedwithyourhonor."(PointeduHoc,3-6)

Inthispassage,ReaganreferredtotheU.S.ArmyRangersseatedbeforehim:"ThesearetheboysofPointeduHoc."Thepresidentusedthesameword,"these,"todescribeboth"thesecliffs"and"these...boys....men....champions....[and]heroeswhohelpedendawar."ThiswordchoiceallowedReagantodrawtheaudience'sattentiontothejaggedrocksdirectlybehindhimandtheelderlymeninfrontofhim.Afterrecountingthehistoricalnarrative,thepresidentintroducedthemainactorsofhisstory:theboysofPointeduHoc.Inaclimaxconstruction,Reaganredefinedhowthisstrugglehadchangedthesewarriors.Initially,theywere"theboysofPointeduHoc."Thentheybecame"themenwhotookthecliffs....thechampionswhohelpedfreeacontinent."Nowtheywere"theheroeswhohelpedendawar."Throughthisconstruction,ReagandescribedtheU.S.ArmyRangers'climbasamovementtowardmaturity;astheytookthecliffs,theyweretransformedfromboystochampions.Inthisway,theirbodiesshiftedthediscoursefromtheimaginarytotheimmediate.TheRangersbecamepartofReagan'srhetoricaltext,alivingrepresentationofwhathadhappenedfortyyearsago. ReaganthenlinkedthesebravementootherAlliedtroops,usingvignettesvividintheirspecificitytodescribeothersoldiersandnationswhohadfoughtbesidetheU.S.ArmyRangers(PointeduHoc,7-10).ScottishsoldierBillMillinofthe51stHighlanderscheerfullyplayedhisbagpipesasheledagroupofreinforcementstorescueBritishsoldierstrappednearabridge,andLordLovatofScotlandapologizedforbeing"afewminuteslate"comingfrom"thebloodyfightingonSwordBeach,whichheandhismenhadjusttaken"(PointeduHoc,7-8).Therewereothers,too.Reaganpraisedthe"impossiblevalorofthePoleswhothrewthemselvesbetweentheenemyandtherestofEuropeastheinvasiontookhold,andtheunsurpassedcourageoftheCanadianswhohadalreadyseenthehorrorsofwaronthiscoast.Theyknewwhatawaitedthemthere,buttheywouldnotbedeterred"(PointeduHoc,9).Reaganenumerated"arollcallofhonor":theRoyalWinnipegRifles,Poland's24thLancers,theRoyalScotsFusiliers,theScreamingEagles,theYeomenofEngland'sarmoreddivisions,theforcesofFreeFrance,andtheCoastGuard's"MatchboxFleet"(PointeduHoc,10).Byspecificallynamingthesegroups,thepresidentmadetheirsacrificespresenttotheassembledaudienceandemphasizedthattheU.S.Rangershadnotwonthebattlealone.ThislistingalsounderscoredtheneedforAlliedcooperationinthepresent-daystruggleagainstSovietcommunism.

AfterrecognizingtheothernationsthatfoughttofreeEurope,Reaganreturnedtotheheroesofhisstory.HerecalledhowyoungtheRangerswereandfocusedhisaudience'sattentionontheirmoralresolve:

Fortysummershavepassedsincethebattlethatyoufoughthere.Youwereyoungthedayyoutookthesecliffs;someofyouwerehardlymorethanboys,withthedeepestjoysoflifebeforeyou.Yet,youriskedeverythinghere.Why?Whydidyoudoit?Whatimpelledyoutoputasidetheinstinctforself-preservationandriskyourlivestotakethesecliffs?Whatinspiredallthemenof


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thearmiesthatmethere?Welookatyou,andsomehowweknowtheanswer.Itwasfaithandbelief.Itwasloyaltyandlove.(PointeduHoc,11)

Thepresidentexplainedthatasheandtherestoftheaudiencelookedatthem,theycouldunderstandwhytheyriskedeverythingtoseizethecliffsofPointeduHoc.Thesemen,althoughgreyandfrail,werethelivingproofthattheAlliesunderstoodthe"profound,moraldifferencebetweentheuseofforceforliberationandtheuseofforceforconquest"(PointeduHoc,12).

AsReagantranslatedtheheroicactionsofthemensittingbeforehim,heshiftedthespeechtotransformcommemorationintofutureresolveforthelargeraudience."Youallknewthatsomethingsareworthdyingfor.One'scountryisworthdyingfor,anddemocracyisworthdyingfor,becauseit'sthemostdeeplyhonorableformofgovernmenteverdevisedbyman"(PointeduHoc,13).Thisboldclaimpositioneddemocraticfreedomaboveallothergovernmentalstructures,inparticularthe"tyranny"themenofNormandycametofight:"Allofyouwerewillingtofighttyranny,andyouknewthepeopleofyourcountrieswerebehindyou"(PointeduHoc,13).ReaganthenlinkedtheRangerstothoseathomewhosupportedthem,identifyingparticulargroupsofcitizensintheirspecificlocales.In"Georgiatheywerefillingthechurchesat4a.m.,inKansastheywerekneelingontheirporchesandpraying,andinPhiladelphiatheywereringingtheLibertyBell"(PointeduHoc,14).Healsoevokedtheir"rockhardbeliefthatProvidencewouldhaveagreathandintheeventsthatwouldunfoldhere;thatGodwasanallyinthisgreatcause"(PointeduHoc,15).Again,sharplydrawnexamplesmadethatpointintensely.HetoldofLt.Col.RobertLeeWolverton,commanderofthe101stAirborneDivisionoftheU.S.Army,whoaskedhisparachutetroopstokneelwithhiminprayer,butwhosaid:"Donotbowyourheads,butlookupsoyoucanseeGodandaskHisblessinginwhatwe'reabouttodo"(PointeduHoc,15).HetoldofGeneralMatthewRidgway,whoreliedforstrengthontheBible,"listeninginthedarknessforthepromiseGodmadetoJoshua:'Iwillnotfailtheenorforsakethee'"(PointeduHoc,15).Reaganrecreatedthebattle,thefearsandhopesofthosewhofoughtthere,andinsodoingrecreatedintensepatrioticandreligiousfeelingsabouttherightnessofthecauseforwhichtheU.S.andAlliedforcesfoughtanddied. Inthesecondhalfofhisspeech,ReaganlinkedtheAlliedvictoryonD-DaytopresentandfutureactionbytheUnitedStatesanditsEuropeanallies.Thepresidentassumedhisroleashistoricalnarrator,moralguide,andinterpreterofimportantevents."Whenthewarwasover,therewerelivestoberebuiltandgovernmentstobereturnedtothepeople.Therewerenationstobereborn.Aboveall,therewasanewpeacetobeassured.Thesewerehugeanddauntingtasks.ButtheAlliessummonedstrengthfromthefaith,belief,loyalty,andloveofthosewhofellhere"(PointeduHoc,17).ReagandescribedAlliedeffortstorebuildEurope,includingtheMarshallPlanandtheAtlanticAlliance.Butdespite"ourgreateffortsandsuccesses...[s]omeliberatedcountrieswerelost.ThegreatsadnessofthislossechoesdowntoourowntimeinthestreetsofWarsaw,Prague,andEastBerlin"(PointeduHoc,19).Onceagain,thepresidentmadetheselossestangibleandspecific.Thetragedywas,inhiswords,that"Soviettroops...didnotleavewhenpeacecame.They'restillthere,uninvited,unwanted,unyielding,almost40yearsafterthewar.Becauseofthis,alliedforcesstillstandonthiscontinent"(PointeduHoc,19).Thepresent-daySovietpresenceinEuropewasacontinuationoftheSecondWorldWar,implyingthattherewasstillmoretoaccomplishevenaftertheAlliedvictoryin1944.


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Inthefinalminutesofthespeech,Reaganofferedthemoraltothisstory,explainingwhatwastobelearnedfromtheseevents:

Itisbettertobeherereadytoprotectthepeace,thantotakeblindshelteracrossthesea,rushingtorespondonlyafterfreedomislost.We'velearnedthatisolationismneverwasandneverwillbeanacceptableresponsetotyrannicalgovernmentswithanexpansionistintent.(PointeduHoc,20)

Yetlearningwasnotenough;specificactionswerenecessary."[W]etryalwaystobepreparedforpeace;preparedtodeteraggression;preparedtonegotiatethereductionofarms;andyes,preparedtoreachoutagaininthespiritofreconciliation"(PointeduHoc,21).Therhythmunderscoredtheimportanceofpreparingtorespondtopossibilitiesandrisks.ReaganstatedthattheUnitedStateswelcomedreconciliationwiththeSovietUnionsothatbothcountriescould"lessentherisksofwar,nowandforever"(PointeduHoc,21).Theshiftwassubtleandsomewhatunexpected,thelanguagereflectingadesiretoreuniteinaneffortthatechoedtheirpastalliance.

Thisspiritofreconciliationwasunderscoredbyhispublicrecognitionof"thegreatlossesalsosufferedbytheRussianpeopleduringWorldWarII:20millionperished,aterriblepricethattestifiestoalltheworldthenecessityofendingwar"(PointeduHoc,22).TheNationalSecurityCouncilandStateDepartmenthadpushedthespeechwritingstafftoincludethisline,notingthat"anadditionofashortparagraphalludingtoSovietlosses...willassistusinmaintainingthemoralhighgroundwehavesecuredinourpublicdiplomacystrugglewiththeSoviets."32ReaganusedthisinclusiontostressthattheUnitedStatesdidnotdesirewar,butwanted"towipefromthefaceoftheEarththeterribleweaponsthatmannowhasinhishands"(PointeduHoc,22).However,ReaganplacedresponsibilityontheSovietUnion,statingthattheRussiansneededtodemonstratea"desireandloveforpeace,andthattheywillgiveupthewaysofconquest"sothattheUnitedStatescould"turnourhopeintoaction"(PointeduHoc,22).

Afterdescribinghisvisionforapost-ColdWarworld,ReaganreturnedtotheimmediatesceneandspokeinhisownvoiceasU.S.president.HecalledonhisaudiencetorededicatethemselvestothevaluesforwhichtheAlliesfoughtanddied.AtthisceremonycommemoratingthefortiethanniversaryofD-Day,hestatedthatitwas"goodandfittingtorenewourcommitmenttoeachother,toourfreedom,andtothealliancethatprotectsit"(PointeduHoc,23).Hethenconcluded:

Weareboundtodaybywhatboundus40yearsago,thesameloyalties,traditions,andbeliefs.We'reboundbyreality.ThestrengthofAmerica'salliesisvitaltotheUnitedStates,andtheAmericansecurityguaranteeisessentialtothecontinuedfreedomofEurope'sdemocracies.Wewerewithyouthen;wearewithyounow.Yourhopesareourhopes,andyourdestinyisourdestiny.Here,inthisplacewheretheWestheldtogether,letusmakeavowtoourdead.Letusshowthembyouractionsthatweunderstandwhattheydiedfor....Strengthenedbytheircourageandheartenedbytheirvalue[valor],andborne


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bytheirmemory,letuscontinuetostandfortheidealsforwhichtheylivedanddied.(PointeduHoc24-26)

Inthisconclusion,ReagandirectedhisaudienceyetagaintotheU.S.ArmyRangersseatedbeforehimatPointeduHocandthoseburiedattheNormandyAmericanCemeterydowntheroad.Thesemenweretheliving,enduringlinkbetweenthepastandpresent.Theyhadriskedandevengiventheirlives;howcouldtheAlliedcoalitionnothonortheirsacrifice?Here,inthissacredplace,ReaganspokeasnationalpriestandcalledontheAlliestoconsecratethemselvestothetasksetbeforethem.This"lonely,windsweptpointonthenorthernshoreofFrance"was"theplacewheretheWestheldtogether"fortyyearsearlier(PointeduHoc,2;25).Now,withnuclearwarasaveryrealthreattohumanity,whatmightPointeduHocsymbolizeforrelationsbetweentheSovietUnionandtheWesternallies?Inhisspeech,ReaganreconstitutedtheveryplaceforwhichmenfoughtanddiedtocallonWesternleaderstostandagainstcommunismwhileseekingpeacewithRussia.AlthoughmanyintheimmediateaudiencewerenotpresentatPointeduHocin1944,thepresidentinvitedthemtobecomefellowsoldiersforthecauseofdemocraticfreedomanddemonstratetheirmoralresolveto"standfortheidealsforwhich[theAlliedsoldiersin1944]livedanddied"(PointeduHoc,26).

ReaganatOmahaBeach

AfterdeliveringhisspeechatPointeduHoc,thepresidentgreetedthesurvivingU.S.ArmyRangersandthendepartedviahelicopterforOmahaBeachforajointceremonywithFrenchPresidentFrançoisMitterrand.WherethePointeduHoceventwas"strictlyanAmericancommemoration,"Reagan'sremarksatOmahaBeachwerepartofalargerAlliedceremony."AtOmahaBeach,"explainedaSecretarySchultzinabriefingmemorandumtoReagan,"youwillbejoinedbyPresidentMitterrandandotherFrenchofficialsinpayingtributetotheAmericancommitmenttotheliberationofFrance....BothyouandPresidentMitterrandwillmakebriefremarksatthisevent.Yourswillstressthethemeofabroadenedwesternsolidarityevolvingfromthewartimealliance."33Oneofficialscheduledescribedthisceremonyasa"JointCeremonywithbriefremarks,"34andanotherdocumentnotedthe"timeguidelines"of"3-5minutes"forthepresident'sremarksatOmahaBeach.35AndalthoughthisceremonywastostresstheU.S.-FrenchpartnershipduringtheSecondWorldWar,ReaganprovidedanothervividnarrativeofoneU.S.soldiertoencapsulatethestoryofD-Day.

AnthonyDolanwasassignedtheOmahaBeachremarksandstructuredthespeecharoundoneparticularaccountfromLisaZanattaHenn,thedaughterofaD-Dayveteran.InaletterdatedMarch15,1984,ZanattaHennwrotetoReaganaskingforhisassistanceinattendingtheU.S.ceremonyatNormandyinJune."DearMr.President,"shewrote,"Myfather,PeterRobertZanatta,PFC,37thEngineerCombatBattalion,landedontheFirstWaveofOmahaBeachonDDay.Thiseventwasprobablythemostimportanteventofhislife.Healwaysplannedtogobacksomeday.Sinceheisnolongerliving—mymother,brothers,andIareplanningtoattend.WewouldliketoattendnotjustastouristsbutasrepresentativesoftheUnitedStates."36Inthisletter,ZanattaHennenclosedabriefbutmovingnarrativeshewroteaboutherfather,portionsofwhichReaganwouldreadaloudatOmahaBeach.


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ColonelM.P.Caulfield,DeputyDirectoroftheWhiteHouseMilitaryOffice,respondedtoLisaZanattaHenn'sletteronMay10,1984,stating,"[t]hePresidenthasrequestedtheSecretaryofDefensetoincludeyouandyourfamilyontheUnitedStatesInvitationListfortheOmahaBeachcommemorationonthe6thofJune."CaulfieldspecifiedthattheU.S.governmentwasunabletoprovidetravelarrangementstoZanattaHennandherfamily,buthedidstatethattheywould"begivenwhateverassistanceisrequiredonceyouarriveinFrance."37Reagan'spersonalsecretary,Kathleen"Kathy"Osborne,sharedCaulfield'sresponsewiththepresident,writing:"IranthisbyDickDarmanandhethoughtthatpage4ofthisletter[ZanattaHenn'snarrative]mightbeusefultospeechwritersforpossibleuseinEuropeorforradiospeechfromEurope.Anyobjections?"Reagan'sresponse:"NOTATALL."Thepresidentthenadded,"IfLisa'sproblemisinabilitytoaffordtransportationhowaboutapvt.[private]initiativetoraisemoneyforsomepeoplelikethis?"38ItisunclearwhetherReagan'ssuggestionforaprivatefundraisinginitiativeeveroccurred.However,wedoknowthatthePresidentandMrs.ReagandidmeetprivatelywithLisaZanattaHenn,hermother,andherthreebrothersfortenminutespriortothepresident'sspeechatOmahaBeachonJune6,1984.39

DolanincorporatedZanattaHenn'sstoryintotheveryfirstdraftsofReagan'sremarksatOmahaBeach,buttheheavyfocusononesoldier'sexperienceconcernedsomeWhiteHousestaffmembers.AsRobertKimmitt,DeputyAssistanttothePresidentforNationalSecurityAffairs,explainedtoRichardDarman,theNationalSecurityCouncilwasconcernedthatDolan'sdraft"concentratedheavilyononepersonalexperience"andrecommendedthatthespeechberefocused"towardabroadtributetothesacrificesoftheAmericanandAlliedSoldiers."40Althoughsomeofthesechangeswereadopted,Reagan'sfinalversiondevoted494words—abouthalfofthespeech—toZanattaHenn'snarrative.

ThepresidentbeganbyrootinghisaudienceinplaceandrecallingtheliveslostatOmahaBeach:"Mr.President,distinguishedguests,westandtodayataplaceofbattle,onethat40yearsagosawandfelttheworstofwar.Menbledanddiedhereforafewfeetof–orinchesofsand,asbulletsandshellfirecutthroughtheirranks"(OmahaBeach,1).41Reaganthenunderscoredhisowninabilityto"adequatelyportraytheirsuffering,theirsacrifice,theirheroism"byinvokingAbrahamLincoln:"PresidentLincolnonceremindedusthatthroughtheirdeeds,thedeadofbattlehavespokenmoreeloquentlyforthemselvesthananyofthelivingevercould.Butwecanonlyhonorthembyrededicatingourselvestothecauseforwhichtheygavealastfullmeasureofdevotion"(OmahaBeach,2).Thiswasmorethananinference;hereReagandirectlyquotedfromtheGettysburgAddresswhenhestatedthatthosewhodiedgavea"lastfullmeasureofdevotion."42ReaganalsoappropriatedkeythemesfromLincoln'srhetoricalmasterpiece,particularlyhisadmonitionthatthelivingshouldhonorthedeadbyrededicatingthemselvestovaluesandidealsforwhichtheydied."Todaywedorededicateourselvestothatcause,"Reagansaid."Andatthisplaceofhonor,we'rehumbledbytherealizationofhowmuchsomanygavetothecauseoffreedomandtotheirfellowman"(OmahaBeach,3).

ThepresidentthenintroducedthestoryofPrivateZanattathroughthewordsofhisdaughter,Lisa.

"Someday,Lis,I'llgoback,''saidPrivateFirstClassPeterRobertZanatta,ofthe37thEngineerCombatBattalion,andfirstassaultwavetohitOmahaBeach."I'll


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goback,andI'llseeitallagain.I'llseethebeach,thebarricades,andthegraves.''ThosewordsofPrivateZanattacometousfromhisdaughter,LisaZanattaHenn,inaheart-rendingstoryabouttheeventherfatherspokeofsooften."Inhiswords,theNormandyinvasionwouldchangehislifeforever,''shesaid.ShetellssomeofhisstoriesofWorldWarIIbutsaysofherfather,"thestorytoendallstorieswasD-day.''(OmahaBeach,5-6)

TheinclusionofthisstorynotonlyprovidedReaganwiththeperspectiveofasoldierwhofoughtatOmahaBeachfortyyearsago,butitalsoallowedhimtounderscorehisearlierpointthat"thedeadofbattlehavespokenmoreeloquentlyforthemselvesthananyofthelivingevercould"(OmahaBeach2).ReagancontinuedtoreadaloudfromZanattaHenn'sletter:

"Hemademefeelthefearofbeingonthatboatwaitingtoland.Icansmelltheoceanandfeeltheseasickness.Icanseethelooksonhisfellowsoldiers'faces–thefear,theanguish,theuncertaintyofwhatlayahead.Andwhentheylanded,Icanfeelthestrengthandcourageofthemenwhotookthosefirststepsthroughthetidetowhatmusthavesurelylookedlikeinstantdeath.'"(OmahaBeach,7)

ZanattaHenn'spersonalreflectiononherfather'sexperienceatOmahaBeachprovidedavividnarrativethatencompassedtheexperienceofnotjustonesoldier,butallthosewhocametoNormandy.

AfteridentifyingPrivateZanattaasspecificexampleofsacrificeandU.S.patriotism,Reaganconnectedthesoldier'spersonalexperiencetothelargerstoryofD-Day:

WhenmenlikePrivateZanattaandallouralliedforcesstormedthebeachesofNormandy40yearsagotheycamenotasconquerors,butasliberators.WhenthesetroopssweptacrosstheFrenchcountrysideandintotheforestsofBelgiumandLuxembourgtheycamenottotake,buttoreturnwhathadbeenwronglyseized.WhenourforcesmarchedintoGermanytheycamenottopreyonabraveanddefeatedpeople,buttonurturetheseedsofdemocracyamongthosewhoyearnedtobefreeagain.(OmahaBeach,10)

TheparallelbetweenZanettaandtherestoftheAlliedforcesalsoextendedintothepresentdayasReagannoddedtothecurrentpartnershipbetweentheUnitedStatesandotherEuropeandemocraciesfightingagainstthespreadofcommunism.TheimpliedmessagewassimilartoReagan'smoreovertargumentatPointeduHoc:justastheAlliedforcescame"nurturetheseedsofdemocracyamongthosewhoyearnedtobefreeagain"duringWorldWarII,sotoowouldtheWesttakeactivestepstoencourage"seedsofdemocracy"tosproutandtakerooteveninthehostilesoilofSovietcommunism(OmahaBeach,10).

AsReaganmovedtowardhisconclusion,heremindedhisaudienceofwhattheyweretheretocelebrateandthelessonstobelearnedfromtheAlliedassaultfortyyearsearlier."Today,intheirmemory,andforallwhofoughthere,wecelebratethetriumphofdemocracy....Fromaterriblewarwelearnedthatunitymadeusinvincible;now,inpeace,thatsameunitymakesussecure"(OmahaBeach,12-13).Thejuxtapositionofpastandpresenttense


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underscoredthemodern-dayrelevanceofthelessonsofhistory."Today"theassembledaudiencehadgatheredto"celebratethetriumphofdemocracy"fortyyearsearlier."[A]terriblewar"taughttheUnitedStatesanditsalliestheimportanceofaunifiedallianceagainsttotalitarianism;today,"thatsameunity"madetheWest"secure."

ThepresidentreemphasizedthisconnectionbetweenpastandpresentbyclosingwithanothermovingpassagefromZanattaHenn'sletter.

LisaZanattaHennbeganherstorybyquotingherfather,whopromisedthathewouldreturntoNormandy.Sheendedwithapromisetoherfather,whodied8yearsagoofcancer:"I'mgoingthere,Dad,andI'llseethebeachesandthebarricadesandthemonuments.I'llseethegraves,andI'llputflowerstherejustlikeyouwantedtodo.I'llfeelallthethingsyoumademefeelthroughyourstoriesandyoureyes.I'llneverforgetwhatyouwentthrough,Dad,norwillIletanyoneelseforget.And,Dad,I'llalwaysbeproud.''Throughthewordsofhislovingdaughter,whoisherewithustoday,aD-dayveteranhasshownusthemeaningofthisdayfarbetterthananyPresidentcan.(OmahaBeach,15-16)

HereReaganrepeatedhisearlierstatementthat"[n]ospeechcanadequatelyportraytheirsuffering,theirsacrifice,theirheroism"(OmahaBeach,2).ThroughthepersonalexperienceofPrivateZanatta(asrecountedbyhisdaughter),Reagandrewonthepatrioticthemesandmentalimagesofoneyoungsoldierstormingthebeachesfortyyearsearlier.Insodoing,PrivateZanattabecameametaphoricalrepresentationof"allthemenofhonorandcouragewhofoughtbesidehimfourdecadesago"(OmahaBeach,16).Tothem—boththosewhodiedonJune6,1944,andthosewhosurvivedtoattendtheceremoniesfortyyearslater—ReaganpromisedthattheUnitedStatesandtherestoftheAlliednationswouldnotforgettheirsacrifice."Wewillalwaysremember.Wewillalwaysbeproud.Wewillalwaysbeprepared,sowemaybealwaysfree"(OmahaBeach,16).

RememberingD-Day:ReaganandBeyond

Thirtyyearslater,Reagan'stwospeechesatNormandycontinuetoreceivecriticalacclaimandhavebecomeexemplarsofU.S.presidentialcommemoration.Indeed,ReaganistoNormandyasKennedyistoBerlin;allsuccessivepresidentialaddressesatNormandyarejudgedbyReagan'sspeechesin1984.43ReflectingonReagan'sPointeduHocspeechin2004,WashingtonPostreporterandReaganbiographerLouCannondescribedtheaddressas"elegiac,"atermthatcapturesthecadenceorrepeatedrhythmsadoptedbyGreekpoetstorecitenationalhistoryandmemorializethedead.44AtNormandy,ReaganrecountedtheeventsofD-Dayandimmortalized"theboysofPointeduHoc"andPrivateFirstClassPeterRobertZanattabysituatingtheirdaringactswithinthebroaderhistoricalcontextandthencomparingtheAllieddefeatofNaziGermanytothepresentmoment(PointeduHoc,5).Inthisway,Reagan'srhetoricaccomplishedtwospecificrhetoricalpurposes:honoringtheheroesofWorldWarIIandusingtheiractionstoillustratethevaluesthatshouldguidepresentandfutureU.S.ColdWar.


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TheimmediatepresscoverageofReagan'sspeechesatPointeduHocandOmahaBeachstressedthelinkagesbetween1944and1984.InaspecialreportfortheNewYorkTimes,militarycorrespondentDrewMiddletonnotedthatReagan'sspeeches"touchedcommonthemes,includingthebraveryoftheGermanenemyandsacrificesmadebytheSovietUnionduringWorldWarII."45TheLosAngelesTimesdescribedhowReagan"issuedacallto'wipefromthefaceoftheearththeterribleweaponsmannowhasinhishands,'"andmadespecialmentionofthepresident'sreferenceto"the20millionSovietcitizenswholosttheirlivesinthewar."46AccordingtoBenjaminTaylor,awriterfortheBostonGlobe,"[t]henowpeacefulbeachesofNormandyservedasadramaticbackdropyesterdayforaceremonycommemoratingthe40thanniversaryofD-Day....Inremarkslacedwithemotionandpatriotism,ReagancastigatedtheSovietUnionforitsmilitarydominationofEasternEuropeevenashecontinuedtoextendtheolivebranchofreconciliationif'theywillgiveuptheirwaysofconquest.'"47ThesereportshighlightedthecleardualmessageofReagan'sspeechesatNormandy:commemoratethepastAlliedtriumphoverNazityrannyandrededicatetheWesternalliancetodefending—andspreading—democracyduringtheColdWar.

Ina2013interview,ReaganspeechwriterPeggyNoonancommentedonthesetwogoalsasexpressedinReagan'sspeechatPointeduHoc:

Thetextofthespeech—theostensiblethingthatwasbeingsaid—was,"Look,civilizednationsoftheWest,lookwhatyoudidfortyyearsagowhenyouheldtogether,joinedtogether,youdefeatedaterribletyrannycalledHitler'sGermany."Sothat'swhatthespeechis.Underneaththat,ReaganwasreallysayingtoallthegatheredleadersoftheWestwhoweretherethatday,"Guys,lookwhatyourparentsandgrandparentsdid.Ifweholdtogetherastheydid,wearegoingtodefeattogetherthetyrannyofourtime—andthatisSovietcommunism."So,bylaudingtheWorldWarIIgeneration,Reaganwasalsotryingtoinspirethosewhonowstillhadtoholdtogether—theBerlinWallhadnotfallen—topushthatwallover.So,heveryconsciously...usedthatspeechtosay,"Lookwhatwedidlasttime.Wecanstilldoit!"48

Noonan'sreflectionunderscoreshowReaganusedhisspeechesatPointeduHocandOmahaBeachtoarguethatthemostappropriatewaytohonorthememoryofthemenwhofoughtatNormandywastostandagainstthepresentthreatofSovietcommunism.

ThemediacoverageofReagan'sspeechesatPointeduHocandNormandyalsodemonstratedthepotentialforcouplingspokentextswithvisualimagesforaparticularlymemorableresult.KathleenHallJamiesonobservesthat"[t]elevisionenabledReagantotransportthenationalaudiencetothestagehehadsetinNormandy....Thedramatizationwascompelling,thestagingunsurpassable,thevisualargumentpoliticallypotent."49The1984Reagan-BushcampaignamplifiedthisdramatizationwhentheyusedvideofootagefromReagan'sspeechesatNormandytoportrayReaganandthenationasstrong,determined,andconfident.OnthefinaleveningoftheRepublicanNationalConventioninDallas,thecampaignairedaneighteen-minutevideotitled"ANewBeginning"thathighlightediconicmomentsandkeyinitiativesofReagan'sfirstterminoffice.50

ThefilmfeaturedsnippetsofReagan'sspeechesatPointeduHocandOmahaBeach,includingsweepingpanoramicshotsofthecliffsatPointeduHoc,endlessrowsofwhitecrosses


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andStarsofDavidintheAmericanCemeteryatNormandy,andthelargeaudienceassembledforthejointceremonyatOmahaBeach.ThemostpoignantaspectofthissegmentwashowthefilminterspersedReagan'sspeechesatPointeduHocandOmahabeachwithactualfootageofmenstormingthebeachesonJune6,1944.Inaddition,thevideoalsocontainedcloseupshotsofthesixty-two"boysofPointeduHoc,”alongwithPrivatePeterZanatta'sdaughter,sons,andwidow.AstheaudiencelistenedtoReagan'snarrativeoftheAlliedlandingsatNormandy,theywatchedblackandwhitefootageofsoldiersstrugglingtoreachtheshore.WhenReaganrecountedthecourageousclimboftheU.S.ArmyRangersfortyyearsearlier,thecamerazoomedinonthefacesoftheagedveterans.AndasthepresidentreadaloudfromLisaZanattaHenn'sletteratOmahaBeach,theaudiencewitnessedZanattaHenncryinginthefrontrow.ThisjuxtapositionoftextandimageprovidedastrikingtributenotjusttothemenwhofoughtatNormandy,butitalsoreinforcedReagan'simageasafocused,patrioticheadofstatededicatedtoprotectingU.S.democracyathomeandpreventingthespreadofcommunismabroad.

SinceReagan'sspeechesatPointeduHocandOmahaBeachonJune6,1984,threeadditionalpresidents—Clinton,GeorgeW.Bush,andObama—havetraveledtoNormandytocommemoratetheanniversaryofD-DayandrededicatetheUnitedStatestocauseforwhichtheAlliedforcesfought,bled,anddied."Wecommitourselves,asyoudid,tokeep[freedom's]lampburningforthosewhowillfollow.Youcompletedyoumissionhere.Butthemissionoffreedomgoeson;thebattlecontinues,"PresidentBillClintonsaidin1994.51Tenyearslater,PresidentGeorgeW.BushtoldthesurvivingveteransgatheredforthesixtiethanniversaryofD-Day,"[Y]ouwillbehonoredeverandalwaysbythecountryyouservedandbythenationsyoufreed."52In2009,PresidentBarackObamatoldhisaudience,"D-Daywasatimeandaplacewherethebraveryandselflessnessofafewwasabletochangethecourseofanentirecentury."53Andin2014,ontheseventiethanniversaryoftheNormandyinvasion,ObamanotonlyhonoredthosewhofoughtatNormandy,buthealsoacknowledgedseveralU.S.servicememberswhohadservedinIraqandAfghanistansince9/11.Afterintroducingseveraloftheseindividualstotheaudience,hetoldtheWorldWarIIveterans:"[Y]ourlegacyisingoodhands....this9/11generationofservicemembers—they,too,feltsomething.Theyansweredsomecall;theysaid'Iwillgo.'They,too,chosetoserveacausethat'sgreaterthanself,manyevenaftertheyknewthey'dbesentintoharm'sway."54Inhisremarks,Obamadrewaparallelbetweenthe"GreatestGeneration"andpresent-daymilitaryheroesfightinginIraqandAfghanistan.LikeReaganhaddonebeforehim,ObamausedthestoryofD-Daytoinspirepatrioticsentimentandhumbleappreciationforthese"generationsofmenandwomenwhoprovedonceagainthattheUnitedStatesofAmericaisandwillremainthegreatestforceforfreedomtheworldhaseverknown."55

TheseexamplesofU.S.presidentialcommemorationsofD-DaydemonstratehowReagan'sspeechesatPointeduHocandOmahaBeachinauguratedanimportanttraditioninU.S.politicalculture.As"interpreters-in-chief"ofoursharedhistory,U.S.presidentsremindusofournationalidentityandsharedvalues,andoneoftheprimarywaystheydothisisthroughpublicspeech.56WhenReagannarratedtheeventsofJune6,1984,tothenationandtheworldvialivetelevision,hetranslatedthestoryofD-Day—inallitshardshipandstruggleandtriumph—intothecontemporarymoment.Toanationrecoveringfromeconomicinflationandalostsenseofself,theheroicactionsof"theboysofPointeduHoc"andPrivatePeterZanatta


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providedamorallessonthatwasjustasapplicablein1984asitwasonthat"longestday"fortyyearsearlier.57 __________________________________ Author'sNote:AllisonPraschisadoctoralstudentattheUniversityofMinnesota.Portionsofthisessayoriginallyappearedin“ReaganatPointeduHoc:DeicticEpideicticandthePersuasivePowerof‘BringingBeforetheEyes,’”Rhetoric&PublicAffairs18(2015):247-276.TheauthorisgratefultoMartyMedhurstandMichiganStateUniversityPressforgraciouslyallowingthatmaterialtoappearinthisessay.

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Notes 1H.W.Brands,Reagan:TheLife(NewYork:Doubleday,2015),237. 2AdamClymer,"TheCollapseofaCoalition,"NewYorkTimes,November5,1980. 3PaulFessler,"RonaldReagan,AddresstotheNationalAssociationofEvangelicals("EvilEmpireSpeech")(8March1983),"VoicesofDemocracy2(2007):26. 4RonaldReagan,"InauguralAddress,"January20,1981.ThePublicPapersofPresidentRonaldW.Reagan.RonaldReaganPresidentialLibrary.http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1981/12081a.htm(accessedOctober16,2015). 5MartinJ.Medhurst,"WritingSpeechesforRonaldReagan:AnInterviewwithTonyDolan,"Rhetoric&PublicAffairs1,no.2(1998):247. 6JohnLewisGaddis,TheColdWar:ANewHistory(NewYork:ThePenguinPress,2005),217. 7EdwinMeeseIII,WithReagan:TheInsideStory(Washington,DC:RegneryGateway,1992),164. 8RonaldReagan,"AddresstoMembersoftheBritishParliament,"June8,1982.ThePublicPapersofPresidentRonaldW.Reagan.RonaldReaganPresidentialLibrary.http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1982/60882a.htm(accessedOctober12,2015). 9RonaldReagan,SpeakingMyMind(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,1989),107. 10IntheirstudyofReagan'sWestminsterAddress,RobertC.RowlandandJohnM.Jonesexplainthatalthoughthisspeechishailedbyneoconservatives"asthemomentwhenReaganandBritain'sPrimeMinisterMargaretThatcherput'freedomontheoffensivewhereitbelonged[Thatcher'sassessment],'"Reagan'saddress"wasnotrecognizedasparticularlyimportantoreffectiveatthetime."Instead,RowlandandJonesarguethatthespeechofferedavisionforapost-ColdWarworldthatwasdifficulttoimaginein1982:"Atthetime,fewsharedReagan'soptimismaboutthecoldwar,andalmostnoonethoughtthatthesurvivaloftheSovietUnionwasindoubt....Aquarter-centurylater,Reagan'sclaimthatthecoldwarwasata'turningpoint'seemsclearlycorrect,butfewagreedwithhimin1982."SeeRobertC.RowlandandJohnM.Jones,ReaganatWestminster(CollegeStation,TX:TexasA&MUniversityPress,2010),13-15. 11RonaldReagan,"RemarksattheAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationofEvangelicals,"March8,1983.ThePublicPapersofPresidentRonaldW.Reagan.RonaldReaganPresidentialLibrary.http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1983/30883b.htm(accessedOctober12,2015). 12Forananalysisofthisparticularspeech,seeFessler,"RonaldReagan,AddresstotheNationalAssociationofEvangelicals." 13Reagan,"AddresstoMembersoftheBritishParliament." 14AllpassagesfromReagan'sJune6,1984,speechatPointeduHocarecitedwithreferencetoparagraphnumbersintheauthenticatedtextontheVoicesofDemocracywebsite.TodifferentiatebetweenReagan'stwospeeches,"PointeduHoc"precedesallparagraphnumbers.


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15RobertC.McFarlane,"PreservingPeaceandProsperity:ThePresident'sTriptoEurope,June1984(PublicDiplomacyActionPlan),"2,folder"June1984EuropeanTrip(1),"RichardG.DarmanFilesBox3,RonaldReaganLibrary. 16“PreservingPeaceandProsperity:ThePresident’sTriptoEurope,June1984(PublicDiplomacyActionPlan,”2,folder"June1984EuropeanTrip(1),"RichardG.DarmanFilesBox3,RonaldReaganLibrary. 17Memo,WilliamF.MartintoRobertC.McFarlane,April10,1984,folder"President'sTriptoNormandy(2),"Box161,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary. 18Memo,GeorgeP.SchultztoRonaldReagan,May14,1984,folder"ThePresident'sTriptoEurope:Ireland,UK,andNormandy,June1-10,1984–ThePresident(3of5),"RACBox4,ExecutiveSecretariat,NSC:TripFile,RonaldReaganLibrary. 19Brinkley,TheBoysofPointeduHoc,144-145. 20Brinkley,TheBoysofPointeduHoc,147. 21Brinkleywritesthatofthetwospeeches—oneatPointeduHocandtheotheratOmahaBeach—thesecondwasconsideredthemajorforeignpolicyspeech.“SomeintheWhiteHousesimplyreferredtoOmahaBeachas‘theSpeech’andPointeduHocas‘BriefRemarks.’”WhiteHouseprincipalspeechwriterTonyDolanwasassignedtheOmahaBeachspeech,and“PointeduHocwasconsideredasideshowonJune6,afeel-good,non-policy-basedmoment.Therefore,PeggyNoonanwastaskedwithpenningthe‘impressionistic’oration,whileDolan’s‘realist’policyspeechwouldbeheadlinedbyprominentU.S.newspapersonJune7”(163).Brinkley’saccountwaspublishedin2005,whenmultipledocumentsrelatedtothe“PointeduHoc”speechhadnotyetbeendeclassified.DuringmyvisittotheReaganLibraryinJune2013,Iaccessedanumberofdocuments(allofwhichweredeclassifiedafter2005)thatshowthattheReaganWhiteHouseplannedfor“PointeduHoc”tobethecenterpieceofReagan’svisittoNormandy.SeetheNationalSecurityCouncil’sofficialbriefingbook,“ThePresident’sTriptoEurope:Ireland,UKandNormandy,June1-10,1984,”RACBox4,ExecutiveSecretariat,NSC:TripFile,RonaldReaganLibrary. 22Memo,GeorgeP.SchultztoRonaldReagan,May14,1984,folder“ThePresident’sTriptoEurope:Ireland,UK,andNormandy,June1-10,1984–ThePresident(3of5),”RACBox4,ExecutiveSecretariat,NSC:TripFile,RonaldReaganLibrary. 23SpeechDraft,“DraftNo.4,ThePresident’sNormandySpeechJune6,1984,”April30,1984,folder“PointeduHocAddress,Normandy(4),”Box161,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:SpeechDrafts,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary.Draftalsofoundinfolder“June1984EuropeanTrip(3),”Box3,RichardG.DarmanFiles,RonaldReaganLibrary. 24SpeechDraft,“PresidentialAddress:PointeduHoc,Wednesday,June6,1984,(Noonan/BE),May21,1984,3:30p.m.,”folder“President’sTriptoNormandy(8),”Box162,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary. 25SpecialAssistanttothePresidentWilliamF.MartinwrotethatthePointeduHocAddresswastobe“emotional,stirring,andpersonal.Thethemesincludereconciliationofformeradversaries,howpostwarcooperationhaskeptthepeaceforthelongestperiodinmodernEuropeanhistory,Alliancesolidarity,andthestrengthoftheAmericancommitmenttoEurope.”SeeMemo,WilliamF.MartintoRobertC.McFarlane,April10,1984,folder“President’sTriptoNormandy(2),”Box161,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary. 26PeggyNoonan,WhatISawattheRevolution(NewYork:RandomHouseTradePaperbacks,1990),85,83-84. 27TheWhiteHousetimedthe"PointeduHoc"speechsoitcouldbebroadcastliveonU.S.networksoverthemorningnews.The"DraftNotionalSchedule–TripofthePresidenttoEurope"datedMay7,1984,specifiedthatReaganwouldarriveatthePointeduHoclandingzoneat8:20amEDT(2:20pmlocaltime),tourtheRangerMemorialfortenminuteswithtwosurvivorsofthePointeduHoclanding,andbeginhis"RemarkstoassembledVeteransandunveilingofplaquecommemoratingPoint[sic]duHoc"at8:40amEDT(2:40pmlocaltime.SeeDraftNotionalSchedule,TripofthePresidenttoEurope,"May7,1984,folder"President'sTriptoNormandy(2),"Box161,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary.


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27DraftNotionalSchedule,TripofthePresidenttoEurope,"May7,1984,page7,folder"President'sTriptoNormandy(2),"Box161,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary. 28Noonan,WhatISawattheRevolution,85. 29Noonan,WhatISawattheRevolution,86. 30NoonanexplainedthatthislinecameeasilybecauseshehadjustreadRogerKahn'smemoiroftheBrooklynDodgers,TheBoysofSummer.SeeNoonan,WhatISawattheRevolution,87. 31MiscellaneousNote,nodate,folder"President'sTriptoNormandy(4),"Box161,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary. 32Memorandum,RobertM.KimmitttoRichardG.Darman,June1,1984,folder"President'sTriptoNormandy(11),"Box162,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary. 33Memo,GeorgeP.SchultztoRonaldReagan,May14,1984,folder“ThePresident’sTriptoEurope:Ireland,UK,andNormandy,June1-10,1984–ThePresident(3of5),”RACBox4,ExecutiveSecretariat,NSC:TripFile,RonaldReaganLibrary. 34DraftNotionalSchedule,TripofthePresidenttoEurope,"May7,1984,page7,folder"President'sTriptoNormandy(2),"Box161,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary. 35Memo,RobertM.KimmitttoBenElliott,May31,1984,folder"OmahaBeachMemorialRemarks(Dolan)(White),"Box160,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:SpeechDrafts,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary. 36LisaZanattaHenntoRonaldReagan,March15,1984,folder"President'sTriptoNormandy(9),"Box162,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary. 37M.P.CaulfieldtoLisaZanattaHenn,May10,1984,folder"President'sTriptoNormandy(9),"Box162,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary. 38Memo,Kathy[nolastname]toRonaldReagan,nodate,folder"President'sTriptoNormandy(9),"Box162,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary. 39"TripofthePresidenttoNormandy,France,Wednesday,June6,1984,PersonalSchedule,"folder"Europe,"Box17,OfficeofPresidentialAdvance,Records,SeriesII:G7Summits,OA17071,RonaldReaganLibrary. 40Memo,RobertM.KimmitttoRichardDarman,May28,1984,ID#215027,SP891,WHORM:SubjectFile,Box222,RonaldReaganLibrary. 41AllpassagesfromReagan'sJune6,1984,speechatOmahaBeacharecitedwithreferencetoparagraphnumbersintheprintedtextthataccompaniesthisessay.TodifferentiatebetweenReagan'stwospeeches,"OmahaBeach"precedesallparagraphnumbers. 42AbrahamLincoln,"GettysburgAddress,"November19,1863.http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/gettysburgaddress.htm(accessedOctober17,2015). 43SeeR.W.Apple,Jr.,"ClintoninNormandy:HandsAcrossaGeneration,"NewYorkTimes,June8,1994,A16;JillAbramson,"BushSpeaksofHeroismandSacrificeatCemeteryatNormandy,"NewYorkTimes,May28,2002,A10;RichardW.Stevenson,"InD-DayRite,BushPraisesVeteransofNormandy,"NewYorkTimes,June7,2004,A10;MaryL.KahlandMichaelLeff,"TheRhetoricofWarandRemembrance:AnAnalysisofPresidentBillClinton's1994D-DayDiscourses,QualitativeResearchReportsinCommunication7(2006):15-21;JohnMcCormick,"FamilyTapestryPartofObama'sEuropeTrip,"ChicagoTribune,June4,2009,1.12;ChristinaBellantoni,"ObamaPaysHomagetoD-DayVeterans,"WashingtonTimes,June7,2009,A1;JohnIbbitson,"BarackObamaisNoRonaldReagan–Yet,"TheGlobeandMail,June10,2009,A15;"ReaganSettheToneforD-DayObservances,"DailyHerald,June6,2014,2;"LostOpportunities."DailyTimes,Jun12,2014. 44LouCannon,"At40thD-DayTribute,ReaganTooktheOccasionbyStorm,"WashingtonPost,June7,2004,A06. 45DrewMiddleton,"ReaganHonorsD-Day;CallsforSpiritofPeace,"NewYorkTimes,June7,1984,p.A1. 46"D-DayRemembered:AlliedLeadersHonorHeroesofNormandy,"LosAngelesTimes,June6,1984,p.2. 47BenjaminTaylor,"ReaganLaudsMenWhoDiedonD-Day,"BostonGlobe,June7,1984,p.1.


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48PeggyNoonan,"PeggyNoonanonReagan'sD-DaySpeech,"TheKellyFile,December4,2013.Retrievedfromhttp://video.foxnews.com/v/2893720031001/peggy-noonan-on-reagans-d-day-speech(accessedMay5,2014). 49KathleenHallJamieson,EloquenceintheElectronicAge(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1988),162-163. 50Forafullrecordofhowthecampaignvideoworkedwithinthesequenceofeventsthatfinaldayofthecampaign,see"August23,1984,RepublicanNationalConvention,Day4,"C-SPAN.http://www.c-span.org/video/?124909-1/republican-national-convention-day-4(accessedOctober21,2015).Forananalysisofthefilmitself,seeJoanneMorreale,ANewBeginning:ATextualFrameAnalysisofthePoliticalCampaignFilm(Albany,NY:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,1991). 51WilliamJ.Clinton,"Remarksonthe50thAnniversaryofD-DayatPointeduHocinNormandy,France,"June6,1994,onlinebyGerhardPetersandJohnT.Wooley,TheAmericanPresidencyProjecthttp://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=50297(accessedOctober22,2015). 52GeorgeW.Bush,"Remarksonthe60thAnniversaryofD-DayinColleville-sur-Mer,France,"June6,2004,onlinebyGerhardPetersandJohnT.Woolley,TheAmericanPresidencyProjecthttp://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=72648(accessedOctober22,2015). 53BarackObama,"Remarksonthe65thAnniversaryofD-DayinNormandy,France,"June6,2009,onlinebyGerhardPetersandJohnT.Woolley,TheAmericanPresidencyProjecthttp://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=86253(accessedOctober22,2015). 54BarackObama,"Remarksonthe70thAnniversaryofD-DayinNormandy,France,"June6,2014,onlinebyGerhardPetersandJohnT.Woolley,TheAmericanPresidencyProjecthttp://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=105250(accessedOctober22,2015). 55Obama,"Remarksonthe70thAnniversaryofD-Day." 56MaryE.Stuckey,ThePresidentasInterpreter-In-Chief(Chatham,NJ:ChathamHousePublishers,Inc.,1991).SeealsoKarlynKohrsCampbellandKathleenHallJamieson,PresidentsCreatingthePresidency:DeedsDoneinWords(Chicago,IL:UniversityofChicagoPress,2008). 57CorneliusRyan,TheLongestDay:June6,1944(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,1959).

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