practical approaches to behaviour management in the classroom · 6.4 an introduction to cognitive...
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Practical Approaches to Behaviour Management in the Classroom A handbook for classroom teachers in secondary schools
InformationInformation document No: 086/2010 Date of issue: August 2010
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Audience Headteachers and classroom teachers in secondary schools.
Overview This handbook is a resource to enhance the practice of teachers at secondary level, whether they are highly skilled and experienced teachers with responsibility for supporting others, teachers who want to extend their classroom behaviour management skills, or newly qualified teachers (NQTs). This handbook focuses on general behaviour management methods and does not specifically cover issues relating to special educational needs.
Elements of this handbook build on previous work undertaken by an action research group involving Include, Training Advice and Consultancy (TAC) and Education and School Improvement Service (ESIS). This revised version was produced by the Centre for British Teachers (CfBT) Education Trust.
Action None – for information.required
Further Enquiries about this guidance should be directed to:information Pupil Engagement Team Welsh Assembly Government Cathays Park Cardiff CF10 3NQ Tel: 029 2082 1556 Fax: 029 2080 1051 e-mail: [email protected]
Additional Can be obtained from the contact details listed above. copies This document can also be accessed from the Welsh Assembly
Government website at www.wales.gov.uk/educationandskills
Related National Behaviour and Attendance Review (NBAR) Report documents Behaving and Attending: Action Plan Responding to the National
Behaviour and Attendance Review National Assembly for Wales Circular 47/2006: Inclusion and Pupil Support
Practical Approaches to Behaviour Management in the Classroom
ISBN 978 0 7504 5573 2
© Crown copyright 2010
CMK-22-07-466
F0231011
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Introduction 1
Chapter 1: The Welsh context 51.1 TheLearningCountryandtheUnitedNationsConvention
ontheRightsoftheChild 51.2 TheNationalBehaviourandAttendanceReview 61.3 BehavingandAttending:ActionPlanRespondingtoNBAR 91.4 Circular47/2006-InclusionandPupilSupportGuidance 111.5 TheSchoolEffectivenessFramework 13
Chapter 2: Effective classroom management 152.1 Characteristicsofeffectiveteaching 162.2 Workingwithinanagreedframework 262.3 Managingtheenvironment 362.4 Managingtransitions 442.5 Anticipationandmonitoring 49
Chapter 3: Effective communication 563.1 Managingtheuseoflanguage 573.2 Effectiveuseofquestions 643.3 Non-verbaltechniques 673.4 Self-presentation 733.5 Promotingpupils’self-esteem 76
Chapter 4: Approaches to changing behaviour 804.1 TheABCapproachtobehaviourchange 814.2 Problem-solvingapproaches 844.3 Cost-benefitanalysisapproach 884.4 Re-enactment 914.5 Futuregoal(changedbehaviour)visualisation 934.6 Self-monitoring 984.7 Socialskillstraining 1014.8 Behaviouragreementsandbehaviourplans 107
Contents
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Chapter 5: Incident management 1135.1 Generalprinciplesforeffectiveincidentmanagement 1145.2 A5-stageincidentprofileandstrategiesforresponse
ateachstage 1165.3 Safeandeffectiveintervention 128
Chapter 6: More specialist approaches to support behaviour change 1326.1 Anintroductiontorestorativejustice 1326.2 Anintroductiontosolution-focusedapproaches 1386.3 Anintroductiontothetranstheoreticalmodelofchange 1466.4 Anintroductiontocognitivebehaviouralapproaches 150
References and further reading 163
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Introduction
PromotingeffectiveteachingandlearningisparamounttotheWelshAssemblyGovernment’sagenda,assetoutinThe Learning Country andtakenfurtherthroughtheNational Behaviour and Attendance Review (NBAR) anditsAction Plan.Keytoachievingeffectiveteachingandlearningisensuringclassteachershavethenecessaryskillstoapproachtheirteachinginwaysthatreducethelikelihoodofpupilsmisbehavingandequippingthemwitheffectiveskillsandresponsesforthoseinstanceswheredifficultbehaviourdoesoccur.
Whereteachershavegoodpreventativeandresponsiveskillsthelikelihoodofdifficultiesemergingordevelopingintoincidentswillbemarkedlyreduced.Tosupportthedevelopmentandimplementationofsuchskillsinteachersatsecondarylevel,theWelshAssemblyGovernmenthascommissionedthishandbook.
Thishandbookisaresourcetoenhancethepracticeofteachersatsecondarylevel,whethertheyarehighlyskilledandexperiencedteacherswithresponsibilityforsupportingothers,teacherswhowanttoextendtheirclassroombehaviourmanagementskillsornewlyqualifiedteachers(NQTs).ThehandbookfocusesongeneralbehaviourmanagementmethodsanddoesnotspecificallycoverissuesrelatingtoSpecialEducationalNeeds.
How to use this handbook
Teachersmayusethematerialsindifferentways,dependingontheirroleandonneed:• Asaninterestingreadtoconfirmtheirconfidenceintheirown
skillsatmanagingbehaviourintheclassroom• Asaresourcepackthatprovidesideasandapproachesfor
addressingparticularissuesordifficulties• AsaresourceforcoachingormentoringNQTs• Asaresourcetohelpsupportotherstaff.
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The focus of this handbook
TherapidevidenceassessmentundertakenaspartoftheNational Behaviour and Attendance Review(seesection1.2fordetails)notesthat“Thereisnosingle,successful,approachtobehaviourissuesinschools,andinschoolsthatdemonstrategoodpracticearangeofapproachesareadopted.Muchoftheliteraturestressestheimportanceof‘whole-school’andholisticstrategiesandindicatesthatthekeyelementsassociatedwithgoodbehaviour,arethoseofaneffectiveschool.”
The Rapid Evidence Assessment of the interventions that attempt to improve behaviour and attendance in schools and other learning settings (2008)isavailablefromhttp://wales.gov.uk/topics/educationandskills/educationskillsnews/2233523/?lang=en
However, this handbook focuses on the classroom level only.
Thediagrambelowistakenfromthe National Behaviour and Attendance Review report(seesection1.2).Itaimstoillustratethewaysinwhicheachlevelinteractsinadynamicwaywitheachoftheothersandhoweventsatthefrontlineinschoolsandhomesneedtoinfluenceandshapenationalpolicy.
This handbook is focused at level 4 only,thoughitisacknowledgedthatlevel4willinteractwithallotherlevels,especially3and5.
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TheNational Behaviour and Attendance Review reportnotesthat‘classroomteachersandteachingassistantsmanagethebulkofemotional,socialandbehaviouraldifficultiesexperiencedbypupilsinschool.However,toomanyteacherssaytheywereunderpreparedandillequippedbytheirtrainingtomanagethepupilsthattheyencounteredintheirfirstjobs.Furthermore,theyhadfewopportunitiespost-qualification,toundertaketraininganddevelopmentineffectiveclassroommanagementandeffectivewaystorespondtotroubledbehaviour’.This handbook is just one part of the Welsh Assembly Government’s response to the National Behaviour and Attendance Review report recommendations.
1. The Welsh Assembly Government Level
2. Local Authority, Health Services and Volunteer Sector Level
3. The School Level
4. The Classroom Level
5. The Individual Pupil and Family Level
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An overview of the handbook chapters
Thehandbookissetoutinsixchapters:
Chapter 1: ProvidesanoverviewoftheWelshContext,includingkeypoliciesandguidance.Itsetsthescenefortherestofthehandbookandmakeslinkstosupportingdocuments.
Chapter 2: Setsouttheissuesaroundeffective classroom management.Itpresentsthecharacteristicsofeffectiveteachingandexaminessomekeyconceptsofeffectiveclassroommanagement,namely,workingwithinanagreedframework,managingtheenvironment,managingtransitionsandanticipationandmonitoring.
Chapter 3: Coverstheskillsofeffective communication.Itprovidesinsightintousingappropriatelanguageandquestions,alongwithandarangeoftechniquesformanagingtheclassroomandpreventingunwantedbehaviour.
Chapter 4: Providesarangeofapproaches to changing behaviour.TheseincludetheABCapproachtobehaviourchange;problem-solvingapproaches;cost-benefitanalysisapproach;re-enactment;futuregoalvisualisation;self-monitoring;socialskillstrainingandbehaviouragreementsandbehaviourplans.
Chapter 5: Setsouttheelementsofeffectiveincident management.Itpresentsgeneralprinciplesaswellasamodelfordescribingandunderstandingincidents.Italsooutlinesstrategiesforpreventingtheescalationofanincidentandforrespondingatvariousphasesofanincident.
Chapter 6: Setsoutanoverviewofarangeofmore specialist approaches to support behaviour changethatclassteachersmayliketoconsider,butwhicharelikelytorequiresomeadditionaltrainingand/orsupporttouseeffectively.Thechapterdoesnotprepareteacherstousetheseapproachesinpractice.
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Chapter 1The Welsh context
1.1 The Learning Country and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
In2001theWelshAssemblyGovernmentpublishedThe Learning Country.Thiswasaten-yearstrategythatembodiedvisionandactionwithastatedgoalofcreatingforWalesoneofthebesteducationandlifelonglearningsystemsintheworld.
The Learning Country: Vision into Actionwaslaunchedinlate2006.ItrepresentsthesecondstageinTheLearningCountryprogrammeandhighlightstheincreasededucationandtrainingopportunitiesavailableinWalesfromearlyyearsthroughtooldage.ItdescribesinconcretetermsthekeyobjectivesandactiontheWelshAssemblyGovernmentwillbetakingtomakeTheLearningCountryareality.
The Learning Country: Vision into Actionincludesasectionfocusedonschoolsandlearning,wherethevisionisto‘ensurethatthebenefitsofimprovementsareenjoyedbyall,inafullycomprehensivesystemoflearningthatservesallourlocalcommunitieswell’.
Theobjectivesare:• tacklepovertyofeducationalopportunityandraisestandards
inschools;• makeallschoolbuildingsfitforpurpose;• ensurethatallchildrenaresafeatschool;• encouragegoodnutritionandhealthierlifestyles;• promotetheWelshLanguage.
ThedocumentnotesthatworkisalreadyongoingtoreviewapproachestopromotingpositivebehaviourandhighlevelsofattendanceinschoolsinWales.
Thefulldocumentsareavailablefromhttp://wales.gov.uk/topics/educationandskills/publications/guidance/learningcountry/?lang=en
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TheWelshAssemblyGovernment’svisionforchildrenandyoungpeopleisbasedontheUNConventionontheRightsoftheChildandthisisrepresentedinsevencoreaims.ChildrenandYoungPeople:
1. Haveaflyingstartinlife
2. Haveacomprehensiverangeofeducationandlearningopportunities
3. Enjoythebestpossiblehealthandarefreefromabuse,victimisationandexploitation
4. Haveaccesstoplay,leisure,sportingandculturalactivities
5. Arelistenedto,treatedwithrespect,andhavetheirraceandculturalidentityrecognised
6. Haveasafehomeandacommunitywhichsupportsphysicalandemotionalwell-being
7. Arenotdisadvantagedbypoverty.
1.2 The National Behaviour and Attendance Review
InMarch2006,theMinisterforEducation,LifelongLearningandSkillsmadeacommitmenttoundertakeaNational Behaviour and Attendance Review(NBAR)tosupportexistingactivityandtoshapeanddevelopthefutureapproachtothesechallengingissues.TheReviewwasundertakeninaccordancewiththeWelshAssemblyGovernment’svisionforthefuturedevelopmentofpolicyandprovisionforchildrenandyoungpeopleinWalesassetoutinThe Learning Country: Vision into Action.
ASteeringGroupwasformedtotakeforwardtheReview,toestablishatruepictureofthesituationinWales,toconsidergoodpracticeintacklingattendanceandbehaviourissuesandtoproduceclearrecommendationstotheWelshAssemblyGovernment.TheSteeringGroupwascomprisedofrepresentativesofkeystakeholdergroupsacrossWales,supportedbyEstynandtheOfficeoftheChildren’sCommissionerforWales.
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TheReviewGroupacknowledgedthat‘themajorityofschoolsinWalesareorderlyandwell-managed.Thereiswidespreadgoodpracticeinmanagingpupils’behaviourandattendanceinmostschoolsandlocalauthoritieswithalargenumberofinnovativeinitiativesinplace.Despitethis,managingbehaviourandattendance,bothinandout-of-school,arebecomingincreasinglycomplexissues’.
NBAR recommendations
TheNBAR reportlaysoutarangeof19corerecommendations,whicharesummarisedbelow.TheWelshAssemblyGovernmentshould:
1. ImplementrevisedcurriculumandassessmentarrangementsfromSeptember2008toensurethatnochild(withinthemainstreamabilityrange)shouldleaveprimaryschoolwithoutthefunctionalabilitytoreadandwrite.
2. Prioritiseearlyinterventionstrategies.
3. Promoteanunderstandingthatviolenceagainststaffwillnotbetolerated.
4. EnsurethatallschoolsandlocalauthoritiesrigorouslyadheretoCircular1/2004on‘ExclusionfromSchoolsandPupilReferralUnits’
5. IntroducelegislationonnewexclusionregulationsinWales(seeNBARreportfordetails).
6. Considergivingparentsandpupilstheopportunitytoaccessanadvocacysupportserviceintheeventofpermanentexclusionandputintoplaceanadditionalnationalpointofappealfollowingtheindependentappealpanel.
7. Introduceguidanceontheuseofmanagedmovesandtransfersasanalternativetoexclusion.
8. Activelyfollow-upschoolswhoareexcludingpupilsataratewhichissignificantlyhigherthanaverage.
9. Establishabehaviouralsupportteaminalllocalauthorities,whoshouldcollaboratewithneighbouringlocalauthorities’.
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10.Ensurethatschoolattendanceandbehaviouralstrategiesareatthecentreofschooleffectivenessframeworkespeciallyattheschoollevel.
11.Commissionstudieswhichexamineissuesrelatedtoexclusions,bullying,additionallearningneeds,transitionsandPRUs(seeNBARreportfordetails).
12.EnsurealllocalauthoritiesinWalesdesignateanofficerresponsibleforinclusionwhoshouldbeappropriatelyexperienced.
13.Clarifyandstrengthenitsguidanceforschoolsonphysicalinterventionandtheuseofrestraint.
14.Ensureallsecondaryschoolshaveanamedseniormanagerdesignatedasleadprofessionaltodealwithbehaviour,attendanceandparticipation.
15.Prioritiseandincreasefundingsignificantlyfortrainingprogrammesonbehaviourandattendance,forallstaffinschoolsandthoseinthelocalauthorityengagedinpromotingpositivebehaviourandimprovingattendance,especiallyeducationwelfare/educationsocialworkstaff.
16.DevelopanActionPlananddraftoverarchingpoliciesonbehaviourandattendancethroughoutWales.
17.EnsuretheactionplanagendashouldincludefurtherengagementwithchildrenandyoungpeopleonbehaviourandattendancetoencourageandcontinuethedialoguestartedthroughtheNBARprocess.
18.EnsuretheLocalChildren’sSafeguardingBoardineachlocalauthorityhasastandingitemonschoolbehaviourandattendance.
19.SignificantlyincreasethelevelofstaffingintheSupportforLearningfield,forchildrenandyoungpeoplewithemotionalandbehaviouraldifficulties,thoseatriskofexclusionandthosepermanentlyexcludedfromschool.
ThefullNBARreport,canbeaccessedfromhttp://wales.gov.uk/topics/educationandskills/educationskillsnews/2233523/?lang=en
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1.3 Behaving and Attending: Action Plan Responding to NBAR
PublishedinMarch2009,theBehaviour and Attendance Action PlansetsouttheWelshAssemblyGovernment’sresponsetotherecommendationssetoutintheNBARReport.Itisa‘live’documentthatwillbesubjecttoregularamendmentandongoingconsultation(seebelowforlink).
TheactionslaidoutintheBehaviour and Attendance Action Plan intendtostrengthentheongoingworkoftheWelshAssemblyGovernment,localauthoritiesandschoolsinimprovingandpromotingpositivebehaviourandattendance.Thisinturnisintendedtoenhancethenurturingandsupportofchildrenandyoungpeopletoguidethemontheireducationaljourneyandtohelpthemtoreachtheireducationalpotential.
TheActionPlanneedstobeseenalongsidetheWelshAssemblyGovernment’sapproachtoinclusionandpupilsupportassetoutinCircular47/2006(seesection1.4ofthishandbook).
Summary of key actions
Thenatureofthetaskofimprovingbehaviourandattendancemeansthatworkgoesfarbeyondtheschoolgateandiswiderthandirectactionsonbehaviourandattendance.ThisisdemonstratedbythefactthattheNBARreviewcontainsalargenumberofrecommendationscoveringdiverseaspects,suchastheplaceoftheschoolinthecommunity,theroleofparents,inter-agencyworkingandteachingandlearning.TheBehaviour and Attendance Action Plan,necessarilythereforecontainsalargenumberofactions.
Thekeyactionsareasfollows:• ProduceanAll-WalesAttendanceFramework• ProduceguidanceonBehaviourinSchools:SafeandEffective
Intervention(seesection5.3ofthishandbook)• CarryoutareviewonprovisionofEducationOtherwiseThan
atSchool,includingPupilReferralUnits
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• EstablishBehaviourandAttendancewebpageslinkedtotheSchoolEffectivenessFramework(SEF)andPedagogywebpages
• EstablishaBehaviourSupportTeamNetwork• Produceguidanceontheeffectiveuseofmanagedmoves• Conductevidencegatheringoflocalauthoritypracticesand
theireffectivenessonkeyareastoinformthefutureapproachandtargetingofresources
• WorkwithEstyntoreviewinspectionarrangements• EnsurethatthedevelopmentofanoverarchingProfessional
DevelopmentFrameworkforteachingstaffadequatelycoverstheknowledgeandskillsonaspectsofpromotingpositivebehaviourandattendance
• Establishpilotsandotherresearchprojectstoinformtakingforwardanumberoftherecommendations
• Involvechildrenandyoungpeopleinallaspectsofthework,includingdevelopingandimplementingapproaches,evaluatingtheireffectivenessandreviewingtheminthelightoffindings
• Focusonliteracyasakeypriority.
Inaddition,theWelshAssemblyGovernmentacknowledgestheimportanceoftraininganddevelopmentandhasproposedawayforward(detailedinAnnexBoftheBehaviour and Attendance Action Plan).ThetrainingagendaforWalesiscurrentlyunderreviewandtrainingrecommendationswillbeapriorityfortheongoingNBARSteeringGroup.
Thefollowingcanbeaccessedfromhttp://wales.gov.uk/topics/educationandskills/learningproviders/schools/nbaractionplan/?lang=en
• AcopyoftheBehaviour and Attendance Action PlanpublishedinMarch2009
• A‘live’detailedActionPlan• DetailsoftheWelshAssemblyGovernment’sresponses
totheNBAR Report recommendations.
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1.4 Circular 47/2006 - Inclusion and Pupil Support Guidance
Thisguidancecoverstheinclusionandsupportoflearnersofcompulsoryschoolage(althoughsomeelementsapplytoalllearners).Itprovidesadviceandsetsoutresponsibilitiesformaintaininghighlevelsofattendanceandpositivebehaviourinschoolsandtheneedtosupportpupilswithadditionalneedstoensuretheyreceivesuitableeducationandavoidbecomingdisengagedfromeducation.Italsocoverseducationprovidedoutsidetheschoolsetting.
ItissetwithinthecontextofTheLearningCountryandThe Learning Country: Vision into Actionwhichrecognisedthatcreatinganinclusiveenvironmentforlearningmeanssupportinglearnerswithintheirlearningsettingsaswellasprovidingsupportinthewideraspectsoftheirlearningexperience.Thehealth,emotionalandsocialneedsofchildrenandyoungpeoplearesignificantfactorsinsupportingtheiraccesstolearning.
ItisalsosetwithinthecontextofChildren and Young People: Rights to Action (2005).ThisWelshAssemblyGovernmentvisionisbasedontheUNConventionontheRightsoftheChildandhassevencoreaimswhichseektoensurethatallchildrenandyoungpeople:• Haveaflyingstartinlife• Haveacomprehensiverangeofeducationandlearning
opportunities• Enjoythebestpossiblehealthandarefreefromabuse,
victimisationandexploitation• Haveaccesstoplay,leisure,sportingandculturalactivities• Arelistenedto,treatedwithrespect,andhavetheirraceand
culturalidentityrecognised• Haveasafehomeandacommunitywhichsupportsphysical
andemotionalwell-being• Arenotdisadvantagedbypoverty.
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WhilsttheguidanceinCircular47/2006isnotstatutoryitsetsoutthespecificlegislationwhichlocalauthorities,schoolsandtheirpartnersarerequiredtoadhereto.Circular47/2006replacesCircular3/99:PupilSupportandSocialInclusion.Insummary,themainchangestopreviousguidanceareasfollows:• Presentationofaframeworkforinclusiontopromoteaccess
toeducationforallandremoveanybarrierstolearning• Adoptionoftheterm‘AdditionalLearningNeeds’tocoverthose
learnerswhoseneedsaregreaterthanthemajorityoftheirpeers• Reflectionofrecentpolicydevelopments,includingnew
arrangementsundertheChildrenAct2004,LearningPathways14-19,andtheEarlyandExtendingEntitlementagendas
• Bringingattendance,behaviourandanti-bullyingpoliciestogetherwithinawhole-schoolapproach
• Moreextensiveguidanceonprovidingsupporttopupilswithadditionallearningneedsandspecificannexescontainingadditionalinformationsuchaschecklistsforinclusivepractices
• Newattendanceregistrationcodes-previouslysentseparatelytoallschoolsinMay2004
• Theintroductionofschool-levelattendancetargetsforprimaryschoolsandforthesetobesetonallabsencesasopposedtounauthorisedabsences
• Increasedemphasisonimprovingthelevelanduseofinformationavailableonpupilsreceivingeducationoutsidetheschoolsettingaswellasthosepupilsmovingorjoiningschools
• NewsectiononLocalAuthoritiesandschools’responsibilitiesforthosepupilswhoareeducatedathomebyparents
• Newguidanceonprovisionofeducationforyoungparents• GuidanceonnewprovisionsundertheAntiSocialBehaviourAct,
2003forParentingOrdersforbehaviourproblemsandParentingContractsforpoorattendanceandbehaviourproblems.
Schoolsandothereducationproviderswillneedtoconsideranumberofkeygeneralaspectsoflegislationinimplementinginclusion,relatingto-Humanrights;Raceequality;
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Disabilitydiscrimination;Childwelfare;Parentalrightsandresponsibilities;TheWelshLanguageAct;TheChildrenAct2004.
Circular47/2006isavailablefromhttp://wales.gov.uk/topics/educationandskills/policy_strategy_and_planning/schools/339214-wag/inclusionpupilsupportguidance/?lang=en
1.5 The School Effectiveness Framework
Publishedin2008,The School Effectiveness Framework: Building effective learning communities togetherhasbeendesignedtoimprovechildrenandyoungpeople’slearningandwellbeing.Itisbasedontheprinciplesoftri-levelreform-thatis,Government,localauthoritiesandschoolsworkingcollaborativelytobringaboutsystemchange.TheFrameworksetsoutthevisionandanimplementationscheduleforputtingschooleffectivenessandtri-levelreformintoaction.Itaimstoensurethatallactivitiesandprogrammesarealignedinacoherentmannerwiththecentralaimofsecuringimprovedlearningandwellbeingforchildrenandyoungpeople.
Thedocumentnotesthat“ManychildrenandyoungpeopleinWalesachievewelland,attheendofkeystages1and2,theirattainmentscomparewiththeircounterpartsinothercountries.Inthecaseofschoolsthataddthemostvalue,thesechildrenandyoungpeoplecontinuetoachievewell.However,weneedtodomoretoreducethedifferencesinoutcomes,withinschools(wherethegreatestvariationlies),betweenschools,betweenlocalauthoritiesandbetweentheprimaryandsecondaryphasesofeducation;andtoraiseoveralllevelsofattainment…Thisknowledgeunderpinsthemoralpurposeforoureducationsystemandrequiresthatwecreatetheconditionsthatprovideallchildrenandyoungpeoplewiththebestpossibleopportunitiestolearn,maximisetheirpotential,andtoreapthebenefits”.
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Thedocumentnotesthatevidenceshowsthat:• Educationalreformismosteffectivewhendesignedand
implementedcollaborativelyandcoherentlythroughalllevelsofthesystem:nationally,locallyandattheleveloftheindividuallearningsetting-aprocessoftri-levelreform
• Childrenandyoungpeoplelearnmosteffectivelywhentheyareinvolvedindecisionsabouttheirlearning.
TheSchoolEffectivenessFrameworkhascollaborationandpupilinvolvementaskeyelements.
Thefulldocumentisavailablefromhttp://wales.gov.uk/topics/educationandskills/educationskillsnews/schooleffectivenessframework/?lang=en
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Chapter 2Effective classroom management
Howtoidentifyandpromotetheskillsofeffectiveteachersisthesubjectofmuchdebate.Inaddition,alothasbeenwrittenabouttheskillsofeffectiveteaching.Muchofthiswritingfocusesontheaspectsofteachingwhichareeasiertospecify,suchas:• Curriculumplanning• Lessonplanning• Assessment• Recordkeeping.
Someteachersdisplayskillsthatenablethemtoundertakeeffectivelessonswithclassesothersfindhardtomanage.Itistheseinterpersonalskills,or‘soft’skills,ofeffectiveteachingthataremuchmoredifficulttospecify.Thetaskofanalysingsuchskillsisextremelycomplexandismadestillharderbytherangeofdifferentcontextsinwhichsuchskillsarepractised.Thismakesitdifficulttodrawouttheessentialskillsoftheeffectiveteacher.
Despitethedifficultyinspecifyingtheessentialskillsoftheeffectiveteacher,whatisnotindoubtisthattobeatrulyeffectiveteacherrequiresacombinationof:• Effectiveteachingskills• Effectivebehaviourmanagementskills.
Inreality,thetwoaresointerlinkedthattheycanneverbetrulyseparated.Poorbehaviourmanagementwillinevitablyundermineeffectiveteachingandeffectivebehaviourmanagementisoflittlepurposeunlessaccompaniedbyeffectiveteaching.Theclassroomisalearningspacethat,managedwell,canreducethelikelihoodofdifficultorchallengingbehaviourandincreasethechancesofeffectiveteachingandlearningoccurring.
Thoughtheskillsofeffectiveteachingmaybehardtospecify,itisimportanttodismisstheoldadagethat‘teachersarebornnotmade’.Inpractice,withsupportandtrainingallteacherscanlearnandimprovetheirskillsthroughouttheirprofessionalcareers.
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Thischapterofthehandbooklooksatthefollowingissues:• Characteristicsofeffectiveteaching• Workingwithinanagreedframework• Managingtheenvironment• Managingtransitions• Anticipationandmonitoring.
2.1 Characteristics of effective teaching
Anymeaningfulsenseof‘effective’intermsof‘teaching’mustincludeanelementofthevaluesthatunderpinwhatteachersdo.Valuessuchasrespectandequaltreatmentwouldbeidentifiedbyalmostallpupilsasamarkofeffectiveteachers.
Rogers(2006a,chapter4)identifiescharacteristicsassociatedwitheffectiveteaching.Theteacher:• Appearstobeself-confident,patientandgoodhumoured• Displaysagenuineinterestinthetopicandpupils’progress• Givesclearexplanationsandinstructions,pitchedatasuitable
levelandalsooutlinesthepurposeandrelevanceofthework• Makesanefforttoengagepupilsandsustaintheirattention• Isawarethather/hisvoiceandactionscansignificantlyfacilitate
pupils’attention,interest,motivationandco-operation• Monitorstheprogressofeachlessonandmonitorsgeneral
andindividualbehaviourasitaffectsteachingandlearning• Makesaconsciousandwillingefforttoencouragepupils
intheireffortandprogressandgivesthoughtfulpraiseandencouragement.Toensurethis,theteacher:- isawareofthesmallaswellasthemoreinvolvedexpressionsofencouragement;
- ensuresencouragementisfocusedondescriptivecomment;- acknowledgestheeffortandstruggleinpupils’progress;- avoidsqualifyingtheencouragementorfeedback.
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• Minimisesanymanagementofdistractinganddisruptivebehaviourbykeepingattentionfocusedonthecentralbusinessofteachingandlearning
• Addressespotentialdisruptiontolearningbythinkingthroughclassroommanagementissuespreventatively.Thingstoconsiderinclude:- organisationalissues;- lessonmaterialsandtheirdistribution;- engagingpupils’interest;- timemanagement;- planninghowtodealwithtypicaldisruptions.
Partofbeinganeffectiveteacheristheabilitytocontrolaclasswithasenseofauthority.However,Robertson(1996)notesthatgoodclassroomcontroldoesnotrestsolelyontheabilitytoactasifoneisinauthority.Teachersmustdemonstrateattheoutsetthattheyarekeentocommunicatetheirsubjectinacommittedandorganisedmanner,oritwillquicklybecomeevidentthattheirauthorityhasnolegitimatebasis.Itisinskillssuchasorganising,presenting,communicatingandmonitoringthatateacher’sactualauthorityrests.
ThefollowinginformationisadaptedfromRobertson(1996):
Communicating enthusiasm
Effectiveteachingrequirestheteachertocommunicateinalivelyandcompellingway.Enthusiasmcanbeconveyedinmanyways,someofwhichareoutlinedbelow.
Sustaining pupil attention through gestures and speech:
Gesturesareanintegralpartofcommunicationthatservetoenhanceandclarifythemessageandcanconveyinvolvementwiththetopic.Speechpatternsandthewayinwhichcertainsyllablesandwordsarestressedcanaddmeaningandinteresttowhatissaid.Vocalvariationsgivethelistenerextrainformationbeyondthatconveyedbythewordsalone.Arelaxedandconfidentspeakerwill
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havesynchronisationofbodilymovementswithspeechrhythms.Theirmovementislessnoticeableasitonlyenhancesthemessage.However,ifapersonisanxious,theymaybestillorfidgetywithalackofsynchronisationbetweenspeechandmovementwhichisdistractingforthelistener.Itconveysthatthespeakerisconcernedwiththeirownanxietyratherthanwhattheyaresaying.
Facialexpressionsenhancemeaningbyshowinghowthespeakerfeelsaboutthemessage-anenthusiasticspeakerwillproduceastreamoffacialexpressionsthatconveyexcitement,surpriseetc.“However,Itwouldbefataltoconcentrateonthemovementswearemaking,asthiswouldlooklike‘ham’acting.Ifweconcentrateoncommunicatingtheideas,themovementswilltakecareofthemselves,providedwearerelaxedandfreetomove.”(Robertson1996,pp87)
Sustaining pupil attention through eye contact and speech:
Whenateacherisaddressingagroupofpupils,itisimportanttobehaveasifspeakingtoeachoneandthisistypicallyachievedbyestablishingappropriateeyecontact.Eyesshouldnotwanderfrompersontopersoninawayunrelatedtowhatisbeingsaid-equally,teachersshouldnotlookatthebackwalloroutofthewindowwhentheyspeak.Theyshoulddeliverdiscreetsentencesorphrasestoindividualsinthegroup.Thereisevidencetoshowthatwhenanxious,blinkrateincreasesandbecomesunrelatedtospeechpatterns.
Creating the right attitudes in pupils
Communicatingknowledgeandskillsisimportant,butteachingisnotsimplyaprocessofpassingoninformation.Anessentialrolefortheteacheristocreatetherightattitudesinpupilstogaintheirinterestandinvolvement.Itisessentialthattheteacherconveyspositiveattitudestowardsthesubjectandthepupils.SomekeypointsfromRobertsonincludethefollowing:
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Avoid revealing negative attitudes towards pupils:
• Howteachersthinkandfeelaboutpupilswillvary-theirthoughtsandfeelingswilloftenbebetrayedbytheirnon-verbalandverbalactionsandreactions
• Subtlenon-verbalnegativeattitudesfromteachersmaycontributeinnosmallwaytotheprocessof‘labelling’pupils
• Anormallywell-behavedpupilmaybecorrectedinapositiveway(‘I’msurprisedatyou’)whereasalesswell-behavedpupilmaybecorrectedinamorenegativeway(‘Yetagain’).Thesesimpledifferencesmayunwittinglyinfluencepupils’self-conceptinunhelpfulways.
Avoid expressing a lack of involvement:
• Thequickestwaytoloosepupilattentionistoshowboredomwiththetopicbeingtaught(especiallyifteachingatopictothe4thgroupforthe3rdyearinarow)
• Lackofinvolvementwithwhatisbeingsaidcanbeportrayedbyfidgetingandareductioninthevarietyofnon-verbalbehaviourssothatspeechbecomesmoremonotoneandthebodyandfacelessanimated
• Presentthematerialstothebestofone’sabilityandletthepupilsdecideitsmerit(evenifyoufinditboring-don’tsay)
• Avoid/hideanxiety• Teacherswhodisplaythattheyareanxiousaremorelikelyto
inspirechallengestotheirauthorityfrompupils• Challengesincreaseanxiety• Anxietycanbereducedbyensuringadequatepreparation
foralllessons• Avoidportrayinganxietybystandingwhereyoucanseeand
beseenbyeveryone,canmovefreelyandestablisheyecontact.Avoidingeyecontact,beingtenseandstatic,holdingontofurnitureandfidgeting,allthesetraitsportrayanxiety.Thiswillmakeabadsituationworsebyencouragingpupilstochallengeauthority
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• Aseriousatmospherecanbecreatedwhennecessarybyspeakingwithoutbodilymovementandmakingspeechcontrolledanddeliberate.
Lesson planning
The specifics of lesson planning are not within the remit of this handbook.However,well-plannedandimplementedlessonsareessentialtotheprocessofeffectivebehaviourmanagement.Inbrief,teachersshouldensurethatforeachlesson,they:• Areconfidentintheirsubjectknowledge• Givepupilsclearlearningobjectives,sharedinalanguagethat
theyunderstandandlinkedtopastandfuturelearning• Prepareallnecessarymaterialsandresourcesinadvance• Plancontentthatholdspupils’attentionandsufficientinterest• Plancontentandactivitiesthatarematchedtotherangeof
abilitiesintheclass• Provideeffectivefeedbacktoallpupilsonhowwellthey
aredoing• Offerfeedbacktopupilswhohavemademistakessothatthey
understandhowtheycametothewronganswerandhowtheywillbeabletoavoidrepeatingthemistakenexttime.
Building a good relationship with pupils
Agoodrelationshipisimportanttoallworkwithpupils.Teachersneedtoestablishandbuildonabaseoftrust.However,somepupilsfinditdifficulttotrustadults.Teachersmustnotassumethatpupilsautomaticallytrustadults,evenwhentheadultsworkhardtoestablisharelationship.Inaddition,pupilsmaynotalwaysacceptthatwhattheteacherisdoingisintheirbestinterests.Pupils’lifeexperiencesmayleadthemtoverydifferentconclusions,despitethebestintentionsoftheteacher.
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Teachersshouldrememberthat:• Positiverelationshipsareattheheartofallinteractions
withpupils.Thiswilltakeaninvestmentoftimeandeffort• Rapportinvolvesentering(butnottryingtobecomeapartof)
thepupils’world.Thiswillinvolveactivelyenquiringaboutwhatthepupilslikedoing,takingtimetorespectandlistentowhattheysayandrecognisingthattheyseetheworldverydifferentlytoanadult
• Funandhumourshouldbeusedinapositivewaytopromotepositiveemotionsandaidthebuildingofpositiverelationships
• Establishingrapportsupportsthenotionof‘toughcare’.Thisistheideathat‘Icareaboutyoubeingsuccessful,soIcan’tallowyoutokeepmakingthesechoices’.Thisismadealittleeasieriftrusthasbeenbuilt
• Peopleachievefarmorewhentheyareconfidentandtrusting.Itisimportantthatteachersworkhardtocreateaclimateoftrustforpupils
• Havingtrustandconfidenceencouragespupilstotakecertainrisks.Learningisabouttakingrisksanddoingsomethingnew-thiscanbescary
• Manyofthepupilswhomostneedapositiverelationshiparethosethataremoreusedtofailingthansucceeding.Akeystrategythatwillhelpfosterapositiverelationshipistoensurethattheyexperiencesuccess
• Apositivewaytodeveloparelationshipwithapupilwhoisexperiencingbehaviourproblemsistofocusonthesolutionratherthantheproblem.Thisemphasiseswhatisgoingwellratherthanwhatisnot.
Thecasestudybelowistheaccountofhowateacherwasabletochallengeapupil’spoorbehaviourtowardsacolleaguethroughdevelopingagoodrelationshipwiththepupil.
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Case study - Good relationship and respect
Onthewaytoanafter-schoolmeetingIcameacrossareluctantYear11pupilonherwaytoanafter-schoolrevisionclub.Ipraisedherforhercommitmenttoherworkandsherespondedpolitely.AsshewalkedpastanothermemberofstaffIheardhershoutouthernameinadisrespectfulmanner.Thememberofstaffthentoldmethatthepupildidthissortofthingquitefrequently.Thememberofstafffoundthepupil’sattitudeintimidatingandunacceptable.
ThefollowingdayIspoketothepupilaboutherbehaviour,thelackofrespectandtheneedforboundaries.Thepupilhadnotseenitinthislightatallbutmerelyaslight-heartedbanter.Sheacceptedwhatshewastoldandhassincerefrainedfrombehavinginsuchaway.
Theoutcomewasasuccessbecausethepupilwasdealtwithrespectfullyandwasgivenaclearexplanationofheractionsfromadifferentperspective.
Therearearangeofthingsthatshouldbeavoidedordoneinordertobuildagoodrelationshipwithpupils.
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Someteachersmayfeelthattheyshouldberespected,listenedtoandobeyed,nomatterwhat.Iftheyarenot,thiscausesstressandfrustration.Knowingandbelievingthatrespectisearnedcanalleviatesomeofthisstressandleadtomorereflectivepractice.
However,evenwheretherelationshipisgood,therewillbetimeswhenitbecomesstrained,(egfollowinganincidentwheretheteacherhashadtoreprimand/sanctionapupil).Itisimportantthatteachersworktorepairandrestorerelationshipsasquicklyaspossible.Bepreparedtoallowtimeandrepeattheattemptstobepositive.Itisimportanttorememberthatpupilsmaystillbestressedorresentfulandmayneedsometimebeforetherelationshipcanberebuilt.Approachessuchas‘catchingthembeinggood’afteranincident,canallowpupilsawayback.
Avoid: Do:
• Personalisingapupil’sbehaviour(ieitisthebehaviouryoudon’tlikeandnotthepupil)
• Makingthreats
• Actinawaythatisbothfairandseentobefairbypupils
• Usepositiverulesandrewards• Usesanctionspositively
• Makingpromisesthatcannotbekept
• Usingsarcastic,negativeandjudgementallanguage
• Tryto‘catchthembeinggood’• Rejectthebehaviourandrespecttheperson• Workinpartnershipwithparentsandsharepositiveachievements
• Workinawaythatpromotesequalityandrespectsdiversity
• Reflectonownpracticeandseeksupportwhenneeded.
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Thetablesbelowshowcharacteristicsofeffectiveandineffectiveteachers,aswellaseffectiveandineffectivelessons,asidentifiedinconsultationwithagroupofteachers.
Characteristics of effective teachers:
Organised Charismatic Interested
Positive Enthusiastic Reliable
Knowledgeable Creative Hardworking
Usesavarietyofstyles Showsempathy Caring
Confident Understanding Goodlistener
Consistent Dynamic Fair
Humorous Givestime Durable
Flexible Patience Welcoming
Discipline(appropriate) Stimulating Candeliverwell
Hasabilitytoanticipate Responsive Followthingsthrough
Characteristics of ineffective teachers:
Lack presence Inconsistent Set unsuitable work
Lackcharisma Don’twanttobethere Notateamplayer
Lackenthusiasm Ignoremuchpoorbehaviour
Poorknowledgeofsubject
Lackorganisation Powerseeking/bully Lackofpraise
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Lack presence Inconsistent Set unsuitable work
Poorlyprepared Revengeseeking Notclear
Confrontational Lowexpectations Poortimingandpace
Panic Sarcasm/putdowns Runningoutofsteam!
Expectationsnotclear Moody/overemotional Arrogance-‘Iknowbest’
Characteristics of an effective lesson:
Effective transitions Clear aims and objectives Check learning at the end
Contentoflessonisvaried Goodpace Engagepupils
Wellpreparedresources Goodsubjectknowledge Evaluateandchange
Characteristics of a poor lesson:
Not planned Constrained by environment
Low or no expectations
Unstructured Lackofroutine Poorrelationships
Unrelatedtopreviouswork Overlyroutine Noclearlessonobjective
Inactiveandallteacherled Norecapofpriorlearning Poorpitch-toohard/easy
Un-resourced/poorresources
Poortransitions Latestaff/pupils
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2.2 Working within an agreed framework
Tomaximisetheirpotential,pupilsneedtofeelsecure,happyandvalued.Thiswillhelptodevelopself-esteem,confidenceandapositiveself-image.Thisinturnwillpromotepositivebehaviourandincreasedopportunitiesforeffectiveteachingandlearning.Pupilsneedtoknow,andexperience,thatteachersmayattimesnotlikeaspectsoftheirbehaviour,butdolikethemaspeopleandcanseetheirpotential.
Choice
Teachersmustacknowledgethatpupilsmakechoicesabouttheirownbehaviour.Thereforeitisnotpossibletodirectlycontroltheirbehaviour.Rather,whateffectiveteachersdoistoinfluencebehaviourbyconsciouslyaffectingtheconsequences(intheformofrewardsandsanctions),whicharisefromthepupils’actionsandchoices.Byusingthelanguageofchoice,thepersonalresponsibilityandsenseofcontrol,islocatedwiththepupil.Inotherwords,whentheychooseaparticularbehaviourtheyarealsochoosingaparticularconsequence,whichmaybearewardorasanction.Bothconsequencesresultdirectlyfromthepupils’choice.
The 5 ‘R’s framework
Asuccessfulframework(sometimesreferredtoasthe5Rs),shouldconsistof:
1. Rules
2. Rights
3. Responsibilities
4. Routines
5. Rewards(andsanctions).
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Foranyframeworktobesuccessful,itneedstobebothagreedandfullyunderstoodbyallinvolved.Ifitistoaffectpupils’choices,theyneedtoknowwhattheconsequencesoftheirchoiceswillbe.Hence,therules,rights,responsibilitiesandroutinesshouldbeunderpinnedandbackedupbyasystemofrewardsand,whereabsolutelynecessary,sanctions.
Inasecondaryschool,wherepupilsmovefromlessontolessonandteachertoteacher,itisimportanttoworktowardsconsistency.Tothisend,itisvitallyimportantthatthe5‘R’susedinindividualclassroomsreflectandlinkinto5‘R’sforthewholeschool.
1. Rules
Preventingpoorbehaviourfromhappeningrequiresaframeworkofrulestobeinplace.Pupilsneedtobeawareofandbuyintotheserules.Preferablytheyshouldhaveapartinestablishingtherules.Rulesneedtobe:• Negotiatedandagreed• Seentobefair• Abletobetaughttopupils• Few,simpleandclear• Consistentlyapplied• Shortandtothepoint• Phrasedpositively• Easytoenforceandreinforce• Relatedclearlytorights,responsibilitiesandroutines.
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Thecasestudiesbelowarefromteachersapplyingrulesinpractice.
Case study - The use of a basic classroom rule posters
Idiscussedruleswithmyclassesandtogetherwecameupwiththefollowing,whicharenowpostedonanA4sheetonthewall.Therulesarenowusedduringlessonsandareofparticularvalueinindividualbehaviourreviewswithpupils.• Wearrivewiththecorrectequipmentforthelesson• Westayinourseatsuntilgivenpermissiontomove• Wekeepunkindwordstoourselves• Wetaketurnstocontributetoteachingandlearning• Wehavearighttolearn• Wehavearesponsibilitytorespecttherightsofothers• Werecogniseourownresponsibilityforoureducation.
Case study - Year 9 Science
InSeptemberofthisacademicyearIstartedtoteachagroupofyear9pupilsforScience.ThiswasagroupthathadbeencreatedtoincludethepupilswhowerefelttohaveseriouslydisruptedlessonsinYear8.LookingatprevioustestscoresandKS2scoresitseemedthatlackofabilitywasnottheproblem.
Afterthefirstfewlessonsofthetermitbecameapparenttomethatthepupilswereunacceptablynoisyandlivelyandclearlytestingthelimits.Itriedinitiallytoestablishclearroutinesforthestartoflessons,togivelotsofpraisewhenappropriateandtobuildapositive,personalrelationshipwiththepupils.Thisdidhavesomesuccess,butlimited.
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Itbecameapparentthatrulesneededtobeestablished,withclearincentivesforthosewhowereconformingandclearconsequencesforthosewhowerenot.Inordertosettherules,IaskedacolleaguetocomeintoobservebehaviourssothatIcouldprioritisethefactorscausingdisruptionandaddresstheseinmyclassroomrules.Thebehavioursprioritisedwereshouting(oftenabusively)tootherpupilsduringlessons,gettingupfromdesksandwanderingaroundtheroom(ofteninterferingwithothers),andthrowingthingsatotherpupils.TherulesIdecidedonwere:• Followteacher’sdirections• Staysilentwhensomeoneelseisspeakingtothewhole
class-ifyouwishtocontributeputyourhandupandwaituntilasked
• Keephands,feetandobjectstoyourself• Stayinyourseatunlessdirectedbyteachertomove• Donotswear,teaseoryell!
Wethendiscussedtherulesandcomeupwithanagreedset.Wespenttimeexploringwhateachrolemeantandmodellingthemwiththepupils.Ipreparedacardwiththerulesonforeachpupilandinitiatedasystemofrewardstickers.Stickerscouldearnnotesofpraiseintheirplannerandlettersofpraisehometoparents.Ifollowednormalwhole-schoolpolicyofconsequencesforthosewhodidnotsticktotherules.
TheresultsofthisinthefirstfortnightwerebetterthanIhadanticipated.Thelessonsweremuchmoreenjoyable,moreworkwasbeingachievedandpupilswerereportingthattheymuchpreferredthelessonsnow!Ifeelthatthesuccesswasgainedbecause:• Theruleswereovert,fewandagreed• Theruleswereexplainedandmodelled• Theruleswereprominentlydisplayed
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• Theemphasiswasonrewardsandpraise• Thepupils(despitetheirseemingsophistication)wantedthe
praiseandrewards• TherulesprovidedaframeworkthatensuredthatIwas
veryconsistent• Itisalsoworthstatingthattherulesdidnotreplace
routines,andIfeelthatthissystemwouldnothavebeensuccessfulhadfirmroutinesnotbeenestablished.Routinesenabled:- Aclearcalmstarttothelesson- Theworkofthelessonnotbedisruptedbecauseoflackofequipment
- Aclearcalmendtothelesson.
Rules relating to mobile phones
Mobilescanbeusedveryeffectivelytosupportlearning,allowinglearnerstodocumentprojectwork,forexamplebyusingimages,voiceandtext.However,mostschoolshavealsoexperiencedproblemswiththedisruptiveuseofmobilesandshouldhaveclearrulesaboutacceptableuse,developedinconsultationwiththewhole-schoolcommunity.Almostallschoolshavepoliciesthatprohibittheuseofpersonalmobilephonesduringlessons.Guidelinesshouldbeenforcedconsistentlybyallschoolstaff,andsupportedbytheschoolleadershipteam.(Teachernet:05October2009)
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2. Rights
Pupilsneedtounderstandthattheyhaverights,asdoteachers.Forexample,pupilsandteachershavearightto:• Be/Feelsafe• Bevalued• Berespected• Learn/Teach.
Teachersandpupilsallhavearoletoplayinmakingsurethatrightsaremaintained.Ifthefirst3bulletsarenotinplace-thenitisunlikelythatthebullet4willbeachievable.
3. Responsibilities
Teachersneedtoensurethatpupilsareawareoftheirrightsandhavetheirrightsupheld.However,pupilsalsoneedtounderstandthatotherpupilsandteachersalsohaverightsandtherightsofallhavetobebalancedagainsteachother.Theythereforehavearesponsibilitytoconsidertherightsofothersandnotonlytheirown.Forexample,bothpupilsandteachershavearesponsibilitytoallowotherstofeelsafeandrespected.Teachersalsoneedtoensurethatpupilsaresupportedinmeetingtheirresponsibilities.Inaddition,teachersneedtomakesurethattheymeetthefullrangeoftheirownresponsibilities.
4. Routines
Itisthroughroutinesthatteachersteachtherulesandconsolidaterightsandresponsibilities.Routineshelpaclassrunsmoothlyandmayrelatetothingssuchas:• Enteringandleavingtheclassroom(transitionsareconsidered
insection2.4)• Gaining,usingandputtingawayequipment,booksand
otherresources• Movementaroundtheclassroom• Changingbetweenactivities• Askingquestionsandaskingforhelp.
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Routinesshouldbeestablishedatthestartoftheyear,rehearsedwithpupils,reviewedatthestartofeachtermandreinforcedthroughongoinginteraction.
5. Rewards (and sanctions)
Rewardsarelikelytoencouragepupilstorepeatabehaviour.(Peoplerepeatbehavioursthatarerewarded.)Forsomepupilsthisrewardmaybeassimpleasadultattention.Positiveconsequences(rewards)arethekeytothepromotionofeffectiveclassroombehaviour.Systemsthatemphasisepraiseareconsistentlymoresuccessfulinteachingpupilstomakemorepositivechoices.
Rewardsaremoreeffectiveiftheyare:• Givenstraightaway,sopupilscanseethelinkbetween
thebehaviourandthereward• Issuedconsistentlybyallstaff,forthesamebehaviours,
inthesameway• Distributedfairlyandnotusedto‘bribe’particularpupils.
Teachersneedtorecognisetherangeofrewardsthatareavailabletothem.Theywillincludebothinformal(smiling,verbalpraise,toneofvoice,catchingthembeinggood,showingthemtrust)andformalrewards(certificates,pointssystem).Informalrewardsarelikelytodifferaccordingtoteacherstyle,butformalrewardsshouldbeconsistentandschoolwide.Inaddition,rewardsmustbegenuinelymotivatingtoapupil,begenuinelyearnedandsincerelygiven.
Therearemanygoodreasonsforusingrewards,suchas,they:• Helptobuildandmaintainpositiverelationships• Helpmaketheschoolexperiencemoreenjoyable• Encouragepupilstorepeatdesirablebehavioursandmake
positivechoices• Contributetodevelopingpupils’self-esteem.
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Praiseisessentialinpromotingeffortanddesirablebehaviour.However,ifpraiseisnotgivensensitivelyitmay,causeembarrassment(especiallyifgivenpublicly),couldsoundpatronisingandcanbreedcomplacencyinpupilsifthepraiseisnotreallywarranted.
Itisimportanttouse rewards appropriately and not to over use themasthiscouldactuallybecomeade-motivator.AnarticleintheTES(Dunmore,E,2009TES,Nov13th2009)notesthat“Rewardsmaystrengthenbehaviourintheshortterm,but...theycanunderminemotivationinthelongrunbecausetheyreducetheindividual’sperceptionthattheyaredoingthattaskoftheirownfreewill.Instead,thepersongetsasensethattheyareengaginginthetasksimplytogainthereward.”
Thearticlesuggeststhatpraiseforperformanceshould:• Rewardpupilsforperformingatasktoaspecificstandardrather
thanjustcompletingit• Useunexpectedrewardsasbonusesforparticularlyimpressive
performances• Makesureanyrewardisclearlylinkedtoimprovedwork
orbehaviour• Encouragereflectionbyaskingpupilswhytheythinkthey
arebeingrewarded• Verballyencouragemorethanreward• Praisepupilsinawaythatencouragesthemtoreflectontheir
ownmotivation.
Teachersshouldseektoconstantlyreinforcepositivebehaviour,asthiswillhaveagreaterandlongerlastingeffectthanconstantpunishmentfornegativebehaviour.However,evenwheneffectiverules,rights,responsibilities,routinesandrewardshavebeenestablishedandconsistentlyapplied,somepupilswillnotalwaysworkwithintheframework.Inthesecasessanctionsmaybenecessary.
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Sanctionsshouldbeusedonly:• Whereeffectiverules,rights,responsibilities,routinesandrewards
havealreadybeenestablishedandconsistentlyapplied• Whenallotheroptionshavebeentried• Inconjunctionwithawiderangeofclassroommanagement
strategiesandrewards(Ithasbeensuggestedthatrewardsshouldbeappliedinaratioofatleast4to1tosanctions).
Wheresanctionsareused,itisimportantthattheyare:• Fairandreasonable• Knownandunderstoodbyallpupils(aswellasparents
andcarers)• Consistentlyapplied• Alogicalandproportionateresponsetothebehaviour• Appliedatthelowestlevelpossibletoachievearesult.
Teachersshouldnotethat:• Thosewhooverrelyonsanctionsasaformofcontrolcanfind
themselvesfeelingthattheyarefightingforcontrolwithpupils• Anysystemthatseekstorelylargely,orwholly,uponsanctions
willsimplyteachpupilshowtobecomeeffectiveatavoidingthem• Sanctionsmaydiscourageinappropriatebehaviourbutthey
donotteachordirectlyencouragethedesirablebehaviour.Somepupilsmayneedtobetaughtwhatitisthattheyshoulddo
• Pupilsarelikelytokeepmisbehavingifthatishowtheygetthemostattention.Teachersneedtodecidewhethertorewardpositivebehaviour,bygivingattentiontothepupilwhoisbehavingandgettingonwiththetask,ortorewardpoorbehaviourbypayingattentiontothepupilwhoismisbehavingandbeingdisruptive.
Teachersneedtoworktowardsasituationwherepupilsfeeltheycontrolthemselves,withtheteachertheretolead,guideandsupportpupilsintheirself-management.Pupilsshouldfeelthattheyhavegiventheteacherboththerightandtheresponsibilityofleadingthem.Gettingtothissituationisnoteasyandwillrequire:
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• Sharedunderstandingofcorerightsandresponsibilities• Effortsfromteacherstoeffectivelymanagethegroupand
individualswithinit• Effortstocommunicatewithrespectandcare• Awillingnesstoreachindividualsaswellasgroups.
Additional elements of an agreed framework
Behaviour agreements
Asuccessfulframeworkforbehaviourmanagementmightincludeabehaviouragreement.Tocreatebehaviouragreements,pupilsparticipatewithteachersinanagreementaddressingcommonrights,responsibilitiesandrulesforbehaviourandlearning,coreconsequencesandaframeworkofsupport.(Theseshouldallreflecttheschoolsagreedbehaviourpolicy).
Behaviouragreementsshould:• Becreatedveryearlyoninaninteraction• Becopiedtoparents/carers• Recognisethattheprocessisasimportantastheoutcome• Haveagreedandunderstoodrights,responsibilities,rules,
consequencesandsupport• Berevisitedwhenevernecessary.
Plan for good behaviour
Effectiveteachersworktoaplantomaintaingoodbehaviourandpositiverelationships.Thequalityoftheworkundertakenandtherighttosafetyoftheotherpupilsmaybejeopardisedifteachersdonothaveaplan.Teachersshouldconsider,inadvance,thesortsofnegativethingsthatpupilsmightdo,aswellasthekindofresponsesthatareavailable.
Havingaplanmeansteacherscanoperatefromit,insteadofjustreactingtoinstancesofinappropriatebehaviour,makingiteasiertostaycalmandincontrolofthesituation.
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2.3 Managing the environment
Managingtheenvironmentisanessentialpartofbehaviourmanagement.Researchontheeffectivenessofschools,suggeststhequalityofthelearningenvironmentisthefactoraffectingpupillearningandoutcomesthatismostreadilymodifiedbyteachers.Structuringandpupil-orientedpracticestendtobeassociatedwithapleasant,orderlyclassroomclimate(OECD,2009,p121)
Therearearangeofenvironmentalfactorsthatcanhaveaninfluenceonbehaviour.Theseinclude:• Classroomlayout-Seebelow• Size(roomandclass)-Overcrowdedroomscanbeharder
tomanage• Temperature-Pupilstendtobehaveinmorechallengingways
whenthetemperatureiseithertoohotortoocold• Décoranddisplays-Acalmingandengagingroomcan
encouragepositivebehaviour• Windows-Pupilstendtobehavebestinroomswithnaturallight,
butnotwhenitistoobrightandlightpreventsthemfromseeingproperly
• Vents-Pupilsneedwellventilatedrooms• Equipment-Pupilsneedeasyaccesstothenecessaryequipment.
Someaspectsteacherwillhavelittle(ifany)controlover.However,whereitispossibletoinfluencetheenvironment,teachersshouldseektodoso.
Classroom layout
Classroomlayoutisanareathatmostteacherhaveinfluenceover.Teachersneedtodecideonthelayoutoftheirclassroom(rows,grouptableblocks,pairs,horseshoeetc)aswellaswhowillsitwhereandwithwhom(pupilchoice,sitwithfriends,alphabetical,teacherdirected,mixedability,abilitygrouped,boy/girl,etc).
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Rogers(2006a)notesthat‘whilesocialisationisanimportantfeatureofclassroomlife,itisimportantthatpupilsunderstandfromdayone…thatthisplaceissetasideforteachingandlearning’.WannarkaandRuhl(2008)notethatseatingarrangementisanimportantaspectofclassroommanagementbecauseithasthepotentialtohelppreventproblembehaviours.
Theirstudyindicatesthatteachersshouldletthenatureofthetaskdictateseatingarrangements,butthatpupilsdisplayhigherlevelsofappropriatebehaviourduringindividualtaskswhentheyareseatedinrows,withdisruptivepupilsbenefitingthemost.
Decidingonclassroomlayoutislikelytodependon:• Thetask/activityplanned(Thereisgoodevidencetosuggestthat
someclassroomlayouts,suchasrows,focusindividualsontaskbehaviourwhilstothers,suchasgroups,arebetterfordevelopingaco-operativegroupbasedapproachtolearning)
• Thegroup(includingage,levelofengagement,behaviouretc)• Thestageintheyear(mayvaryfromterm1toendofyear).
Howeverthespaceislaidout,itisvitalthattheteachercanseeallareasandmoveeasilytobenearallpupils.
Teacherswilloftenbeteachinginwhattheyregardtobesomeoneelse’sroom,andtheymayonlyusethatroomonceortwiceperweek.Thisisoftenthecaseinabusy,activeclassroomenvironment.However,beingawarethatcertainactivitiesworkbetterwithcertainlayoutsmayleadteacherstopreparedifferently.Whereaco-operativetaskhasbeenstructuredinalessonandithasnotworkedaswellasanticipated,onreflectionitmaybethatthelayoutoftheclassroomdidnotreadilysupporttheactivity.• Ifalayouthasbeensuccessfulforaparticularactivity,
teachersmayconsiderusingitagain.Ifalayouthasnotworkedforaparticularactivity,teachersmayconsiderchangingthelayoutandtryingagain
• Iftheclassroomlimitsthelayout,teachersmaytrytonegotiatetoswapteachingspacesforcertainfuturesessions
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• Ifaclassroomswapisnotpossible,anapproachthatsuitstheavailablelayoutwillneedtobeused.
Thesemayseemlow-key,practicalissuesbuttheymaycontributetoamorepositivelearningclimateand,therefore,areducedlikelihoodofdisruptionintheclassroom.Itismuchmoredifficultforonepupiltodisruptalessonthathasbeenwell-prepared,matchestheneedsofthepupils,fitsthelearningspaceandisbeingenjoyedbythemajorityofthepupils.
An environmental checklist
IntheenvironmentalchecklistmodeldevelopedbyFrameworkforInterventioninBirmingham(aslightlyadaptedcopyofthisisonthenextpages),abaselinemeasureismadeoftheproblembehaviour,thentheBehaviouralEnvironmentChecklistisusedtoaudittheclassroomorschoolenvironment.Whencompleted,findingsfromtheauditinformaBehaviouralEnvironmentPlan.Thisplanisintendedtoleadtochangesinanytriggersforinappropriatebehaviourwithintheclassroomorwiderenvironment.Amoredetailedexplanationofthisapproachisavailablein“Behaviourinschools:FrameworkforInterventionGettingStarted”orvisitthewebsitewww.F4i.org.
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SECTION A: Classroom organisation
Equipmentiseasilyaccessible
Furniturearrangedtobesteffect
Appropriateambienttemperature
Sufficientventilation
Lightingsufficient
Noglare
Materialswelllabelledandlocated
Easeofmovementinroom
Appropriatestorageofpupils’belongings
Pupilsaregroupedappropriately
Pupilsplacereflectssocialrelationships
Roomorganisationmeetsdifferingcurriculumdemands
Chalkboard/whiteboardetceasilyseen
Furnituresuitable
Classroomlookslikeagoodworkingenvironment
Sufficientspace
Quietexternalenvironment
An environmental checklist
Notes for guidance:• Thischecklistisdesignedtohelpyoutolookattheenvironment(s)
inwhichaproblemoccurs.Itisbesttocompletethischecklistwithacolleague.Donotfeelobligedtoconsidereverystatement-somemaynotapplytoyoursituation
• Oncethechecklistiscompleteditcanprovidethebasisforaplantoimprovebehaviourthroughmakingchangestotheenvironment
• Scoreeachelementfrom0(disagree)to5(agree)intherighthandcolumn.
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SECTION B: Classroom management
Teacherarrivesbeforepupils
Teacher’svoiceisclear
Instructionsareclear
Goodbehaviourisnoticedandacknowledged
Smallachievementsrecognised
Apupil’sgoodbehaviouris‘named’andreflectedback
Theteacheractsasarolemodelfordesiredbehaviour
Materialsandequipmentareprepared
Pupilsbringcorrectequipment
Lessonswellprepared
Curriculumdeliveryisvaried
Curriculumdeliveryisdifferentiated
Timetableisarrangedtobestfit
Peersupportisusedwhereappropriate
Adultsupportisusedwhereappropriate
SECTION C: Out of classroom
Routinesformovementaroundschoolsiteclear
Breaktimerulesunderstoodbypupils
Breaktimesystemsadoptedbyallstaff
Breaktimerewards/sanctionssystemclear
Behaviourpolicyadoptedbyancillarystaff
Problemsiteareasidentifiedandovercome
Suitableactivities/equipmentavailableforbreaktimes
Thereisaneffectivesystemforresolutionofconflicts
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SECTION D: Classroom rules and routines
Rules:
Arefewinnumberandclearlyphrased
Arenegotiatedwith,andunderstoodbypupils
Areregularlyreferredtoandreinforced
Arepositivelyframed
Areclearlydisplayedintheclassroom
Behaviourtomeetrulesistaught
Rewards:
Arevaluedbypupils
Areawardedfairlyandconsistently
Areclearlyrelatedtopositivebehaviour
Aresmallandreadilyachievable
Linkwithschoolrewardsystem
Sanctions:
Arerelatedtobehaviour
Areadministeredfairlyandconsistently
Areunderstoodbypupils
Areunderstoodbyparentsandcarers
Arewithinaclearhierarchyofseverity
Routines are established for:
Enteringorleavingtheroom
Distributionandcollectionofmaterials/equipment
Gainingteacher’sattentionandhelp
Changingactivities
Gainingquiet/silence/attention
Clearingup
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SECTION E: Whole-school policies:
Rules and implications:
Abehaviourpolicyexistsandiseffective(thisincludesreviewingthepolicyannuallytoensurethatitremainsappropriateandencouragespracticesandsystemsthatsuittheneedsoftheschool)
Staffhaveclearunderstandingofthepolicy
Rulesarecommunicatedfrequentlyandeffectivelytopupils,allstaffparentsandgovernors
Staff have a clear idea of the range of rewards available to pupils
Staffhaveaclearideaoftherangeofsanctionsthatcanandcannotbeused
Staffareawareofagoodrangeoftechniquesthatcanbeusedtodealwithbehaviourproblems
Pupils,asfarastheyareable,knowthereasonsbehindtherulesinschool
Behaviourproblemsaredealtwitheffectivelyinthelightofequalopportunityissues
Support for staff:
There is collective responsibility for behaviour management in the school
Stafffeelconfidentinacknowledgingdifficulties
Staffhaveclearmeansofgaininghelp
Staffhaveeffectiveguidanceondealingwithconflict
Behaviourproblemsarerecordedfairlyandefficiently
Staffrolesareclearlydefined
Support services are used systematically, efficiently and effectively
Parents and governors:
Parentsareinvolvedtobesteffectinhelpingwithproblems
Parentsareroutinelytoldofpupil’sgoodbehaviour
Behaviourshouldbeastandingagendaitemongovernormeetings
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The benefits of the environmental checklist:• Itflagsuppotentialhazardsandareasofweakness• Becauseitstartswithphysicalfeatures-teacherswouldsee
itaslessthreatening• Itprovidesanacknowledgementthatitisawhole-schoolchecklist• Itsupportsstaffinpoorenvironmentalconditionstofeedback
theirconcerns• Itisameansofcommunicatingdifficulties• Itisaconstantreminder-makesyouthinkaboutwhole-
schoolissues• Itcanbeusedtotrackbehaviourreferrals-wherearethey
from?-anyparticularroom?• Ithighlightspossiblecausesofunwantedbehaviour• Itcontributestoamaintenanceprogrammeforbuildingsand
physicalinfrastructure• Ithelpsidentifystrengthsandweaknessesofschoolsandsystems• Itsetsoutexpectations• Everybodyisclearonstandarddefinitions• Ithelpstoidentifyapattern-problemsarisingfromcertainareas
atcertaintimesofday.
How the checklist might be adapted:
Teachersand/orschoolscan:• Useasmuchoftheformastheywish• Breakitdownintomoremanageablesubsections• Useittoauditanewlocationbeforemovingin• Useappropriatesectionsatdepartmentlevel• Useitintraining,iestaffcontribution,reviewprocess.
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How the checklist might be implemented:• Partofawhole-schoolreviewsystem• Todeterminefundingpriorities• Forauditpurposes-Whatisthere?Whatisneeded?• Asamonitoringresourceusedbythewholestaff• Forfeedbacktobusinessmanagersaboutconcernsandareas
ofneed• Usetheuser-devisedsectiontoaddressschoolorclass-
specificissues• Asabasisforadevelopmentplan• Toprovideallstaffwithaclearunderstandingof
environmentalissues.
2.4 Managing transitions
Itisanestablishedideawithineducationthattoreducethechangesofincidentsarising,classroomsshouldbewellorganised.SmithandLaslett(1993)outlinedfourkeyrulesofclassroommanagement,whichare:
1.Getthemin
2.Getonwithit
3.Getonwiththem
4.Getthemout.
1. Get them in
• Beawareofwhattransitionsaretakingplace,egfromonelessontoanother,fromlunchtoafternoon
• Smooth,prompt,focusedstart• Recapprevioussession/activity• Previewthissession/activity.
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Get them inisessentiallyaboutmanagingthekeytransitionatthebeginningofthelesson.Itmaybeatransitionfromthepreviouslessontothepresentone(perhapsinvolvingdifferencesinteachingstyle,contentandapproach)orfrombreak/lunchbacktolessons(perhapsinvolvingtoomuch/toolittlefood,wildplay,gettingwet,etc).Lessonbeginningsareacleartransitionalmoment,andneedtobemanagedwell.
Ideally,theteacherisintheclassroombeforethepupilsarrive.Whilstthismaynotalwaysbeeasy(duetoschoolbuildingsortimetablingarrangements)teachersshouldalwaysaimtobetherefirst.Developingaroutinewherelessonsstartpromptlyandpurposefullyinafocusedwayisakeyaspectofbuildinganeffectiveroutine.Alessonmightopenwitharecaponthelastlesson,arevisionofthekeylearningoutcomesandthenapreviewofthepresentlessonandthekeylearningobjectives.
Wherepupilsexperiencethisasastandardpartoftheirroutinewithateacher,theyaremuchmorelikelytosettledowntolearn.Ifthewholeclassisbehavinginthisway,theopportunitiesforanindividualtodisruptthestartofalessonareremarkablyreduced.Itisalsoimportanttodemonstrateanawarenessofthepupilwhomissedthelastlesson.Andrecognisethatsuchapupilwillnotreadilyunderstandtherecap/reviewofthelastlessonandmay,therefore,lacksomeofthecriticallearningneededtoengageinthislesson.Acknowledgingthisdifficultyandofferingtoexplainthelearningthats/hemissedoncethegroupisunderwaymayalsoheadoffunnecessarydisruption.
Thecasestudybelow,writtenbyateacher,highlightssomeofthechallengesof‘gettingthemin’effectively.
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Case study - ‘Get them in’
PupilsinYear8Bwereworkingbetterandlisteningskillshadimproved.However,pupilsstilltookalongtimetosettle.Raisingmyvoicewasineffective,soIneededtorethinkmymethodswhenthepupilsenteredtheclassroom.
Thedifficultywasthatbothmylessonswith8Bwerefirstperiodinthemorning.Thefirstdaywasassemblywhichpupilsin8Bdonotattend.TheseconddaywasalsoassemblybutasHeadofYearIamlaterthanpupilsbecauseIhadtoendtheassemblybeforeproceedingtothelesson.
Uponreflection,Idecidedtochangemyentryintotheclassroom,myinitialself-presentationandthebeginningofthelessons.Thechangesmadewere:• PupilstowaituntilIarrivebeforeenteringtheroom• Lessonarewellpreparedandlaidoutbeforehand,sothat
Idonotneedtolookforresourcesorappearflustered• Iwelcomepupilsintotheclassroomandwalkaround,
rewardingthosewhosettledownquickly.
Thishashadapositiveeffectonthespeedthattheysettleandontherestofthelesson.
2. Get on with it
• Maintainappropriateandvariedpace• Selectstimulating,variedcontentandtasks• Ensureappropriatedifferentiationoftasksandcontent• Usepairandgroupworkandencourageco-operative
learning/activity• Provideextensionactivities• Ensureefficient,orderly,organisedapproachestogivingout
anytaskmaterial.
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Get on with itisaboutaccommodatingthedifferentaptitudeandskilllevelinaclass.Whilstactivelydeliveringinformationtotheclassorisundertakingaquestionandanswersession,teachersneedtokeepallofthepupilsinvolvedbyscanningtheroom,focusingongroups/individualsandwatchingtheclass.
Thisvigilanceneedstobemaintainedwhentheactivityswitchestopupiltasks,whereretainingsuchlevelsofcontrolmaybecomemoredifficulttodo.Givingoutanytaskmaterialsinanefficient,orderlyandorganisedapproachisacriticalroutineinawell-organisedclass.Thisbecomesevenmorechallengingwhenthegroupcoversawiderangeofactivityandtasksneedtobecarefullydifferentiated.
Distributingdifferentiatedmaterialcarriessignificantrisksbecause:• Thematerialmaypatroniseanindividualwhomayfeels/hedoes
notneedtodosucheasywork• Itcreatesasplitintheclassroom,betweenthosewhodothe
‘easy’andthosewhodothe‘hard’work• Somepupils,whoarecapableofachievingmore,optforthe
easiermaterialinordernottohavetoworkhard• Someindividualsmaybegivenworkthattheygenuinelycannot
do-ifthisisnotspottedquiteearlyon,thereisariskthattheywillbecomedisaffectedwiththesubjectanddisruptiveinthelesson.
Thisdistributionoftaskmaterialsrequiresconfidence,skillandsensitivity.Creatingandsustainingapositivelearningclimate,whereeachpupilcompletesataskthatenableshim/hertofulfilhis/herpotential,isademandingprofessionalduty.Itmustbeseenasunacceptablethatapupilisgivenmaterialthatiseitherfartoohardorfartooeasyforhim/her.
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3. Get on with them
• Enablepupilstosucceedbyattendingtothedifferentneedsofpupilsintheclass
• Haveclearrulesforhowpupilsseekhelp• Alwaysacknowledgerequestsforhelp• Providehelpdiscretely• Gettoknowsomethingaboutallpupils• Beinterestedandavailable.
Get on with themisaboutenablingpupilstosucceed.Whenagroupisengagedinatask,theteacherneedstoattendtothefullrangeofneeds.Somemayrequirehelptoeventbeginthetask,othermayneedhelpwithearlydifficulties.Itisimportanttolookoutforthesignsthatmightindicatedifficulty,suchasaskingtheirpeers,lookingoveratwhatothersaredoingorbysignalling‘givingup’behaviour.Makingearlyresponsestosuchsignalswillhelpsustainthemomentumofthelessonandhelpavoidincidentsarising.
Suchhelpmaybediscreetlyprovidedtoindividualsbutonoccasions,theteachermayrealisethatthetaskisnotasgoodafitwiththepupilsass/hehadplannedandthatfurtherwhole-classexplanationisneededtosustainthepupils’involvementinthelesson.
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4. Get them out
• Managinganeffectiveclosuretothelesson• Refresh,restateandreinforcethesessionthemes• Haveclear,tidyupandexitroutines• Givepraiseandrecognitionforeffortsandindicateagenda
fornextlesson• Createtimeforexitphase• Ensureanabsenceofchaosorconfusion• Haveanawarenessoftimeandcreatingtimeforexit• Getthemoutbyenablingthemtoleavetheroominan
orderlymanner.
Get them outmaysoundaharshstatement,butinpracticaltermsreferstotheprocessofmanagingthetransitionattheendofthelesson.Whenagrouphastohurrytofinish,andrushtopackupandleavetheroom,itexperiencesadegreeofconfusionandchaos.Thismaybeunfairtotheteacherwhoreceivesthegroupnext,ass/hehastore-establishaclimateforlearning.Furthermore,itmayevenhaveanimpactuponsubsequentlessonswiththesepupils,astheyretainamemoryofthelessonstyle.
SmithandLaslettsideasare,inmanyways,basedoncommonsenseandareoftenembeddedwithinthepracticesofeffectiveteachers.However,attimessomeoftheelements(especiallygettheminandgetthemout)cangetforgottenorlostwhentimeispressed.Loosingjustoneelementhasanegativeimpactonthewholeoftherestofthelessonandtheoveralllearningenvironment.
2.5 Anticipation and monitoring
Eventsoutsideofschool(athome,onthestreet,inthecommunity)canhaveanimpactonhowpupilswillinteractwithinthelearningenvironment.Somepupilsmanagenottobeadverselyaffectedbyexternalinfluencesandcopewellwiththevariedchallengesoftheschoolsenvironment.However,othersstruggletocopewiththe
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pressuresandanxietiesthatlearningand/orsocialenvironmentsthrowup.
Tohelppupilscopewiththechallenges,teachersshouldstriveto:• Anticipatethebarriersthatsomemayfacefromtimetotime• Watchfortheearlysignsofpupilsbeginningtostruggle• Knowaboutandunderstandthepersistentbarrierstolearning
thatsomepupilsface.
Lookingforandrecognisingearlyindicatorsofdifficultycanhelptoensurethatpupilsfeelsupportedandcaredfor.Teachersneedtorecognisemomentsofchangeandunderstandtheirsignificance.Oncespotted,earlyinterventioncanpreventproblemsfromescalatingorbecomingentrenched.Inthelongrun,investingtimeinprevention,willmeanthatlesstimeneedstobespentdealingwith‘difficult’behaviour.
Observing and understanding change
‘Change’involvesashiftfromonepositionorsituationtoanother.Intermsofpupilbehaviour,thischangemaybesubtle,especiallywithpupilswhointernalisetheirproblemsanddifficulties.Tohelprecognise‘momentsofchange’,itcanbeusefulforteacherstoactivelyscreenpupils.Theearlierachangeisidentifiedandanissueaddressedwithapupil,thebetterthechancesofovercomingthedifficulty.
Tohelpidentify‘momentsofchange’,teachersshould:• Knowwhatcharacterises‘typicaladolescent’behaviour• Knowindividualsinthegroupwellenoughtorecognisewhat
is‘normal’or‘characteristic’behaviourforthem• Recognisewhenthatbehaviourchanges• Identifyearlywhatmightbecausingthatchangeinbehaviour• Recogniseandunderstandwhatisadevelopingissue• Recogniseandunderstandwhatisa‘seriousmatter’.
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Observingchangesinarangeoffactorsmightindicateearlysignsofdifficult.Someofthefactorstoconsiderareoutlinedbelow.
Attendance and punctuality
Adecreaseinattendanceandpunctuality(orachangeinitspattern)canprovideteacherswithanearlysignthatdifficultiesmaybedeveloping.Mostchangesinpatternsofattendanceandpunctualitycanbepickedupquicklyandclearlyandteachersshouldensuretheyhaveaccesstoallavailableinformation.Theoddlatenessmaynotbesignificantbutanewpatternofhabituallatenesswhichisoutofcharacter,especiallyifitisaccompaniedbyotherworryingsigns,needcarefulattention.
Physical appearance and self presentation
Teacherswhoknowtheirpupilswellwillhaveareasonableideaofhowapupilusuallylooks.Changesindress,presentation,hygieneanddemeanourmayindicateacauseforconcern.Inaddition,thewayapupilholdshim/herself-stands,sits,moves-isalsoanindicatoroffeelingsandmarkedchangesmaysignalthebeginningsofdifficulties.However,itisimportanttobeabletodistinguishbetweenchangeswhichmaybesignificantandthosethatareduetofactorssuchasmakingapersonalstatement,fashionpreferencesorthenormalchangesthatoccurduringadolescence.Itisthecombinationofchangesinphysicalappearancewithotherschangesthatmaybeagoodpointertoemergingdifficulties.
Manner
Howapupilinteractswithteachersandpeerscanbeastrongindicatorofhowtheyfeel.Pupilswhoexternalisetheirdifficultiesmaybecomeincreasinglyantagonistictowardsothersandchangescanberelativelyeasytospot.However,itcanbeusefultoscreensystematicallyforsignsofinternaliseddifficulties,suchaspupilswhobecomesincreasinglywithdrawn,moodyoremotional.Againitisimportanttodistinguishbetweenchangesthatmaybesignificantandthosethatareabout‘normaladolescence’.
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Social grouping
Changesinpupilsocialgroupingsmaybetheeasiestsignaltospotbutareoftenhardto‘read’.Thesocialinteractionsofapeergrouparecomplexandmanagingtheseeffectivelycancauseindividualpupilswithinthemconsiderableanxietyandunhappiness.
Identifying mental health issues
Thecharity‘YoungMinds’outlinessomepossibleindicatorsofthepresenceofmentalhealthproblemsforpupils.Theseindicatorsinclude:• Suddenchangesinbehaviour,moodorappearance.Thesemay
includeasuddendropinthestandardofwork;schoolrefusal;excessiveconcernwithneatnessorasuddendisregardforappearance
• Generalbehaviour.Thismayincludequietandwithdrawnbehaviouraswellas‘actingout’-showingaggressionandhostility;extremeperfectionismorobsessivenesstotheextentthatnoworkisdone;anxietyandrestlessness
• Patternofwork.Losingenthusiasmandmotivation;havingdifficultysettlingandconcentrating;orelsebecomingoverlyabsorbedinwork
• Patternofattendance.Thismayincludetruancyandschoolrefusal,butequally,areluctancetoleaveschoolorarrivingveryearlyinthemorning
• Relationships.Havingdifficultygettingonwithotherchildrenintheclass;havingfewornofriends;beingbulliedorbullyingothers
• Otherindications.Lookingtiredorunwell,unhappyandsolitary;becomingcarelessorindifferentaboutwork;problemswitheating;beingdrawnintopromiscuityoroffending;alcoholordrugmisuse;violentbehaviour;self-destructivebehaviour.
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AccordingtoYoungMinds,keyquestionstoaskwhendeterminingwhethertheseareindicatorsofamentalhealthproblemare:• Howextremeisthebehaviourorattitude?• Howprolongedorpersistentisit?• Aretheresuddenchangesinbehaviour?• How‘driven’oroutofcontroldoesthepupilseemtobe?• Isthereamarkedcontrastbetweenhows/hebehavesathome
andoutsidethehome?• Howdoesthebehaviouraffectothermembersofthe
community?
Itishighlyunlikelythatalloreventhemajorityofpupilswhoexhibitthesefactorswillneedtobereferredforspecialisthelp.Inthemajorityofcases,theproblemsareself-resolving,especiallywhenteachersspotthesignsearlyenoughandprovidepupilswitheffectivesupport.Teacherscanonlyspotthesignsiftheyareactivelyscreeningthegroupaswellastheindividualswithinitfordifficulties.
TheWelshAssemblyGovernmentdocumentThinking Positively: Emotional Health and Well-being in Schools and Early Years Settings (2010)identifiesthefollowingissues(refertothedocumentforfurtherdetails:• Evidenceidentifiesarangeoffactorsthatimpactonpupils’
mentalhealth.Riskfactorsarethoseevents,experiencesorfeaturesofaperson’sconstitutionormakeupthatincreasetheprobabilityofchildrendevelopingmentalhealthproblems.
• Arangeoffactorsinchildren’sandyoungpeople’slivescanresultinanincreasedriskofdevelopingmentalhealthproblems,suchaslossorseparation,lifechanges,traumaticeventsandparentalillness.
• Riskfactorsarecumulative-thegreaterthenumberofrisks,andthemoreseveretherisks,thegreateristhelikelihoodofchildrendevelopingmentalhealthproblems.
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• Resiliencerelatestoseveralconnectedelements,suchasappropriateself-esteemandself-confidence.Thepupilswhocanbedescribedasresilientarethosewhoareabletocallontheirownstrengthsandthehelpofothersaroundthemtodealwithchangeandresolvetheirdifficultieswithoutseriousandlastingeffects.
• Althoughsomepupilswillsuffermentalhealthproblemsasaresultofexposuretorisk,others-apparentlyagainstalltheodds-willdevelopintocompetent,confidentandcaringadultsthroughtheirwelldevelopedresilience.
• Familycircumstancesandthewiderenvironmentwillimpactbothonriskfactorsanddevelopingresilience.Thereisacomplexinterplaybetweentherangeofriskfactorsinchildren’slivesandwiththemorepositiveresiliencefactors.
• Animportantfactorinpromotingchildren’smentalhealthisworkthatdevelopsthoseprotectivefactorsthatenablethemtobemoreresilient.
• Schoolstaffandtheirpartners,takepositiveactioninpromotingresilienceintheirdaytodayworkwhentheyincreaseself-esteeminallpupils;encouragepupilstomaketheirownsounddecisions;encourageandmodelgoodsocialskills;helppupilstobecomeeffectivelearners;preventbullying;listentoandactontheconcernsofpupils;helppupilstocommunicateeffectively;aresupportiveandfair.
• Information,adviceandsupportmaybeneededformschoolandotheruniversalservicesormayneedtobeprovidedbytargetedorspecialistservices,preferablyworkinginpartnershipwiththeschooltosupportindividualneeds.
Thefulldocumentcanbeaccessedfromhttp://wales.gov.uk/topics/educationandskills/publications/guidance/thinkingpositively/?lang=en
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School-based counselling
Schoolbasedcounsellingmaysupporttheanticipationandmonitoringofissues,includingmentalhealth.TheWelshAssemblyGovernment’sstrategyfordevelopingschool-basedcounsellingservicesissetoutinSchool-based Counselling Services in Wales: A National Strategy(2008).Thedocumentcanbeaccessedfromhttp://wales.gov.uk/topics/educationandskills/publications/guidance/counsellingservicesstrategy/?lang=en
ThestrategyisalsosupportedbytheSchool-basedCounsellingOperatingToolkitwhichsupportsallinvolvedindevelopingcounsellingwithintheschoolcommunity.Ratherthanbeingadefinitivedocumentitisonethatwillevolveasschool-basedcounsellingservicesdevelop.Thetoolkitcanbeaccessedfromhttp://wales.gov.uk/topics/educationandskills/learningproviders/schools/schoolcounselling/counsellingtoolkit/?lang=en
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Chapter 3Effective communication
Communicationisvitalinbehaviourmanagement.Itisimportantthatpupilsknowwhatteachersareaskingofthemandthatteachersknowwhattheyaretryingtoachieve.Inanyrelationship,languagecansupportandencourageoritcaninhibitandwound.
Intheinteractionsteachershavewithpupilstheimpactonmanagingbehaviourliesnotonlyinwhatissaidbutalsoinhowitissaid.Thewayteacherscommunicateshouldreflectapositiveapproachandbeliefsoastohelppupilsmakebetterchoicesabouttheirbehaviour,becomemoremotivatedandsustaintheefforttobesuccessful.
Communicationshouldalsobeinclusiveandhelptomakeitclearthatwhattakesplaceintheclassroomistheresponsibilityofeveryoneintheroom.Teachershouldtrytouseinclusivelanguage,suchas‘wedonotacceptbehaviourlikethatinourclassroom’and‘togetherwecangetthisfinished’ratherthan‘Idonotacceptbehaviourlikethatinmyclassroom’and‘youmustworkharder’.
Asaguidingprinciple,teachersshouldlooktoextendandamplifythingsthatpupilsdowellorremindthemoftheirpastsuccessesratherthancommentingonwhattheydobadly.Teachersshouldplantheirlanguagetobepositiveandmotivational.
Theteacheralsoneedstoconsiderthenon-verbalelementsofcommunication,suchas:• Tone• Volume• Timing• Eyecontact• Bodylanguage• Proximitytothepupil• Thecontextofthesituation.
Theteachercommunicatesthroughhis/herself-presentationandwhateverpupilsperceiveofsuchself-presentationcouldaffecttheirbehaviourintheclassroom.Theteacherisalsoideallyplaced
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tobuildpupils’self-esteemthroughhis/herverbalandnon-verbalinteractionswiththem.
Thischaptercovers:• Managingtheuseoflanguage• Effectiveuseofquestions• Non-verbaltechniques• Self-presentation• Promotingpupils’self-esteem.
3.1 Managing the use of language
Use appropriate language
Rogers(2006a,chapter3)pointsouttheimportanceofappropriateuseoflanguage.Heemphasisesthatteachersshould:• Understandthatassertionisnotaboutwinning-itisabout
establishingandaffirmingfairrightsandneeds• Keepcorrectiveinteractionunobtrusive,whereverpossible• Avoidunnecessaryconfrontation• Keeparespectful,positivetonewhereverpossible• Beassertive,notaggressive,iftheyneedtocommunicate
appropriatefrustration• Re-establishworkingrelationshipswithpupilsasquickly
aspossible• Followuponissuesthatmatterbeyondtheclassroom.
Rogersalsosuggeststhefollowinglanguagebasedtechniquestohelpinmanagingagroupandpreventingissuesfromarisingand/orescalating:
Tactical pausing:Pausingbrieflyinaspokendirectionorremindertoemphasiseattentionandfocus.
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Incidental language:Theteacherdirectsorremindspupilswithoutdirectlytellingthem.Forexample,‘Thereisalotofmessinthisroomanditisnearlytimeforlunch’-thissendsthemessagethattheroomneedstobecleanedbeforethegroupcangoforlunch,withoutbeingovertlydirective.
Behavioural direction: Theteacherdirectsagrouporindividualsbyreferring,directlytotheexpectedbehaviour.Eg‘Dean…Listeningtotheinstructions…Thankyou’.Thisfocusesontherequiredbehaviour.Itisimportanttouseverbs/participles,ratherthannegativeclauses,(ie‘listening’ratherthan‘don’ttalk’).Theinstructionsshouldbekeptbrief.
Rule reminder:Theteacherbrieflyremindsthegroup(orindividuals)aboutapre-arrangedrule.However,itisnotnecessarytospellouttheruleeachtime.Eg‘Rememberourruleabouteveryonegettingachancetospeak’.
Individual positive reminder with take up time:Theteacherremindsapupilofanagreedbehaviour,thenleavessometimeforthemtodoitbeforefollowingitup.Eg‘Rememberweagreedthatyouwouldkeepyourphoneinyourbag[walkawayforamomentandthenreturntocheckthephonehasbeenremoved]…Thankyou’.
Distraction/diversion: Thiscanbeusedtopreventascenariofromescalating.Egwhereapupilshowsearlysignsoflosingfocusonatask,askthemtohelpgiveoutsomematerialsforthenexttaskandthenthankthemfortheirhelp,beforeaskingthemtoreturntothetask.
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Directed choice:Ateachergivesadirectedchoice,withintheknownrulesorroutine.Eg‘Youcanputyourwalkmaninyourbagorgiveittometokeepuntiltheendoftheday,whicheveryouchoose’,ratherthan‘Givemethatnow’.
Direct questions:Teachersusequestionssuchas‘what’,‘when’and‘how’,ratherthan‘why’or‘areyou’.Thesesortsofquestionsdirectresponsibilitytowardsthepupils,ratherthanaskingforreasons.Forexample,whereapupilismessingaround,ratherthangettingonwithatask,asking‘Whatshouldyoubedoingnow?’isabetterquestionthan‘Whyaren’tyouworking?’
Proximal praise: Bygivingpraisetopupilsnearapupilwhoismisbehavingcanserveasareminderofwhatisexpected,withouttheneedfordirectchallenge.
Assertive comment/direction/command:Whenweassertwearemakingourrightsclear,inadecisive,firm,non-aggressiveway.Forexample‘Thatlanguageisunacceptablehere.Wehavearuleforrespect.Iexpectyoutouseit’.Thisneedstobedeliveredfirmly,withconfidentcalmnessandeyecontact(evenwhenwedonotfeelcalm!).
Use positive language
Ifyoutellsomeonenottodosomethingyouarelikelytoputtheideaintheirheads.
‘Don’tthinkaboutwhatwearehavingforlunch’-whatareyouthinkingabout!
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Bettertousepositivereminders,forexample,ratherthan‘Don’tshoutout’use‘Remembertoputupyourhandtoaskaquestion,thankyou’.
Makeinstructionsclearandconcise.Ratherthan‘HowmanytimeshaveIaskedyoutolisten’,(towhichtheanswermaybe3!).Try‘Listencarefullytotheinstruction,thankyou’.
Instructionsneedtoshowthestepsrequired.Ratherthan‘Noyoucan’tpackawayyet’,try‘Onceyouhavefinishedquestion5,thenyoucanpackaway’.
Use the language of choice
Recognisingthatpupilschoosetheirbehaviourallowsteacherstorespondcalmlyratherthantakingthingspersonally.Recognisingthatpupil’smakeachoiceabouttheirbehaviourisnotonlyhealthyandrealisticbutitalsoenablesthemtotakeresponsibilityfortheirbehaviourandmovetowardsofself-directedbehaviourmanagement.Noadult,withoutrecoursetophysicalintervention,canmakeapupildosomethingifthepupilisdeterminednotto.
Anovertemphasisonthefactthatpupilsaremakingachoicebyregularlyusingtheword‘choice’inpraiseandcorrectionhelpstoembedtheprincipleineverydayreality.Forexample,‘Iamverypleasedthatyouchosetotakepartinthewholesessiontoday-welldone’,or‘It’sarealshameyouhavechosennottoworktoday-youdidsowelllasttime’.
Asteacherscannotactuallymakepupilsdothings,emphasisingthattheyareinchargeoftheirownconductisapowerfulwaytosupportself-directedbehaviour.Italsoencouragespupilstounderstandthatadultswillrecognisetheirdecisionsandgivepositivesocialapprovalwhenthechoicesarepositive.
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Therearearangeofpositiveresultsfromusingthelanguageofchoice,asoutlinedbelow:
The language of choice regards mistakes as a normal part of learning.Ifgettingsomethingwrongisjustamistake(apoorchoice),againitovertlyimpliesthatthepupilhasasolutionavailable;inotherwordsmakeadifferent(andbetter)choicenexttime.Thisisamuchmorehopefulandencouragingemotionalstatethanbelievingthatyou‘can’thelpit’,ordoanythingdifferent.
The language of choice removes the struggle for power. Recognisingandreinforcingthatpupilsareresponsiblefortheirownchoicesavoidsteachersthinkingthattheymustmakepupilsobeythemallthetime.Pupilswhoaredefiantareoftenseekingpowerinordertofeelincontrolorimportant.Givingthemchoicesabouttheirbehaviourdoesthesamethinginamorepositivefashion.Ofcourse,teachershavetousesanctionsordisapprovalifchoicesareunacceptable,buttheconsequencewasthepupil’schoice.
The language of choice has a positive emphasis.Reinforcingapupil’sabilitytomakechoicesbuildsconfidenceandself-esteem.Givingfeedbackontherangeofappropriatechoicess/hemakeshelpsforgeapositiverelationshipandbuildsuphis/herself-esteem.Reframingpoorchoicesassomethingtolearnfromandputrightnexttimeisanoptimisticstancewhichclearlyinformsthepupilthatheorsheisallrightasaperson,butjustmadeamistake.
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Separate the (inappropriate) behaviour from the pupil
• Makethebehaviourunacceptable,notthepupil.
‘Throwingbooksisnotacceptableinthisroom’isabetterresponsethan‘Youwerewrongtothrowthatbook’.
• Makingthebehaviourwrongallowsforchangingtobetterbehaviour.
‘Nexttimepleasetakethebookovertotheshelf’.
• Linkingpoorbehaviourtoapupil’sidentityorpersonalityinhibitspositivechange.
‘YouareworsethananyotherpupilIworkwith.Youmakeitimpossibleforeveryoneelsetosucceed’.
Thismayleadapupiltofeelthattheyaresuchabadpersonthatchangeisnotpossible,sowhytry.Itmayalsoleadthem
tothinkthattheyareincontrolofthegroupandthesituation,nottheteacher.Itwouldhavebeenbettertosaysomethinglike‘Yourbehaviourtodayhasnotbeengood.Ithasbeendifficult
forotherstowork’.
• Linkinggoodbehaviourtoapupil’sidentitybuildsself-esteem.
‘Youhavemaderealprogresstodayandhelpedothergeton.Welldone’.
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Model the behaviour that you want to see
Toapupil,theteachershouldbeamodeloflegitimatebehaviour,withintheworksetting.Themostdamningriposteapupilcanutterwhentalkingaboutinappropriate,rights-infringingbehaviouris:‘Well,youdoit!’
Resolvingconflictcalmlyisoneofthemostimportantbehaviourstomodel.Returningtoapupiltowhomaconsequencehasbeenappliedandcommentingpositivelyontheworktheyarenowdoingisagoodexampleofconflictresolutionandallowsthepupilawayback.
Calmness,predictabilityandcertaintyarealsokeyskillstomodel.Listeningtodifferentsidesofthestory,givingtherightofreplyandmaybeapologisingifahastyjudgementhasbeenmade,givespowerfulandsignificantmessagestopupils.
Keep the focus on ‘primary behaviours’
Teachersshouldalwayskeeptheirfocusonthe‘primarybehaviour’(egnotworking)ratherthanthe‘secondarybehaviour(egaruderesponsewhenaskedtogetonwiththework).Thesecondarybehaviourmaybethemostfrustratingbuttheprimaryissueisthemostimportant.
Theconventionalresponsetosecondarybehavioursistogetdrawnintoargumentsoverwhowasorwasn’tdoingwhatandwhen.Thisoftenleadstotheteacherbecomingfrustrated,especiallywhentheyhaveactuallyseentheprimarybehaviour.Experienceindicatesthatthemoreteachersrespondtosecondarybehavioursthemoretheyaregoingtobefacedwiththem.Whathappensisthattheteacher’sfrustration,orevenanger,provestothepupilthatthestrategyisworking.
Aknownpatternisthatwhenpupilsarecaughtdoingsomethingwrongtheyfeelbad.Inordernottofeelbadtheyhavetodeflectresponsibilityforthebehaviourbyemployingsecondarybehaviours.Iftheteacherisdrawnintoreactingtothesecondarybehaviours
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thensomuchthebetterforthepupilbecausethefeelingsabouttheoriginalbehaviourbecomediluted.
Secondarybehavioursarerarelyanattempttomaketheteacherlookwrongorsilly.Pupilsusesecondarybehavioursinordertomakethemselvesfeelbetter.Teachershouldkeepthefocusontheprimarybehaviourandredirectthepupilwithoutconfrontingorchallengingthesecondarybehaviour.Thisislimitstheneedforthepupiltogointodefensivemodeand‘gettheirretaliationinfirst’.
3.2 Effective use of questions
Teachersshouldmakebothapositiveandvarieduseofquestioningtomotivateandmonitorpupilsunderstandingandraisethelevelandqualityofpupils’thinking.Thepurposeofquestioningistoengage,extend,share,clarifyand/orconfirmthinking.Questionsalsoallowtheteachertocheckforunderstandingandtheyprovideaformoffeedback.
Goodpracticeinquestioningmightincludethefollowing:• Theteachershouldnotdomostofthetalkinginaclassdialogue• Somekeyquestionsarebestwrittenontheboard/worksheet
tokeepfocus• Shortextendingquestionscanbeusedtokeeppupilsfocused• Questionsshouldlinkbacktowhatpupilsalreadyknow• Avoiddiscussinganyonepupils’answersatlength• Avoidembarrassingapupilbypickingonthem,
asadisciplinedevice• Givesomewaitingtimeafteraskingaquestiontoallow
pupilstothinkandrespond• ‘Open’questionscanincreasepupilinvolvementandcan
beapositivefeatureofgoodclassroommanagement.
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Mutual enquiry
Goodpracticemayalsoincludeaskingquestionsandrespondingtoanswersinamannerthatsuggestsmutualenquiry.Thisisexplainedbelow:• Askingquestionsandrespondingtoanswersinawaythat
suggestsmutualenquiry,ratherthattestingandchecking,canhelptoelevatethestatusofpupils,improvetheirself-esteemandmakethemfeeltheyaremakingusefulcontributions
• Aquestionsuchas‘Howdoesrainform?’couldhaveanumberofintentions,asrevealedintheintonationandfacialexpressionofthequestioner
• Itcouldbeatest(Youshouldknow),oracheck(Doyouknow?),wheretheanswerisalreadyknown.Thiswouldimplythatthequestionerisinapositionofpower
• Itcouldalsobethatthequestionerreallyisseekinginformationfromsomeonewhoknows.Thisimpliesthequestionerisinasubordinateposition
• Alternatively,itcouldbeasharedseekingofananswer,whichimpliesamoreequalrelationship.Thiscanbeapowerfultoolinaclassroom
• Oncetheanswerisgiventhequestionermayrespond.Responsesalsorevealdifferencesintherelationshipbetweenthequestionerandthequestioned- Aresponseof‘quiteright’or‘welldone’,indicatesthequestionerhasahigherstatus
- Athoughtful‘ah,Isee’wouldimplythatthequestionerisinasubordinateposition
- ‘Yes,Iseewhatyoumean’impliesagreementandamoreequalrelationshipbetweenthequestionerandthequestioned.Thismorelikelytoencouragefutureengagement.
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Question types
Itisimportanttomakeaconsciousefforttousetherighttypeofquestionsoastogetthedesiredresponsefrompupils,forexample:
• Useopenquestionstogetpupilstosaymore
• Useclosedquestions:- Togetconfirmation- Toclarifyuncertainty- Tocheckanopinion.
• Avoidoveruseofclosedquestionsastheymay:- Promptsinglewordresponses- Makethepupilseemsullenordefensive- Forcetheteachertoinventmorequestion- Leavetheteacherfeelings/hehasnotgotveryfar- Resultintheteacher’svoicedominatingtheinteraction.
• Teachersshouldconsiderhowandwhentheyusequestionsstartingwith‘why’.The‘why’questioncanhavetheeffectofmakingsomeinteractionsbecomequiteshortandrepetitive.Oftenitfeelsliketheteacherisdemandingthatthepupilexplainsthereasonormotiveforhis/heraction.Bystartingwith‘why’,itcansometimespromptpupilstofeelthatsomethingistheirfault.Itisnotuncommontohearinteractionslikethefollowing.- Question-Whydidyoudoit?Idon’tunderstand- Reply-Dunno- Question-Whydidyougooverthereanyway?- Reply-Dunno- Question-AndwhydidyoustarttobullyMikeagain?- Reply-Iwasonlymuckingaround- Question-WhydidyouthinkitwouldbeOKtodothat?TellmeWHY!
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• ‘Why’questionsareusuallychallengingquestions.Itisoftenverydifficultforpupilstorespondpositivelytosuchadirectchallenge.Theyrequirethepupiltoexplainthereasonsforhis/herbehaviouroractions.Therealityisthatthepupilmayhavelongforgottenwhattriggeredthebehaviourormayneverhavegiventheissueasecondthought!Infrustration,theteachermayincreasethevolumeandacceleratethequestioning.Thepupildoesn’thaveananswer;ceasestosearchforoneandeventuallystopslistening.
• Asimplealterationof‘why’to‘what’canseemlessofafault/blamequestion,givingthepupilachancetogivehis/herreason.
‘Why’ question ‘What’ question
Whyareyounotworking? Whathelpdoyouneedtofinishyourwork?
Whyareyoulate? Whatmadeyoubelateforthelesson?
Whydidthrowthatbook? Whathappenedjustbeforeyouthrewthebook?
3.3 Non-verbal techniques
Thefollowingtechniquescanbeusedtopromotepositiveinteractionsbetweenteachersandpupils,therebycreatingapositiveatmosphereforeffectiveteachingandlearning.
A positive and encouraging manner:Thisisanessentialelementinpromotingpositiveinteractions.Anapproachablemannerandasmilegoalongwaytoencouragingpupils.Acknowledgepupilseffortswithasmileornod.
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Consider how we enter pupil’s space: Evenbasicslikehowteachersenterapupil’sspaceandasktoseetheirworkcanhaveanimpact.Teachersshouldconsiderasking(thiscanbedonewithgestures)toseepupil’sworkandthengiveshort-termfeedbackandencouragement.
Listen effectively: Listeningeffectivelyisaprerequisiteforengagingwithyoungpeopleintheclassroom.However,itisimportanttomakeexplicittheskillsrequiredtolisteneffectively.Classroomsarebusyplaces,withmanyinteractionstakingplaceoverthecourseofthelesson,andwithteachershavingtoholdamultitudeofinformationinmind.Despitethis,teachersneedtotryto:• Listenwithundividedattention,withoutinterrupting• Rememberwhathasbeensaid,includingthedetails(themore
youlistenandthelessyousay,thebetteryourmemoryforwhathasbeensaid)
• Listentothe‘bassline’-whatisnotopenlysaid,butwhatpossiblyisbeingfelt
• Watchfornon-verbalcluestohelpyouunderstandfeelings• Listentoyourself,howyoumightfeelinthesituationbeing
described,andusethisasawayoffurtherunderstandingtheproblem/difficulty
• Trytotoleratepausesandsilencesthatarealittlelongerthanisusualinconversations(andavoidaskinglotsofquestionstobreaksilences)
• Helpyourselfandtheotherpersontofeelcomfortableandrelaxed;keepcalmevenwhenyoudon’tfeelcalm.
Modelling:Teacherswhoarecourteous,prompt,enthusiastic,incontrol,patientandorganisedprovideexamplesfortheirpupilsthroughtheirownbehaviour.The‘doasIsay,notasIdo’teacherssendmixedmessagesthatconfusepupilsandmayriskinvitingmisbehaviour.
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Thefollowing5boxesareideasadaptedfromRobertson(1996).
Withitness:JohnRobertsonusesatermcalled‘withitness’,whichdescribestheabilityofateachertocommunicatetopupilsbyhis/heractualbehaviour,ratherthanbysimpleverbalannouncing,thefactthats/heknowswhattheyaredoing,ors/hehastheproverbial‘eyesinthebackofherhead’.Teachersthatshow‘withitness’givetheimpressionthattheyarealertandwillnoticewhenpupilsmisbehave.Theyarealsoabletonamepupilsintheirclassorsessionsintheearlymeeting,especiallywhereareprimandisdirectedatthatpupil.Carryingthroughanyconsequencesalsocontributestoanimpressionofbeingincontrolor‘withit’.Otheraspectsofgoodorganisation,suchasbeingintherightplaceattherighttime,withtherequiredequipment,oranticipatingchangesinarrangements,suchassportspractices,allhelptoconveytheimpressionofefficiencyand‘withitness’.
Intervening early to correct behaviour atthemomentthatapupilwasaboutto,orjustbeginningtomisbehave,makesarepetitionofthemisbehaviourtobelesslikelythanifs/hehadbeenallowedtocompletetheact.Earlyinterventionismoreeffectivebecause:• Apupil‘caughtintheact’islesslikelytodenyhis/heraction• Theteacherclearlydemonstratesthats/heisalert,sothat
thepupilmayfeelmoreliabletodetection• Theactofinterruptingthebehaviourisitselfastatement
oftheteacher’scontrolandstatusinthesituation• Thepupilmaybedeniedanyreinforcementwhichwould
haveresultedfromcompletingtheact,suchasmakingafriendlaughorengagingothersinsomedisturbance
• Itpreventsthespreadorescalationofunwantedbehaviour,sothattheteacherhasonlytodealwitharelativelyminoroffence.
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Using the space and monitoring:Teacherscanmanagetheclassroomandsetthesceneforpositiveinteractionsbetweenpupilsandbetweenpupilandteacherbyusingthespaceeffectively.Thewayinwhichtheteacherusestheclassroomspacealsocommunicatesapowerfulmessageaboutwhetherornottheyareincontrol.Low-keycontrolbeginsbyusingalloftheclassroomasateachingspace.Thismeansmovingaroundtheroomasyouengagewiththewholeclassandasyoumonitorprogresswhenengagedinatask.Suchmovementneedstobeageneralcirculationoftheroom,undertakeninacalm,relaxedway.Itprovidestheopportunityto:• Giverecognitiontothosewhoaremakinggoodefforts• Praisethosewhoaregettingthetaskright• Provideearlyhelpandsupporttothosewhoaremaking
mistakes• Promptthosewhohaveyettogetunderway.
Non-verbal cueing - Using gestures, facial expressions and signal:Non-verbalstrategiescanbefacialexpressions,bodypostureandhandsignals.Thetypesofcuesgivenshouldbechosenwithcareandmustbeunderstoodbyallpupilstomeanwhattheteacherintendsthemtomean.Forexample,‘thedeadlystare’wherebyteachersfocustheireyecontactonaparticularindividualwhoisnotattendingtothemwithoutresortingtonaggingorshouting.Wheretheclassisontaskandyetoneortwoindividualsareclearlynotworking,thereisatemptationtodirectthembackontask.Thetemptationistotellthemtostopmisbehavingandgetonwiththework.Unfortunately,thisdisruptstheworkofthevastmajorityofthepupils.Itismoreeffectiveifgesturesandexpressionsareusedtopromptpupilsbackontask.Thisreducesthedisruptiontoothersandsignalsthattheteacherisincontrol.Italsohelpstomaintainapositiveatmosphereintheclassroom.Manyteacherswillhavetheirownnon-verbalpromptsforsuchthings.Wheretheseare
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usedfromthemomentaclassisencountered,theybecomepartofclassroomculture.Pupilsrespondtosuchgesturesoutofcustom,practiceandhabit.Itisamuchhardertasktointroducesuchresponsesinthemiddleoftheteachingyear.Examplesofnon-verbalsignalsmayincludethoseoutlinedbelow.Thesemaybebackedupbymimingormouthingtheinstruction:• ‘Turnaround’eg-astirringgesture• ‘Settledown’eg-aflathandpalmdown• ‘Stoptalking’eg-afingertothemouth• ‘Getonwithyourwork’eg-awritingaction.
Focusing:Teachersneedtobesuretohavetheattentionofeveryoneinthegroupbeforestartingthesession,lesson,activityortaskandnotattempttoteachoverthechatterofpupilswhoarenotpayingattention.Thefocusingtechniquemeansthatteacherswilldemandthepupils’attentionbeforebeginning.Teachersneedtobereadytowaitandnotstartuntileveryonehassettleddown.Experiencedteachersknowthatsilenceontheirpartisveryeffective.Theywillpunctuatetheirwaitingbyextendingit3to5secondsaftertheclassroomiscompletelyquiet.
Low-profile intervention
Mostpupilsarereferredtoaseniorcolleagueasaresultofconfrontationalescalation.Aneffectiveteacherwilltakecarethatthepupilisnotrewardedformisbehaviourbybecomingthefocusofattention.Aneffectiveteachermonitorstheactivityinthegroup,movingaroundtheroomandanticipatesproblemsbeforetheyoccur.Theapproachtoamisbehavingpupilisinconspicuoussothatothersinthegrouparenotdistracted.
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Thecasestudybelow,highlightsthelowprofileapproachtointervention.
Case study - lateness and refusal to settle down to work
ThesituationrelatestoaFridaylastlessonwithagroupwhoareoftenchallenging,withmanyofthemdisengaged.Thelessonbeganat2.35pmwithmostofthepupilspresent.Abouttenminutesintothelesson,aftertherestoftheclasshadbegunashorttask,3pupilswalkedinlate,chattingloudly.NormallyIwouldchallengetheminfrontoftheclassandquestiontheirlateness.However,thistimeIjustaskedthemtositdownandsaidIwouldtalktothemaboutthelatenessattheend.Isimplydistributedbooksandrestatedthepagenumberswewereworkingfromandsaidwewoulddiscussthingslater.Theyallsatchewing,keepingtheircoatsonandthelessoncontinued.
AfterthenexttaskwasexplainedIquietlywenttothe3ofthemandremindedthemthattheircoatswerestillon,whichisnotwhatweagreedintheclassroomrules.Twoofthemimmediatelyremovedthem.AsthelessoncontinuedIslowlyapproachedallofthemonebyoneandtheyfollowedmyquietinstructions.Itdid,however,takethreereminderswithonepupil.Attheendofthelessonwediscussedwhytheywerelate.
Theoutcomeswere:• Noconfrontationaseachpupildidnothavethechance
toplaytothe‘audience’• Thelessonwentsmoothlyandtoplanpartlybecause
Icreatednoconfrontation• Eachpupilwasgiven2or3minutestakeuptime,
whichreallyworked• Thepupilswerelessdisposedtoargueattheendwhen
questionedabouttheirlatenessasneithertheynorIhad‘ourhacklesup’!
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3.4 Self-presentation
Rogers,(2006a)pointsoutthattheteacher’sbehaviourcontributesasmuchtoosomeincidentsandtheirmanagementasdothepupils.Teachersneedtomakeaconsciousanddeliberateattempttocontroltheimpressionsthatpupilsmakeofthem.Teacherscanuseimpressionmanagementtoattainimportantgoalsorchangethewaytheyareperceivedinamoredesireddirection.
Impression management
Impressionmanagementbehavioursareoftenaimedatachievingacertainidentitythatinvolvesaccomplishingagoalorstandard.Individualscanjudgewhethertheyhavereachedthatgoalorstandardbasedinpartonfeedbackreceivedfromothers.Peoplecanthenregulatetheirimpressionmanagementbymonitoringtheirownbehaviourbasedonthisfeedback.
Beforeateacheropenshis/hermouthtospeak,theyconsciouslyorunconsciouslyuseallkindsofbehaviourstoinfluencetheclassandgivetheimpressionofsomeonewhoisincontrolandreadyforeneffectiveinteractionwiththeclass.Somefactorsthattheteachercanusetoaffecthows/heisperceivedareoutlinedbelow.
Proxemics:Thisrelatestotheuseofspaceordistancebetweenpeople,(ieproximity).Ifateacherremainsbehindadeskthroughoutalessonwithoutmoving,theymaintainahugedistancebetweenthemselvesandtheclass.Theteacherisalsolessawareofeverythingthatisgoingonatthebackoftheclass.Itisalsounwisetobeginaclasswhileseated.Don’tlimitmovementduringtheclasstopracticalperiods.Toestablishauthorityinearlylessons,usecentre-stage,butlaterbemobile.
Kinesics:Kinesicsrelatestocommunicationbybodymovement,eg:• Noddinghead-particularlyinresponsetoapupil’sanswer
(butdon’toverdoit!)• Smiling-researchhasshownthishasapositiveeffectonthe
teacher-pupilrelationship(againdon’toverdoit)
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• Relaxedbody-astiffmilitarypositionatthetopoftheclassislikelytobeduetonervesandthiswillbetranslatedtotheclass.Howeveranover-relaxeddemeanourcanhavedireconsequences
• Gestures-particularlyhandandarmmovementscommunicateenthusiasmandinterest.
Thekeyistoremainalertandrelaxedatthesametime.
Oculesics:Thisrelatestoeyecontact.Itisimportanttotakethetimetopauseandlookaroundtheclass,makingeyecontactwithdifferentpupils.Somepupilswillneedparticulareyecontacttokeepthemfocussed.Constantscanningofthewholeclassisimportantandagoodhabittocultivate.
Whenundertakinganactivitywithpupils,theteachercanbestsustaintheirattentionby:• Standingprominentlyintheroom• Engagingineyecontactwithindividualpupils• Demonstratinginvolvementwiththeactivity• Lookingforandrespondingtofeedbackfrompupils• Movingclosertothosewhodonotappeartobeengaging• Scanningthegroupfrequently• Whenmisbehaviouroccurs,thefirststepfortheteacheris
tomakecontactwiththepupilasquietlyaspossible.
Manyoftheseactivitieswilltakestrongself-management,asateacher’sfirstandautomaticresponsetomisbehaviourmaybetoshout.However,Rogerswarnsaboutbeing‘overlyvigilant’andhencesettingupachallengethatisunnecessary,andalso‘non-vigilance’,wheresomanysmallthingsareletslidethatitbecomeshardtoaddressanybehaviourissues.Hecallsforwhathereferstoas‘relaxedvigilance’,whereteachersdon’tletthingsslidebutaretask-orientedandnoteasilysidetrackedbysmallissues.Issuesthatmatterarealwaysdealtwith,butinawaythatdoesnotautomaticallysetupconfrontation.
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Teacher style
Thisrelatestotheteacher’soverallstyleormethodofcontrolintheclassroom:• Autocratic-Settinglimitswithoutfreedom-rewardsand
punishmentareusedtocontrol• Permissive-Freedomwithoutlimits-pupilsdowhattheyplease• Democratic-Limitsarenegotiatedandpupilsmakechoices
andexperienceconsequences.Mutualrespectandrightsareestablished.
Obviously,ademocraticstyleismosteffectiveintermsofeffectiveclassroommanagement,forbothbehaviourandlearning.
Using movement
Ifteachersbehaveunder-confidentlywithaclass,theycanconveythemessagethattheclassroomisthepupils’space.Teacherscanbecometenseandrigidandmaybecomestaticandteachfromafixedpositionatthefrontoftheclass.Thisleavestherestoftheclassroomtothepupils.Ifadifficultystartstodevelopinonepartoftheroomandtheteacher,whousuallyjustteachesfromthesamespotatthefrontoftheclass,hastomovetowardsthesourceoftheproblem,thensuchunusualmovementbytheteacher,islikelytobeseenbyallofthepupilsandislikelytoescalatetheincident.
Teachingfromasinglefixedpositionincursotherproblems:• Itisvisuallylessinterestingforthepupils• Somepupilscanstayoutsideoftheteachersnormalsweep
ofvision• Itmayslowateachersabilitytospotdifficulties• Pupilsmayfeelthattheteacheris‘fearful’ofenteringintotheir
spaceintheclassroom.
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Teacherscanexpressconfidenceintheirownauthorityby:• Usingtheterritoryoftheroomfreelyandwhennecessary
enteringapupil’spersonalspaceinanunthreatening,indirectmanner
• Usingasteadyunthreateninggazewhentalkingtopupilsora‘questioning’silentgazewhen‘noticing’unwantedbehaviour
• Initiatingandendinginteractionswithpupils• Implyinganexpectationthatpupilswillcomplyvoluntarily
withinstructions• Carefullychoosingformsofaddress• Tryingtoremainrelaxedevenwhenfeelingthreatenedand
angry-avoidbehaviourwhichisself-comforting,self-protectingorself-grooming
• Takingtheinitiativeininteractionsandchoosingwhenandiftogivearesponse.Theresponsesmayincludeeyecontact,replyingtoquestions,resistinginterruptionsandreturningsmiles
• Avoidbattlesoverrank,forexample,‘Standupstraightwhenyouaretalkingtome’.
Ideally,aclassroomshouldbeanenvironmentinwhichteacherswishtocreatelearningopportunitiesforpupilsandthepupilswishtoavailthemselvesofsuchopportunities.Whilstmuchofthisisgeneratedbytheteacher’soptimismorconfidenceandskillindealingwithpupils,someofitstemsfromtheteacher’smanagementofthephysicalenvironment.
3.5 Promoting pupils’ self-esteem
Howpupilsseethemselvesandsobuildtheiridentitydependsverymuchonhowotherpeopleseethem.Pupils’self-esteemisdeterminedbytheirself-concept,developedovertime.Thiscouldcomefromwithinthefamilyandtheirdirectexperienceofhowpeoplesuchasteacherstreatthem,iewhattheydoandsay.
Apupilwhoseeshimselfas‘stupidandgoodfornothing’mayhavecometothatconclusionbecauses/hehasbeenrepeatedlytoldbyadultsinher/hislifethat:
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• You’rethick• You’restupid• Howcomeyouaresolazy?• Onlyalazyboy/girllikeyouwouldbehaveinthisway• Comeoverhereyoustupid/lazy/sillyboy/girletc…
Pupilsspendalargeamountoftheirtimewithotheradultswhomaynotrealisethenegativeeffectsofsuchnegativefeedback,maybeunawareofalternativewaystointeractwithotherpeople,especiallyyoungpeople,ormaynotbeinterestedinthepersonaldevelopmentoftheyoungperson.
Adolescenceisaturbulenttimeformanypupils.Theyareoftenuncertainandlackconfidenceandmaymisinterpretandmisunderstandsomeoftheresponsesofthosearoundthem.Whenateachersays‘Shecoulddowellifshetriedharder’,apupilcouldmisinterpretthestatementtomean‘Iamstupid-everyonethinksIamstupidandcannotdosowellnomatterhowhardItry’.
Self-identityisveryimportanttopupilsandtheyneedpositiveconstructsofthemselvessothattheyareconfident,abletointeractwithteachersandpeersconstructivelyandwillingtoengageinlearning.
Whenworkingtochangeapupil’sthinkingandbehaviour(seesection4.3andchapter6),theteacherneedstoaddressanythoughtswhichleadtoanegativeperceptionofthepupilbutwhichmaynotbeatruereflectionofhowothersseehim/her.Examplesofsuchpupilthoughtsinclude:• “IthinkMrsJonesdoesn’tlikeme”• “MrsThomasalwayspicksonme”• “MrDaviesdoesn’taskmequestions…hedoesn’tthink
Icandoit”• “MrsHowardalwaysaccusesmeifsomethinggoeswrong”
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Itmaynotbejustwhatpeoplesayanddobutwhatthepupilthinkstheythinkthatdamageshisorherself-esteem.Intheirinteractionswithpupils,teachersneedtoknownotonlyaboutthepupil’sbehaviourBUTalsotheirthinking.Thepupilwhothinksthethoughtsabovewillnotengagewiththeteachersorinlearning.S/heislikelytobehaveinwaysthatareconsistentwithhis/herthinkingbutdamagingtoeffectiveteachingandlearning,forexamples/hemay:• BerudetoMrsJonesbecause“shedoesnotlikemeanyway”• ProvokeMrsJonestogetangrytoprovethat“Idonotlike
hereither”• PickonMrsThomasbeforeshepicksonme• RefusetoattendMrsThomasclassbecause“Shewillpickonme”• Shoutouttheanswersevenwhensomeoneelseisanswering
because“MrDaviesdoesn’taskmequestions”• NotbothertodoanyworkbecauseMrDavies“doesnotthink
thatIcandoit”• Dosomethingwrongas“MrsHowardwillaccusemeanyway”.
Askeyfiguresinshapinghowyoungpeopleperceivethemselves,teachersneedtohelpthembuildtheirself-esteemby:• Givingthempositivefeedbackabouttheireffortsintheclassroom• Beingattentivetotheirprogressintheclass,settingthemwork
thatisappropriateandexplainedproperly• Supportingthemtochangebehaviour• Rewardingtheirefforts,goodconductandtheirachievements• Helpingthemtodevelopskillsforeffectiveinteractionand
learning• Modellinggoodbehaviour• Helpingthemtodispelnegativeself-imagebasedonfeedback
fromotheradults• Providingparentsandotheradultswithpositivefeedback
aboutpupils.
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Evenwhentheirbehaviourislessthandesirableteachersmustbecarefultouseconstructivelanguage,whichwillmotivatepupilstowanttochangetheirbehaviour.Teachersmustalsoavoidlabellingpupils.
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Chapter 4Approaches to changing behaviour
Evenwhenteachersuseeffectiveclassroommanagementandcommunication,withafocusonpreventionandearlyintervention,incidentswillstillarisewithintheclassroom.Whereapupil’sunacceptablebehaviourbecomespersistenttheremaybetheneedtoworkwithhim/herinafocusedwaytochangehis/herbehaviour.
Itshouldbenotedthattherearenosimplesolutionsoranswerfordealingwithdifficultorchallengingbehaviourandworkingwithpupilsforchange.“Whateverthecauseoftheindividualbehaviourproblem,successfulinterventionrequiresintelligent,caringactiononbehalfoftheschoolandtheexternalsupportagenciesandwhichrelatestoindividualneed.”(Steer,2009para49)
Theeffectivenessofanyapproachtochangewilldependonanumberofkeyfactorsincluding:• Aneffective,openandhonestworkingrelationship/engagement
betweentheteachersandthepupil(s)• Selectingthemostappropriateapproach.Noteveryapproach
willbesuitabletousewitheverypupilineverysituation• Thetimeavailabletoworkwithapupil• Theconfidence,abilityandtrainingoftheteachertotryvarious
approaches.
Thischapterexploressomerelativelysimplestrategiesthatteacherscanusewithintheirownclassroomsinworkingforchangewithyoungpeople.Thechaptercovers:• TheABCapproachtobehaviourchange• Problem-solvingapproaches• Cost-benefitanalysisapproach• Re-enactment• Futuregoal(changedbehaviour)visualisation• Self-monitoring• Socialskillstraining• Behaviouragreementsandbehaviourplans.
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The concept and definition of change
Beforeweconsiderhowtoachievechange,forandwithapupil,wemustfirstlookatwhatwemeanbychange.Change,initssimplestform,canbedescribedas‘toalterormakedifferent’.Themainaimforteachersistosecureimprovementregardingpupilsbehaviourandlearning.Somechangemayoccurforapupilwithoutanyteacherinputandmayberelatedtofactorsoutsideofateachersinfluence.However,thisisnotthecaseformanypupils,wheresubstantialandsustainedsupportwillbeneededtoachievechange.
Thisprocessofworkingforchangeshouldbe:• Pupil-centred• Empowering• Tailoredtoindividualneeds• Basedonprinciplesofethicalandprofessionalpractice• Purposeful• Focused• Planned• Capableofbeingimplemented• Regularlyreviewed.
4.1 The ABC approach to behaviour change
TheABC(Antecedent,Behaviour,Consequences)analysisofbehaviourlooksattheantecedencetobehaviour,thebehaviouritselfandtheconsequencesorreinforcementofthebehaviour.Thisapproachisbasedonthepremisethatmakingchangesintheantecedence,and/ortheconsequencesofbehaviour,caneffectachangeinthebehaviouritself.
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TheABCapproachisexplainedusingtheexampleofJosh:
Antecedent events Inscience,MrJonesisexplainingtheconceptofgravitationalpull.Heissittingonachair(behindthetable)infrontoftheclass.JoshisatthebackoftheclassandcanhardlyhearMrJones.
Behaviour Joshshuffleshischair,getsoutofit,andwalkstothefrontoftheclass,pinchingVickyashepassesbyherseatandsitsnearerthefrontoftheclass.Hecrosseshislegs,foldshisarmsacrosshischestandstaresatMrJones.
ConsequencesVickyscreamsoutloudinmockagony.Therestoftheclassburstoutlaughing.MrJones,clearlynotamused,shoutsatJoshandsendshimoutoftheclasstoreporthimselftotheHeadofYear.
AnyattempttoeffectachangeinJosh’sbehaviour;topreventsimilarbehaviourrecurringmustbeginwiththequestions;“Whattriggeredhisbehaviour?”and“HowisJoshreinforcedforbehavinginthisway?”Thesetwoquestionsexaminetheantecedence(A)andtheconsequences(C)ofJosh’sbehaviour(B)becausetheycontributetotheteacher’sunderstandingofthelikelihoodofJoshbehavinginthiswayagain.
ThefocusforchangingJosh’sbehaviourneedstobeoneofencouraginghimtopractiseanewwayofbehavingandreinforcingthisnewbehaviour.Equallyrelevantisthatthereisnoreinforcementofhispastbehaviour.
Thefollowingmightbedone.
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The ABC of Josh’s behaviour
A B C Josh’s triggers and actions The teacher should focus on
Antecedence/triggers
• Boredomwiththesubject• Anunstimulatingenvironment
forlearning• Inaudibleteacher
• Providingvariedandstimulatingcurriculumdelivery
• Earlymonitoringofnon-verbalmessagesfrompupils
• Carefulseatingofpupils• Teachertospeakinaloud
clearvoice
Behaviour • Heshuffleshischair• Hegetsoutofhischair• Hewalkstothefrontofthe
class• HepinchesVicky• Hecrosseshislegs,folds
hisarmsacrosshischestandstaresat(intimidates)MrJones
• MaintainingJosh’sinterest• Sustaininghisontaskbehaviour
Consequences • Heprovidesentertainmentfortheclass;gainingstatuswithhispeers
• HeupsetsMrJones;gainingattentionfromteacher
• Hedisruptstheflowofthelesson
• HesecurestheattentionofTeacher
• Heissentoutoftheclasstherebyavoidingadifficultlesson
• Dealingwithanyissueawayfromtheaudience
• Stayingcalmandcalmingtheclass• Goodclassroomcontrol
techniques• Maintaininglessonmomentum• Managinganydifficultyinsteadof
straightreferraltoHeadofYear• Ensuringthatthereisaneffective
responsetoJoshintermsofasanctionorreparation
NotethatthekeyissuewasJosh’sbehaviour,butsecuringchangecouldbeachievedthroughalteredteacherbehaviourandresponses.
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4.2 Problem-solving approaches
Manyofthepupilswhogetintodifficultylackthenecessaryrepertoireofresponsestouseingivensituations.Theyhavehabitualandquiterestrictedresponsestothechallengestheyareconfrontedwithonadailybasis.Forexample,thepupilwhosehabitualresponseistosimplystopworkingwhens/heisstuck,orthepupilwholashesoutwithher/hisfistswhenchallenged,maylackothereffectivewaystorespond.
Theaimoftheproblem-solvingapproachisto:• Improvetheawarenessandunderstandingofpupils• Enhancetheirperspectivetaking• Raisetheirabilitytoanticipatetheconsequencesoftheiractions• Equipthemtodothingsdifferently.
The problem-solving approach involves:
Identifying the problems and difficulties, and making sure that they are specified and understood as clearly as possible by the pupil.
Examining the steps needed to practise and implement these new solutions while identifying the extent to which the young person requires support to achieve success.
Supporting the young person in achieving successful implementation of these new solutions.
Working with him/her to generate a range of alternative ways to respond to the problem situation.
Testing out the solutions most likely to achieve success, by exploring with the pupil the skills and resources that they bring to utilising these solutions.
Preparing others (support staff, other teachers, other pupils) for this change, so they can support it.
Reviewing the programme to celebrate success and explore how this learning can be applied to new problems or solutions.
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Eachofthestepsneedstobecarefullymanaged.Itisimportantthatpupilsappreciatetheproblem/problemsthattheyface.Theywillneedtobeencouragedtothinkpositivelyandcreativelyaboutthedifferentwaystheycouldrespondinasituation.Sometimesindividualsdemonstratetheirlackofalternativebehavioursatthispointbybeingunabletogenerateasinglealternative.Forexample,theycontinuetobelievethat‘Whensomeoneprovokesme,Ishouldalwayshitthem’.Whilsttheiraggressivebehaviourisdrivenbysuchabeliefitisunlikelytobereadilychanged.
Manyofthesolutionsgeneratedwillbeimpracticalornotachievable.Somepupilsdevelopsolutionsthatarebasedontheirownfantasiesofhowimportant/significanttheyare.Itisveryimportantthattheteacherworkswiththepupiltogethim/hertosortthroughwhichislikelytobethemostpracticalandsuccessfulsolution.However,itisimportantthattheteacherdoesnotimposehis/herownthinkingonpupils.
Oncethechosensolutionhasbeendeterminedtheteacherasksthepupiltofocusonjusthows/hewilldothisinreality.Oftenitisonlyatthepointwheretheteachersays,‘Tellmehowyouwillgoaboutthis’,orbetterstill,‘Showmehowyouwilldothis’,thats/hegainsinsightintothepupil’slackofunderstandingandhis/herreallevelofdifficulty.Fromthisinsighttheteacherplansthelevelofrehearsal,coachingandsupporttheindividualwillrequire.Equippedwiththisinsight,teachersrealisethefutilityofcomplainingaboutpupilbehaviourordemandingchangewhenthepupilsimplylacksarangeofvaluablebehaviourstochoosefrom.
Oncethepupilisreadytotryouthis/hersolutiontheteacherneedstoalerteveryonearoundthepupiltosupporthis/herchangeefforts.Onceunderway,theteacherandthepupilneedtoreviewprogress.Itisimportantthatanysuccessisattributedtothepupilnottheteacher.Thepupilneedstobeempoweredtobelievethats/heisabletochangeandcansustainthechange.
Thisapproachcannotbedonehurriedly.Itrequirestimeandopportunitytomakeitwork.Crucialtotheeffectivenessofthisapproachistheabilityandwillingnessofthepupiltogenerate
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agoodquantityofideasandalternativesolutions.Themethodisnotauniversalapproachforeveryone.Thisapproachwillnotreadilyworkinasituationwhereapupilrefusesorisunabletoriskhisthinking.Theteachercannotaffordtothinkforthepupil.Whenthepupiltakesownershipofthisprocess,s/heismorelikelytocommittothebestofthealternativesolutions.
Theproblem-solvingapproachprovidesaclearstep-by-stepmethodologytodealwithdifficulties.Itistimeconsumingbutwhereiteffectslastingchangeitprovidesanefficienttoolformeetingtheneedsofpupilswithproblematicbehaviour.
Theproblem-solvingapproach:• Requiresthefullco-operationofthepupil• Ensuresthatthepupilgeneratesthesolutionsandhasownership
ofprocess• Allowsthepupiltothinkabouthis/heractionsandconsequences• Makesthepupilfeelvalued• Makesitmorelikelyforthepupiltocommittochange• Skillsthepupiltothinkbefores/heacts• Isverypractical,relevantandrealistic• Needstobereviewedtoensurethatchangeislasting• Motivatesapupiltomaintainchange• Hasvalueforpupilsandforcolleagues.
Thetwoexamplesthatfollow,illustratetheproblem-solvingapproach.
A problem-solving approach - Example 1
Name:JessicaCodigan Age: 15
The problem/difficulty/situation: Irefusetoperformsomeofthetaskssetformeinclass.
My usual response: “I’mnotdoingthat.”
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Five other ways to respond The likely outcomes
•Givingitatry FriendswillthinkIamwetbutmaybeIcandoit
•Toaskteacherforhelp Shemayexplainittome
•IfIdothis,maybeI’llbe Couldbegood allowedtochooseanactivity
•Textafriendonmymobile Iwillgetintroublewithmumandphonewillbeconfiscated
•Walkout Iwillgetintolotsoftrouble
Which is the best response? Asktheteacherforhelp
My reasons for deciding it Iwon’tgetintotrouble,is the best teacherwon’tgetmadat
meandIwillbedoingwork
AgreeingtheapproachtotheproblemwithJessicamayonlybepartofthesolution.TheteacherneedstogetJessicatoshowhim/herhowshewillaskforhelp.Ifsheshoutsoutanddemandsanimmediateresponsetheproblemmaysimplyhaveshiftedratherthanhavebeenresolved.
A problem-solving approach - Example 2
Name:AsifQureshi Age: 11
The problem/difficulty/situation: Makinghurtfulcommentsaboutotherchildren,callingthemnames,makingfunofthem,whentheytalktom
My usual response: “Iwasonlyjoking.”
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Five other ways to respond The likely outcomes
•Saysomethingnicetothem Theywillbegintolikeme
•Chatorworkwiththem Theywillchat/workwithme
•Ignorethem Itmaystillhurtthem
•Justsmileatthem Theymaysmileback•Puthandovermouthwhen Iwillnotsayhurtfulthings. Imightsaysomethinghurtful
Which is the best response? Justsmileatthem
My reasons for deciding it Itisveryeasytosmile.is the best Theywillbehappyand
metooandtheymayevenbecomemyfriends
ThisapproachisunlikelytoworkunlessAsifcanmakeasincereresponse.TheteacherneedstoseewhatAsif’ssmilelookslike.Isitagenuinesmileordoesitlooklikeasneer?Equally,Asifneedstounderstandthattheotherswilltaketimetocometoacceptthisnewbehaviour.
Teachersmayhaveconcernsaboutthelackoftimeforusingtheproblem-solvingapproach.However,thisisanapproachthatcouldeffectchangewithpupilsanditisworthcommittingthenecessarytimetoworkforchangewiththemnow.Timeinvestednowtochangebehaviourislikelytosavetimeinthefutureastherewillbefewerincidentsofpoorbehaviourtodealwith.
4.3 Cost-benefit analysis approach
Thisapproachisbasedonanassumptionofambivalence.Ambivalencecanbedefinedasthecoexistenceinonepersonofoppositefeelings/emotionstowardsthesameobjectorsituation.Ineffect,thismeansthatapupilwillhavebothpositiveandnegativeviewsaboutanybehaviourtheymaydisplay.Ambivalenceis:
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• Anautomaticresponsethatbothconsiderschangeandrejectsit• Themajorobstacletofollowingthroughwithchange.
Sometimesapupilmayhavemanyinnerconflictsaboutaparticularbehaviour.Thiskindofambivalenceshouldbeexplainedtothepupilasbeingnormalandthatthesekindofinnerconflictsdocoexist.Themodelofambivalenceisshowninthediagramthatfollows.
The model of ambivalence: Cost-benefit analysis
Whenworkingwithpupilsofchange,itisnecessarytolookatthepositiveaspects(intheiropinion)fortheirbehaviouraswellasthenegativeside.Itshouldbeacknowledgedthatifapupildidnotgetanypositivebenefitsfromhis/herbehaviourthans/hewouldbeunlikelytocontinuewithit.Thebenefitsmaynotbeimmediatelyapparenttotheteacher,butiftheyarenotrecognised,thenthechancesofsuccessfullyworkingforchangewillbedecreased.
Itisnecessarytoexplorethecostsandbenefitsofchangingbehaviouraswellasthecostsandbenefitsofnotchangingbehaviour.Whendiscussingthisapproachwiththepupila‘decisionalbalancesheet’isbeingbuiltup.Thisshouldbringupanumberofissuesrangingfromhowcommittedapupilmaybetochange,toifthepupilreallyunderstandstheconsequencesofhis/herbehaviour.
Benefits of changing Benefits of not changing
Costs of not changing Costs of change
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Thisapproachisusuallyreceivedinapositivemannerbyindividualsbecauseitinvolvesdiscussionofthepositivereasonsforthepupilsbehaviourandnotjustthenegativeaspectsoftheirbehaviour.Theteacherwillattempttoswingthebalanceinthefavourofchange.
Thefollowingcasestudyshowsaexampleofadecisionalbalancesheet.
Drewis14andregularlyshoutsandwalksaroundinclass.Hedisturbsothersandrarelygetsonwithhisownwork.Twoofhisfriendshavebeenexcludedrecently,oneofthempermanently.
Drew’smumworksfulltimeandtherearethreeyoungerbrothers.Hisdadleftafewyearsagoandhedoesnothavemuchcontactanymore.Drewlovesplayingfootballandenjoysspendingtimewithhisyoungerbrothers.Drewwouldliketobeaplumberandearngoodmoney.
ThefollowingaresomeoftheissuesraisedfromdoingacostbenefitanalysiswithDrew.
Benefits of changing behaviour• Feelingmoreincontrol• Stillgettoplayfootball
fortheschool• Teacherwillstopnaggingme• Willgetbetteratwork• Morechanceofgettingan
apprenticeshipasaplumber
Benefits of continuing behaviour• PeoplethinkIamfunny• Igettoavoidwork
Idon’tlike• Icanhideitwhenthe
workistoohard• Igetlotsofattention,
whichIlike
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Costs of not changing behaviour• Maygetkickedoutofschool• Wastemyopportunities• Won’tgetadecentjob• Badexampletomylittle
brothers• Stressesmymumout
Costs of changing behaviour• Couldlosemyfriends• PeoplewillfindoutIfind
workhard• Iwillhavetomakeareal
effort
4.4 Re-enactment
Itcanbehelpfulforthepupiltophysicallyre-enactanincidentthathasoccurred.Pupilsmaybediscomfortedbysucharequestanditshouldonlybemadewhereapositiverapporthasbeendeveloped.Theirself-portrayalcanbemutedandthereisaneedtoencouragethemtoshowwhatreallyhappened.Whenapupilrespondstosucharequest,itishelpfultocheckthedetailsofhis/herportrayalandtoexplorethespecificsofhis/herperformance.
Astheinteractionunfoldsinastepwisesequence,pupilsoftenseethemomentwherethesituationwentwrong.Othersneedtobepromptedtoconsideratwhatpointtheymighthavebehaveddifferently.Somemayneedtohavethemomentwheretheycouldhavedonethingsdifferentlypointedouttothem.Afewmaycontinuetoinsistthattheproblemwasnottheirsandtheyarenottoblame,which,ofcourse,maybecorrect.
Identifyingthepointatwhichaninteractionhasgonewrongisonlythefirststep.Thereneedstobeanexplorationtoascertain:• Whatcouldbedonedifferently?• Howitmightbedonedifferently?• Whetherthepupilhastheskillsorcompetencetoachievethis?• Ifthepupildoesnothavetheskillsorcompetence,theteacher
needstoprovidethepupilwithanopportunitytoacquire,rehearseandpractisetheseskills.
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Thesefourstepsapplytoproblemsolvingatmanylevels,fromapupilfailingtounderstandhowtoaskaquestionofateacherinclass,throughtohowanangryyoungadultactsouthisangeratthenon-deliveryofhishousingbenefit.Theflowchartbelow,summarisesthisapproach.
Flowchart to show the process of encouraging a pupil to re-enact an incident
Sometimespupilsdonotseethewaysinwhichtheirbehaviourcontributedtoaparticularoutcome.Theymayevenstrugglewhenthisispointedouttothem.Whenthishappens,itisverydifficulttoworkforchangeasthepupilhasyettoseethatthereisanyneedforit.Ifwereturntothepreviousdiagram,wecanseethat
8. If necessary, coach the young person in learning new skills
2. Discuss an example of the behaviour that is causing concern
3. Ask the young person to show you/describe how it happened
4. As it unfolds, check the specifics of what happened - “And you said and did?”“Then they said and did?”5. Ask the young person to say
how s/he could have done things differently
6. Provide help/insight to highlight how his/her changed response could have made a difference
7. Check the young person’s skills and capacity to make a different response
1. Build rapport
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there-enactmentmaystallatpoint5,wherethepupilfailstoseethattheycouldorshouldhavedonethingsdifferently.
Whentheteacherisconfidentthats/hehasestablishedagoodworkingrelationshipwiththepupil,itmaybepossibletotaketheideaofre-enactmenttothenextlevel.Theteachercanoffertotaketheroleofthepupilwhilsts/heplaysthepartoftheindividualwithwhomtheincidentoccurred.Thiscanenablethepupilto’see’theincidentfromtheotherperson’spointofview.Thiscapacitytoseeasituationfromtheothersideisanimportantelementindevelopingself-awareness.Onceapupilcanowntheirpartinaninteraction,itbecomesmorelikelythattheycanbeengagedinaprogrammeofchange.
Storyboarding
Pupilswhofindithardtotalkaboutissuesmayfinditeasiertostoryboard.Theteachershouldgatherafewsheetsofflipchartpapertogetherwithavarietyofcolouredmarkerpens.Theflipchartneedstobedividedintoeithersixoreightequalboxes,usingamarkerpen.Thenthepupilshouldbeaskedtodescribeanevent,aspectsoftheirlifeorakeyissuetoaddressbydrawingastoryboardofvariouscomponentsoftheissuebeinglookedat.Thepupilshouldthendrawineachboxapictureofwhatisactuallyhappeningtothematthevariousstagesanddescribewhatisgoingonineachpicture.Theteachershouldrecordanythoughts,feelings,emotionsetc.Thisisawayofbringingoutissuesinalessthreateningmanner.Itisalsousefulforthosepupilswhofinditdifficulttorecallanevent/behaviourusingjustwords.Enoughissuesshouldbebroughtuptobeabletoanalysethebehaviour/situation.
4.5 Future goal (changed behaviour) visualisation
Thefollowingfive-stepapproachcanbeusedwithpupilswhoarereadytoconsiderachangeintheirbehaviourorarewillingtodiscusspotentialchange.Thebasisoftheapproachistotryandgetthepupiltovisualisepotentialfuturechange.Thevisualisationisenhancedbyusingthesenses.Thetheorybehindthisisthatpeopleusedifferentsensestoassistinlearning,recallorthought.
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Encouragingtheuseofallsensesintheprocessofpresentandfuturevisualisationofgoalsshouldhelpthepupiltoaclearerimageofafuturegoal.
Thefollowingexercisecanbeusedwithpupilsinavarietyofsettings.
1.Initiallyplacefivecardsatspacedoutintervalsonthefloor,asshownbelow.Theserepresentthefivestagesthatapupilwillneedtodescribeastheyprogresstowardstheirgoal.
2.Askthepupiltostandonthegoalcardandaskhim/herthefollowingquestions:• Describeyourgoal• Describewhatitlookslike,whatyoucanhearandwhatcan
youfeel.
3.Nextaskthepupiltostandonthepresentstatecardandanswerthefollowingquestions:• Sowhereareyouatthemoment?• Describehowitsounds,feelsandlooks.
4.Thenaskthepupiltostandonthemidwaypointcardandaskhim/herthefollowingquestions:• Whatdoesitlooklikehalfwaytoyourgoal?• Whatcanyouhearandsee?Whatfeelings/emotionsareyou
goingthrough?
5.Next,askthepupiltostandonthearrowcardbetweenthemidwayandthegoalcardsandtoanswerthefollowingquestions:• Describeyoursituation• Whatwillitsoundlike,feellike,whatcanyousee?
Presentstate
Midwaypoint
Goal
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6.Forthefinalstep,askthepupiltostandonthearrowcardbetweenthepresentstateandthemidwaycardsandgetthemtoanswerthefollowingquestions:• Whatdoesitfeellikenowthatyouareunderwayandmoving
toyournextstep?• Describethesituationviasound,lookandfeelings(Itisalways
importanttofinishonthisstepasitgivesapupilanimmediatesenseofapositivefeelingofhowitmaybeforhim/heronhis/herroutetohis/hergoal).
Ateachstage,trytohelpthepupiltodescribeandanswerthequestions,throughusingthedifferentsenses.Thedescriptionsateachstagearenotedandcanbediscussedatalaterstagetomonitorprogress.
The three chairs exercise
Thisisanadaptationofthefuturegoalvisualisationexercise.Thisexerciserequirestheteachertoanalyseanddiscusswiththepupiltheirpast,presentandfuture.Theteacheristousethreechairssetoutataboutonemetreintervals.Thechairswillindicatethepast,presentandfuturesituationofthepupil.Duringthesession,theteacherwillaskthepupiltositontheappropriatechairrelatedtoyourquestioningperiod.Theteachershouldaskquestionslike:• Whatwerethingslike…?• Howdoyouseethingschanging?• Whatarethedifferencesinthewayyoufeelbetweenthen
andnow?
Thephysicalmovingbetweenandsittingondifferentchairsofthisapproachcanaidthinkingaroundvariousperspectives.
Thefuturegoalvisualisationapproachcanbecombinedwithotherapproachesthathelpexplorewhereapupilisandwheres/hemaybeinthefuture.Theapproachesoutlinedbelowcanbecombinedwiththefuturegoalvisualisationapproach,althoughtheycouldbeusealoneorincombinationwithotherapproaches.
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Worst case scenario analysis
Thiscansometimeshelppupilstoseethatthingsarenotasbadastheymayhaveinitiallythought.Questionsthatcouldbeusedtoevokearesponseinclude:• Whatconcernsyoumost?• Whatareyourworstfearsaboutwhatmighthappenifyoudon’t
makeachange?• Whatdoyousupposeistheworstthatmighthappenifyou
continuewiththewayyou’vebeengoing?
Looking back
Sometimesitisusefultohavethepupilremembertimesbeforeproblemsemerged,andtocomparethesewiththepresentsituation.Herearesomeexamples:• Doyourememberatimewhenthingsweregoingwellforyou?
Whathaschanged?• Howdidyoufeelbeforealltheseproblemshappened?• Whatwasthelastthingyoufeltproudof?
Looking forward
Helpingpupilstoimagineachangedfutureisanapproachtogetpupilstoconsideradifferentviewpoint.Itcanalsogivetheteacheraninsightintohowapupilviewsthefuture.Heretheindividualisaskedquestionssuchas:• Ifyoudodecidetochange,whatareyourhopesforthefuture?
Howwouldyoulikethingstoturnoutforyou?• Icanseethatyou’refeelingreallyfrustratedrightnow.
Howwouldyoulikethingstobedifferent?• Whatdoyouthinkaretheoptionsforyou?• Whatwouldbethebestresultsyoucouldimagineifyoumake
achange?
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The miracle question
Theuseofa‘miraclequestion’inhelpingpupilstoidentifysolutionsandawayforwardisaconsideredtechniqueinanumberofapproaches.The‘miraclequestion’isaformofgoaldevelopmentthatexploresapupil’spreferredfutureandmaytakethefollowingformat:
Supposeamiraclehappens…andthemiracleisthatallyourproblemsaresolved…butthe
miraclehappensatnightwhileyouaresleeping,soyoudon’tknowithasactuallyhappened.
Whenyouwakeupinthemorningwhatwillyounoticethatisdifferenttotellyouthat
themiraclehashappened?
Otherpotentialquestionstoaskpupilstofacilitatetheprocesscouldinclude:• Whatwillyouseeyourselfdoingdifferently?• Whatwillbedifferent?• Whatwillyouseeothersdoingdifferently?• Whatmighthappen?• Whatwillbethefirstsign?• Whowillnoticefirst?• Whoelsemightnotice?• Howwillyouknowthattheyhavenoticed?• Whatsmallsignshaveyoualreadyseen?• Whatelse…?• Canyouthinkofonesmallsteptowardsyourmiracle?
Duringtheengagement,teachersshouldslowdowntheconversationasmuchaspossible,slowdownthespeedofthequestionsandalwayskeepthepupil’spreferredfutureinpositiveterms.
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4.6 Self-monitoring
Self-monitoringcanbeausefultoolforestablishingaclearerview:• Withapupilwhomaynotseeanydifficultyatallinhis/her
behaviour
• Withapupilwhomayseehis/herbehaviouraslessproblematicthanotherpeopleperceiveittobe
• Wherethereisdisagreementonthenature,degreeandfrequencyoftheproblem.
Setting up the self-monitoring profile
Thisprocessrequiresthepupiltomonitorandquantifyhis/herownbehaviouroverasetperiodoftime.Thisisalow-keyinterventionthatplacesgreatresponsibilityonthepupil.Itcanbeaveryusefulapproachtoworkingwithapupildemonstratinginitialproblematicbehaviour.Theteacherneedsto:• Discussthebehaviourthats/hewantsthepupiltomonitor• Beasspecificaspossibleaboutthesebehaviours• Bepreparedtodefinethembydemonstrationandmodelling• Ensurethepupilunderstandsthebehaviour• Checks/heisabletousethemonitoringform• Providetheopportunitytoreviewthefirstday’smonitoring
withthepupiltoensures/hehasgraspedthetask.
Anexampleofaself-monitoringprofileisgivenonthefollowingpage.Teachersmightwishtousetheprofile,oranadaptationoftheprofile,toworkwithpupils.Theexamplebelowcoversaweek,butitcanbeadaptedtocovershorterperiodsandtofocusontheworkwithinindividualclassrooms.
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A self-monitoring profile
Pupil:Date:
Behaviours to be monitored:
1.
2.
3.
Time Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
Total incidents of: 1=2=3=
Pupil’s comments:
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Reviewing the self-monitoring profile
Thisapproachcanbeusedwhenworkingwithpupilswithentrencheddifficultiesbuttheteacherneedstobealerttopotentialproblems.Relyingonapupiltomonitorandrecordhis/herownbehavioursubjectsthisapproachtotheriskofunderoroverreportingbythepupil.Theoutcomefromtheself-monitoringprofilestillneedstobesetagainsttheviewsofothers,aswellasteacherobservation,astowhetherthebehaviourshaveactuallybeendisplayedasrecordedbythepupil.
Wherethereremainsawidemarginofdifference,thepupilfirstneedstobehelpedtounderstandtheproblemsordifficultiesthats/heiscausingorexperiencing.Iftheself-monitoringisafairrecordingofthepupil’sbehaviourduringtheperiod,thenthereisabasisfordecidingonanappropriateformofaction.Theteachersetsoutto:• Discusshis/herreporting• Compareitwiththeviewsofothers• Exploresimilaritiesanddifferences• Examinewhatneedstobedoneandbywhom.
Onedistinguishingfeatureofself-monitoringisthepossibilitythatthroughtheveryprocessofself-monitoring,theyoungperson:• Realisestheextentoftheproblem• Takescontrolofhis/herbehaviour• Startstochange.
Reflecting on outcomes from self monitoring
Thefactthatthepupilpresentsanatypicalperiodoftimewhenmonitoringisnotunusual.S/heismorelikelytoself-regulatehis/herbehaviourbecauseself-monitoringbringsitintohis/herday-to-dayconsciousness.
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Whatmayseemtobeunderreportingcouldbetruereportingofareductioninproblembehaviour;suggestingthatthepupilcanactuallytakecontrolandimprovethesituationunderhis/herownimpetus.Anychangesuggeststhat:• S/hecancontrolhisorherbehaviour• S/hehaschoiceintheways/heactsandreacts.
Anylapseintooldwaysofbehavingcanbechallengedonthegroundsthats/heisnowchoosingtobehaveinthiswayandneednotdoso.
4.7 Social skills training
Theterm‘socialskills’usuallyreferstoasetofcomplexinterpersonalbehavioursthatareassociatedwithsocialbehaviourandsocialcompetence.Suchinterpersonalbehaviourisavitaldeterminantofhowapupilwillfareineducation,amongstpeersandinthewidercommunity.
Socialskillsarelearnedskillsthatenableustoco-existeasilywithotherpeople.Thismeansthatincaseswheredeficienciesinsuchskillsexist,thereisatleastthepossibilitythattheycanberemediedbysystematictraining.Socialskillstrainingisfoundedonthispremise.
Somepupilslackthenecessarysocialskillstoformeffectiverelationshipswithothersandthisformsabigpartofthedifficultiesinrelationtobehaviour.Acquiringsocialskillsisdependentonacombinationof:• Maturity• Exposuretocircumstanceswheretheskillsaregained• Thelevelofunderstandingandimportancethepupilplaces
ontheseexperiences.
Wherepupilsshowahistoryofbehaviouraldifficultyoralevelofimpulsivenessintheirresponsetosituations,theymightneedhelptodevelopanewrepertoireofskills.Pupilsmayhavearangeofbehaviouraldifficultiesin:
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• Listening• Takinginstructions• Askingquestionsappropriately• Takingturnsandworkingwithothers• Acceptingfeedback• Understandingtheotherperson’spointofview• Appreciatingotherpeople’smotives• Seeingthelinkbetweentheirbehaviourandtheresponse
ofthosearoundthem• Evaluatingtheirownbehaviour• Knowinghowtheywillbehaveorrespondingivensituations• Seeingbeyondtheimmediatemoment• Developingalternativesolutionsandchoosingtousethem.
Teacherscanengagewithpupilsintryingtochangetheirbehaviourthroughworkingtochangetheconditionsthattriggerandreinforcethisbehaviour.Thismayonlyprovideapartialsolutionasitassumesthatboththetriggersandreinforcersmaybeeasilyaltered.
Awayofstrengtheningthisapproachistoengagewiththepupiltoexploretheirthoughtsandfeelingsaboutthewaytheybehave.Thisapproachseekstohelpthemto:• Understandthereasonsforactingthewaythattheydo• Comprehendthattheyhavethecapacitytochangetheir
behaviour• Appreciatethatinchangingtheirbehaviourtheymayinturn
changethebehaviourofotherstowardsthem.
Thereareavarietyoftechniquesthatcanbeemployedtoteachsocialskillstopupils.Asmallselectionoftechniquesareoutlineinthefollowingsections.
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Modelling
Thiscanbecarriedoutinanumberofwaysandcanincludedesirablesocialbehavioursbeingobservedinanaturalisticsetting.Anotherwayistoviewavideoshowingthedesiredbehaviourbeingcarriedoutandtothendiscusswhatishappening.Resourcesliketheseareavailabletobuyatreasonablecosts.AnotherexamplewouldbetousearecordedTVprogrammelikeasoaporsitcom.Ifyouaredealingwithapupilwhoisveryaggressiveverballyandyouaretryingtosomehowchallengethisbehaviour,thevideocouldbeshownandanotemadeofhowmanyputdownsareseen.Theeffectsoftheseonpeoplecouldbenotedanddiscussedwiththepupil.Inbothcases,amonitoringformcanbeusedtonotedownparticularbehaviourandtheamountoftimesithappens.
Coaching
Thisapproachrelieson:• Theuseofverbalinstructiontoteachsocialskills• Practiceasoneofitscriticalcomponents.
Thereisatraditionalviewofthecoachastheexpert.S/heisallknowingandprovidedthelearnerconformstohis/herexpectationsthenthelearnerwillbesuccessful.Fromtheexpertposition,thecoachoffersaperspectiveonthesituation.S/hetellsthepupilwhattodoandhowtodoit.Thecoachassumesapositionofpower.
Analternativeviewofcoaching,iswherethecoachhelpstoraisetheawarenessofthepupil,toworkwithhimorhertoconsideravailableoptionsandanyissuesorobstaclestoachievingthese.Thefocusisthenplaceduponenablingtheperformancetoensurethepupilachievessuccessfulchange.
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Whenworkingtoengagewithandchangepupils’behaviour,teachersshouldusethealternativeapproachtocoaching,wherethecoachseeksto:• Enablethepupiltochoosetorefinehis/herperformancerather
thandirectpreciselywhatitshouldbe• Buildupontrustandsupportthroughhis/herrelationshipwith
thepupil-Havingdevelopedarapportwiththepupilthroughforminganeffectiverelationshipwiththem,theteachermakesclearhis/herroleinprovidingsupportandworkingforchange
• Highlightthepupil’sstrengthsandcapabilities-Valuingthepupilandenablinghim/hertorecognisehis/herownstrengthsandcapability
• Developingthepupil’sself-awareness-Ensuringthattheyareabletotakeaclearviewoftheirbehaviourorperformanceinaninteraction
Specify the change needed
The role of the traditional coach might be set out as:
An alternative approach to coaching change involves working with pupils to:
Propose how the change is to be made
Rehearse the young person in the changed behaviour
Secure this changed behaviour in practice
Explore what they see as their needs
Enable them to consider how they may change through examining their options
Challenge any misconceptions, assumptions or ambiguities in the changes the young person proposes
Facilitate this change through practice and feedback
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• Focusuponspecificgoalsforchange-Discussingwiththepupilwhats/hethinksmightbechangedandhowsuchchangesmightbeachieved
• Facilitateskillsdevelopment-Examiningtheskillsandbehaviourthatmakeupthechangedperformancethepupilisseeking;Exploringtheseskillswiththepupilbygettinghim/hertodemonstratehis/herconceptoftheseskills;Providingfeedbackonthepupil’sperformancetoshapeandenhancehis/herskills.
Thefollowingisachecklistwhichcanbeoperatedtoensureasuccessful‘coach’/pupilrelationship:
A coaching skills checklist Tick
1. DoIhavethenecessarylevelofrapporttoexplorechangewiththispupil?
2. CanIhighlighttothepupilhis/herstrengthandcapability?
3. HaveIenabledthispupiltobeawareofhis/herdifficulties?
4. HaveIaskedthepupilwhats/hethinkscanbechangedandhowsuchchangemaybeachieved?
5. HaveIdiscussedwiththepupilthechangedperformance(s)/behaviour(s)thatthepupilisseeking?
6. Hasthepupildemonstratedhis/herconceptofthesebehaviours/skills?
7. Aretheproposedchangesachievablebythepupil?
8. Isthenumberofproposedchangeslimitedtotwoorthree?
9. HaveIprovidedopportunityforthepupiltorehearseandpracticethesechangesandgivenhim/hereffectivefeedback?
10.HaveIpreparedtheadultsaroundthepupilforthesechanges?
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Rehearsal and practice
Byaskingthepupiltodemonstratethetargetskillorbehaviour,theteachercanprovidefeedbacktoenhanceit.Effectivefeedbackfocusesupon:• whatwasgoodaboutthedemonstrationorperformance;and• oneortwoaspectsoftheperformancethatmightbeimproved
orenhanced.
Whereteachersfailtonoticewhatthepupildidwell,orworsestillishighlycriticalofthepupil’seffortthens/heriskslosingthepupil’swillingnesstoengageinchange.Sometimesitcanbehelpfulfortheteachertodemonstrateormodelthewayinwhichthepupilmightimprovehis/herperformance.Thisneedstobedonewithcaution.Iftheteachergivesaportrayalthatlookstoopolishedortooremotefromthepupil’sownperformanceitmayshutoffhis/hermotivationtotryagain.
Supporting the pupil’s application of his/her new skills or behaviours
Aswellasenablingthepupiltodecideupon,practiceandrehearsethechangedbehaviour,itmaybeimportantthattheteacherpreparesthosearoundthepupilforsuchchange.
Alltoooftenpupilsindifficultyonlycometotheattentionofadultswhentheirbehaviourprovestobeproblematic.Wherepupilsattempttochange,ifthereisnorecognitiongivenbytheadultsaroundthem,theymayquicklygiveuptrying.Theteachermayneedtonegotiatecarefullywiththeadultsaroundapupiltoensurethattheyrecognisethepupil’sattempttochangeandtheydosoinawaythatispalatableoracceptabletothatpupil.
Celebrating the pupil’s success in achieving change
Itisveryimportantthattheteacherensuresthatthepupilrealisesthatitishis/hersuccess.Wherepupilsachievechange,itiscriticallyimportantthattheteachercelebratesthepupil’ssuccessandthats/hedoessoinawaythatfurtherempowersthepupil.
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4.8 Behaviour agreements and behaviour plans
Behaviour agreements
Abehaviouragreementrepresentsaformalagreementwithapupiltoachieveanewandchangedwayofbehaving.Agreementscantakemanyformsbuttheyusuallyinclude:• Aclearstatementofthechangedbehaviourthatthepupil
isstrivingfor• Thewayinwhichsuchnewbehaviourwillbereinforced
andrewarded• Thewayinwhichsupportwillbeprovidedtothepupilthrough
thischange.
Bysettingouttheagreementtochangeasaformaldocument,theteacherhastheopportunitytoclearlyspecifyexpectationsonallsidesandcanconveytothepupilthatheorsheisaresponsibleandactivepartnerinthischangeprocess.
Anagreementcanbeaverypositiveandpowerfultoolforchange.Unfortunately,theyaresometimespoorlyplanned,preparedandmonitored.Agreementsareapotenttoolforchangeandtheytakeconsiderabletimetodevelopandensuretheyareright.Arushedbehaviouragreementislikelytolackthenecessaryspecificityandmayevendoharm.Therearemanywaysinwhichabehaviouragreementcangowrongandtheyneedtobecarefullymonitoredtosecuresuccess.
Keystepsintheeffectivebehaviouragreementprocessmightinclude:• Developingasharedviewoftheproblemsordifficultieswith
thepupil• Gatheringallrelevantinformationaboutthepupilfromthepupil
him/herselfand,whererelevantparentsandotherteachers• Agreeingupondesirablebehavioursandwhatthesecomprise• Developingshort-termtargetsforachievingthesenewbehaviours• Settingouthowthesenewbehaviourswillbeenactedby
thepupil
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• Establishingwaystomonitorormeasurethisnewbehaviour• Agreeinghowthisnewbehaviourcanbereinforced
andrewarded• Securinganynecessarysupportfromotherstoensurethe
agreementisasuccess• Agreeingwhentheinitialshort-termtargetswillbereviewed• Formallysigningtheagreementwiththepupil(involvingparents
asappropriate).
Akeyelementindesigningasuccessfulbehaviouragreementisusingeffectiverewardsthatmatchtheneeds,interestsandenthusiasmsofpupils.
Indevelopingabehaviouragreementitisimportanttobalancetheneedfordetail(sothepupilisclearoftheobjectives),againsttheneedforbrevity.Theteachershouldalsoensurethatthepupilisfullyinvolvedwiththedesignoftheagreementitself.
Behaviour plans
Abehaviouragreementismorepowerfulwhencombinedwithabehaviourplanwhichsupportsthepupiltoachievethechangeintheirbehaviourthathasbeenagreedon.Thebehaviourplanshouldoutline:• Whatneedstobedone
- Withwhom?- How?- Where?- When?
• Whatsupportisneeded- Fromwhom?- Howwillitbesecured?
Aneffectiveindividualbehaviourplan,shouldinvolveparentsandlinktoanyPastoralSupportProgramme(refertoCircular1/2004).
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Action planning for change
Tomaximisethechancesofabehaviourchangeplanbeingsuccessfulandsustained,itisimportantthatpupilshaveinvestmentinandownershipoftheprocessandtheresultingplan.Teachersneedtoworkwithpupilstoagreeaims,objectivesandtargets(fortheshortandmediumterm).
An action planning sequence
Assess and monitor pupil
Identify and act on any immediate high risk issues
Discuss and agree the aims for change with the pupil
Negotiate the steps towards securing change
Discuss joint short- term targets
Implement the change strategy
Rehearse and model the required change behaviour
Monitor the pupil’s progress and supply support as needed
Review the outcome of the change strategy
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The aims
Changeismostlikelytohappenwhenthepupilhasbeenactivelyengagedindiscussionabouttheirownaimsandaspirations.Arangeofquestionssuchaswhatif…?’canhelpintheexplorationofissuesandallowthepupiltobegintolooktothefutureandwhattheywantfromit-intheshort,mediumandlongerterm.However,manypupilswillfindthisprocessdifficult,especiallywheretheyhaveimmediateproblemstodealwith,andwillneedsubstantialsupport.
The objectives
Pupilsshouldbeencouragedtoexploreanddevelophis/herownobjectives.Teacherswillneedtohelppupilstostrikeabalancebetweenobjectivesthatareeitheroverorunderambitiousandthosethatarerealisticandachievable.Formanypupilsfromtroubledbackgroundsitmaybethefirstopportunitytheyhavehadtolookaheadandplanforapositivefuturewithanadultthattheycantrust.
Setting joint targets for change
Manypupilswillsetthemselvesoverlydemandingtargets,forexample:• “Iwillalwaysconcentrateinscience”• “Iwillnevershoutoutinclassagain”• “Iwillbeontimeforeverylessonfortherestofmytimeinschool”• “Iwillneverlosemytemperagain”• “Iwillbehave perfectlyallthetimeinschool”.
Whilstallofthesearelaudableandpraiseworthytheymaybeunrealisticforpupilswith:• Poorawarenessoftime• Noangermanagementskills• Alonghistoryofaggression.• Attentionproblems• Poorsocialskills.
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Realisticandachievabletargetsmightbeveryshort-term,egtogetthroughtomorrow,ortotheendoftheweek,demonstratingspecifiedbehaviours.
Usingatarget-settingapproachenablesteachersto:• Setoutthetasksclearly• Dealwiththeminanorderlysequence• Ensureeachtargetismetandachieved• Measureprogress• Ensureearlysuccess.
The misuse of target setting
Ifthetarget-settingapproachismisusedthentheoutcomeswillbelessthanpositive.Whentargetsareimposeduponpupilswithoutanyattemptstocoachthemordeveloptheskillsthattheyneedtoprosperinschoolthenthesetargetscansimplybefailedmilestonesthatcanbemisusedtojudgeapupilasafailure.
Teachersshouldavoidsettingtargetsthatare:• Takenfromapre-publishedlist
• Notspecifictotheindividualandhis/hercircumstances
• Tooeasyortoohardtoachieve
• Meaninglesstothepupil.
SMART targets
SMARTisanacronymtodemonstrateeffectivetargets:
S -SpecificM-MeasurableA-AgreedR-RealisticT -Timelimited.
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Whereatargetisnot‘SMART’,teachersshouldtrytore-phraseitsothatitbecomesSMART.Havingsetthesetargets,teachersneedtoconsidertherangeofchangetechniquesthatmayhelpapupilachievethem.
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Chapter 5Incident management
Mostpupilsbehavewellinschool-evenifmanywilloccasionallyhavean‘offday’-andawellmanagedclassroomdramaticallyreducesthechancesofbehaviourproblemsarising.
Evenwhenbehaviourdoesbecomeanissue,positiveresponsesandeffectiveinterventionfromteachersarelikelytomanagethesituationquicklyandminimiseanyimpactontherestoftheclass.
However,somepupilsmightdisplaybehaviourdifficultieswhichareoutsideofthenormoftherestoftheclass.Formany,theirbehaviourmaybelinkedtoexternalpressuressuchaspoororinconsistentparenting;bullying;lossorbereavement;substancemisuseoremotional,physicalandevensexualabuse.Somepupilsshowgreatresilienceandneverdisplaybehaviourproblemsatschool.Othersactouttheirdifficultiesthroughtheirbehaviour.
Aminoritywaywithdrawand‘actin’theirdifficultiesandtheycangetmissedwithinabusyclassroom.
Whateverthecauseofproblematicbehaviour,whenteachersunderstandagivensituation,theyaremuchmorelikelytofeelconfidentaboutitand,therefore,morelikelytomanageiteffectively.Itisimportanttohaveaclearandsharedunderstandingofhowincidentsaretriggered;howtheycanescalateintoacrisisandhowtorespondateveryphaseoftheincident.
Mander(2008)emphasisesthatcrisesare‘created’byourvaluesandresponsestosituationsand“Thespecificsoftheincidentmaynotalwaysbeimportant;itisthereactionsanincidentprovokesfromthosedirectlyandindirectlyinvolvedthatmattermost.”
Thechaptercovers:• Generalprinciplesforeffectiveincidentmanagement• A5-stageincidentprofileandstrategiesforresponse
ateachstage• Safeandeffectiveintervention.
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5.1 General principles for effective incident management
WGrundy&DJones(2002)notethat‘occasionswillinevitablyarisewhenteachersandpupilsconflict.Lowlevel,relativelyminormisdemeanourscanturnintoseriousconfrontations.Frequently,sanctionsaregiven,notfortheoriginalmisdemeanour,butforthepupil’sreactionstothememberofstaff’.Belowarearangeofthingsthatcanhelptoavoidunnecessaryescalation.
• Positive inaction- Decideifimmediateinterventionisneeded,hasarulebeenbrokenthatjustifiesimmediateintervention?
- Wouldaquietwordlatersuffice?
• Saving face- Leaveagraciouswayoutforallinvolved(theolderthepupilthemoreimportantitistomakesurethereisawayout.Anyonewhofeelscorneredwillbecomemoreaggressive)
- Avoidcorneringpupilsintoan‘Iwin,youlosesituation’- Offeracompromisethatwillconveyasenseoffairnessandallowpupilstosaveface
- Avoidaudiencesasthismayputpressureonthepupilnottobackdowninpublic
- Taketimetocheckfactsbeforeissuingasanction.
• Focus on the issue- Makeclearthepupil’spartinresolvetheissue- Keepaskingthemtothinkabouttheissueandtheirbehaviour- De-personalisethebehaviour.
• Avoid threats- Threatsfromtheteacherwillincreasethelikelihoodofthepupilreactingaggressivelyandescalatingtheconflict(Threatsconveyamessagetothepupilthattheteacherseesthemasathreattotheirauthority)
- Threatscanprovokeretaliationorevenifthepupilconforms,cangeneratefeelingsofhostilityandresentment.
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• Compromise- Bepreparedtoseekawayforwardthatisacceptabletoallconcerned
- Tryandmakeallpartiesfeelwinners.
• Return to normal- Areasonabletimeafteraconfrontationfindtimetospeakbrieflytothepupil
- Donotmakethisapostmortembutshowthatthedisputeisoveranddonewithandnormalinteractionsareexpected
- Aimtore-establishacooperativeworkingrelationship.
Try to:• Remaincalmandcontrolled• Reiteratethatitisnotthepupilyoudisapproveofbuttheir
behaviour• Assumethatthepupilisgoingtocalmquickly• Talkfirmly,withcleardirectionsandkeeptalking• Sendforassistanceifnecessary-Tellthepupilyouaresendingfor
assistanceinordertosupportthemandhelpthemgaincontrol• Removeanyaudience• Keepasafedistance;angry,violentpeopletendtoneedmore
bodyspace• Describethebehaviourbutbenon-judgemental,‘Icanseethat
youareangry’ismuchbetterthan,‘Whatdoyouthinkyouaredoing?’
• Askifthepupilneeds‘time-out’• Trytorecordtheaggressiveoutburstassoonaspossibleafter
theincident(themoreaccuratethebetter;trytodecidewhathappenedbeforetheincidentaswell,thismayhelptoidentifypossibletriggerstoavoidinfuture)
• Givethepupilanopportunitytotalkaboutwhathappenedassoonaspossible,exploringanyotherstrategiestheycouldhaveusedinthesituation
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• Planresponses(Staffwhoarepreparedandknowwhattheywilldointheeventofanemergencyfeelmoreconfidentandabletodealwiththesituationcalmly.Knowtheschoolpolicy).
Try not to:• Useconfrontationalbodylanguagee.g.standinanaggressive
mannerwitharmsfoldedorhandsonhips• Engageinprolongedorexaggeratedeyecontact(thiscanbe
perceivedasdirectaggression)• Useconfrontationalorprovocativelanguage,e.g.‘stopbeing
sostupid’• Usephysicalinterventionunlessothernon-physicalmethods
ofcalminghavebeentriedandtherearesignificantriskstopersonalsafety
• Allowthepupiltoseethatyouareangryandfrustrated.
5.2 A 5-stage incident profile and strategies for response at each stage
Someteachersfeelthattheirpracticeismadeupofanendlessseriesoffirefightingofincidents.Intryingtodevelopasharedunderstandingofhowincidentsdevelopandunfold,thefive-stagemodelofthe‘typical’sequenceofanincidentcanhelpteacherstounderstandandanalysethephasesthatmakeupanincident.Throughsuchananalysisteacherscanbegintodevelopasharedunderstandingofwhatmakesupanincidentandhowtheycanrespondeffectivelywithinitsdifferentstages.ThefollowingsectionsareadaptedfromHewitt(1998),withadditionalillustrationandexamples.
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Thefive-stagemodelisshownbelow:
Thediagramonthepreviouspagesetsout5stagesinanincident.Eachofthestagesislikelytolastforadifferentlengthoftimewitheachindividual.Somemaymovefromtriggertocrisisveryquickly.Othersmaytakeagreatdealoftimeintherecoveryphasebeforetheyreachthepostcrisislow.
Thetimespentoneachphasevariesfromindividualtoindividualandalterswiththecircumstancestheyfindthemselvesin.Somepupilsaremorereadilyarousedthanothersandtheyaremoreeasilytriggeredtowardsacrisis.Theexamplesetoutbelowmayhelptoillustratethesequence.
5 stages of an incident - Dave
The trigger:Dave,aged14,isinMissColes’Frenchclass.DavefeelsthatMissColesalwayspicksonhimandsharedthisviewwithSteve.AstheylefttheMathslessonforFrench,DavewasnotamusedwhenStevecommentedthatMissColesmighthaveareasonforpickingonhim.AlthoughhedidnotsayawordtoSteve,heenteredtheFrenchclasswithhismoodwrittenacrosshisface.
Trigger Build up Crisis Recovery Post crisis lowStage
Level ofarousal
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The build up: MissColesfailstonoticeDave’smood.Shethenaskshimthreequestionsinquicksuccessiontocheckthatheunderstandstheworkthatheissupposedtobedoing.“She’strulygotitinforyou!”muttersSteve,“maybeshefanciesyou.”
The crisis: DaveisnowangrywithbothMissColesandSteve.HesaystoSteve,“Pushoffandleavemealone.”MissColesnoticeshimspeakoutfromacrosstheroomandsays,“Davejustgetonwithyourwork.”InoutrageDaverespondswithatorrentofverbalabuse,demandsthatMissColesstopspickingonhimandstormsoutoftheclass.
Recovery: AfterseeingDaveeruptinthisway,MissColes,thoughtakenaback,concludesthatthereislittlepointintryingtodiscusstheissuewithhimnow.ShesendsfortheHeadofYearwhotakesDavetoherroomtoensurethatheissafeandtoprovidehimwiththespacetocalmdown.
Post crisis low: TheHeadofYearinsistsDavesitsinherroom.SherealisesthatthebestresponseistowaituntilDaveislesstenseandlessaroused.Eventually,Daveseemstogolimpandletsthetensiongo.Onlythendoesshereviewtheincidentwithhim.
Details of stage 1: The trigger phase
Aneventorincidentoccursthatraisesthepupil’slevelofarousal.Thismeansthats/hebeginstoexperienceanescalationinhis/herfeelingsandemotions.Thismaybeanincreaseinanger,sadness,anxietyetc.Suchtriggersmaybeduetoeventsathome,onthejourneytoschool,orintheplayground.Teachersmaynotalwaysseethetrigger.
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Inthistriggerphase,theindividual’sarousalmaycontinuetoincrease.Thisincreasemaynotjustbepromptedbyeventsbutbythepupilthinkingaboutevents,callingupmemoriesandrespondingemotionallytothem.Thetablebelowsuggestssomesignsandsignalsthatarousalisincreasing.
Handmovements-clenchedhands;clenchingandunclenchinghands;drummingwithfingers;tapping;tappingwithapenorotherobject
Changeinvolumeofspeech-upwardstoshoutordownwardstowhisper
Tensioninbodyposture Inappropriatelaughter
Rigidstructure Suddenstillness
Agitatedbehaviour Talkingunderone’sbreath
Morerapidmovement Raisedvoice
Clenchingofteeth Useofchallengephrasessuchas“Youcantryit…!”or“Goonthen…!”
Lockingofjaw Tauntingothers
Increasedgazeorstare Teasingothers
Lackingeyecontact Erraticspeech
Rockingbehaviour Refusaltorespondtorequests
Swearingunderbreath Swearingatothers
Failuretouseappropriateformsofaddress
Swearingatteachers
Thekeyskillinthisstageisobservation.Itisveryimportantthatteachersnoticeandappreciatethatapupil’slevelofarousalisrising.Thislistmaybehelpfulwhenobservingsignsthatarousalhasbeen
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triggered.However,itislikelythatarousalwillbehighlyindividualinitsexpression.Teachersneedtobe:• Awareofthepupil’susualmood• Alerttoanysignificantchangeinthatmood• Knowledgeableastohowtorespondwhentheyseethepupil’s
arousalheightened.
Strategies to respond in the trigger stage
Sometriggerscanbeinfluencedandshapedbyteacherswhocanreducethepressureonpupils,lowertheirexpectationsofthepupilshort-term,reducetheinteractionaroundthem,enablethemtosucceedatagiventaskbyprovidingthemwithadditionalsupport.Teachersmayactto:• Removethetrigger-ifthecauseiswithintheclassroom• Acknowledgetheproblemandprovidethepupilwithtime
toimprovehis/herself-control• Simplycontinuetomonitorthebehaviour• Informcolleagues-particularlythosewhoteachtheclassnext-
ofthepupil’sdifficulty.Manyincidentscanbepreventedbyearlyinformationsharing.
Duringthisphasetheteachershould:• Bealerttothemoodstateofallofthepupilsintheclass,
particularlythosewhohaveexperienceddifficultiesinthepast.(Somemayalreadybearousedandangryonentrytoschoolduetoeventsathome)
• Attempttointerveneatthelowestlevelpossibletosecureachange
• Makediscreet,non-verbalsignsorsignalstoreducethetensioninthesituation
• Staycalm,andstrivetoensurethatyouappearcalm,relaxedandincontrol
• Determinewhethertheissuesneedtobedealtwithnoworlater-willaninterventiondefusethesituationorescalatethetension?
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• Acknowledgethatthereisaproblemandsuggestitwillbedealtwithattheendofthelesson
• Displaystrategiestode-triggerthesituation,diffusetensionortoredirecttheindividual’sattention
• Trytoavoidescalatingtheproblemunlessyouaresurethatitwillnotdiminishofitsownaccord
• Onlyconfrontifs/heissuretheproblemwillnotgoawaybyusingotherapproaches
• Allowthepupilenoughtimeandspacetorecoverhisorherself-control.
Thechallengeistochoosethestrategythatbestfitsthepupil,theclass/groupand,ofcourse,theteacher.However,therealskillisinremainingcalmenoughtothinkthroughtheoptionsandchoosethebestone.
Details of stage 2: The build up
Thepupil’slevelofarousalhascontinuedtorisetothepointwherehis/herbehaviourisbeingnoticedbyothers,orishavinganimpacton,orinfluencinghis/herperformance.
Theteacher’sneedtorespondtothebehaviourisaslikelytobedrivenbytheneedtomanagethelearningofothersastomeettheneedsofthearousedindividuals.Thegraphshowsasteadybuildupinarousal.Inreality,thismaytaketheformofaseriesofspikysteps.
Thedecisionastohowteachersinterveneneedstobebasedupontheirknowledgeofthepupil,iehisorher:• Speedofarousal• Levelofimpulsiveness• Capacitytocopewithfrustration• Historyofrisktakingbehaviour• Selfimage-asviolentornon-violent• Pasthistoryofaggression.
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Teachersneedtoremaincalmand,moreimportantly,appeartobecalm.Thisisachievedbyself-presentation,stance,posture,gesture,movement,expression,toneandpaceofspeech.
Strategies to respond in the build up stage
Strategiesthatteachersmightadoptinclude:• Distractionoftheindividualbyengaginghim/herinsomething
thatisofkeyinteresttohim/herorisknowntobeanareawheres/heexperiencessuccess.Byadoptingthisapproachteachersmayreducethelevelofbuildup
• Distractingthegroupbyinvertingthegroupintoadifferenttopicfordiscussionoractivity.Teachersmaybeabletodrawtheindividualintomorepositiveengagement
• Redirectingtheindividual.Ifteachersspotthebuildupsoonenoughtheymaybeableto:- Callapersontoorder- Explainwhatishappeningtohim/her- Describewhatyouwanthim/hertodo.Thisneedstobedoneinaconfident,assertive,butnotauthoritarianmanner
• Theapproachneedstosignalwarmthandregardfortheindividual,asthisismuchmorelikelytosecureapositiveresponse
• Defusing-usingapproachesthatreduceratherthanescalatethepressureintheinteraction,forexample:
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Inthebuildupstage,donot:• Movetowardstheindividual
atspeed• Closeinonhim/her• Standabove/overthe
individual• Maketouchcontact• Raisevoice• Makethreateningor
controllinggestures-pointing,wavinghandsetc
• Don’tplacehandsonhipsandlockstance.
Inthebuildupstage,do:• Moveinarelaxed,
calmmanner• Stayatleast3-4pacesaway
fromhim/her• Avoidimplyingthreatby
standingover/above• Avoidtouchcontactasthis
mayactasanadditionaltrigger
• Speakinacalmrelaxedway• Ensurehandsareopen,
relaxedanddown• Adaptarelaxedandcalm
stance.
Onceapupilhasbeenaroused,eventsbeyondtheteacher’sdirectcontrolmaycontinuetofuelthebuilduptowardsacrisis.Withinaclass,akeyfactormaybewhatotherpupilsdoandsay.Equally,whattheteachersaysanddoesmaybemisunderstoodandmisinterpretedduetothelevelofthepupil’sarousal.Theteachershould:• Continuetomodelcalmness• Engagehim/herinaninitialexchange• Trytoexplainwhatwashappeningtohim/her• Reflectonhis/herreactiontoyourconcern• Avoidsayingtoomuchandspeakingtoooften,ieavoidpestering
orprovokingthepupil• Ifs/hersignalsthatcontactiswelcome,movealongsideand
discussthingswithhim/her• Modelcontrolbyself-presentation,movement,posture,gesture,
expressionandtoneofvoice• Distracttheindividualbydrawinghis/herattentionto
adifferentissue
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• Distractthegroupbyintroducinganewidea/issue/topictothegroup.Drawtheindividualintothediscussion
• Redirecttheindividualtoanotherordifferentactivity.Askhim/hertocollectabook,resourceandmaterialsfromtheoffice/similar,ieapre-arrangeddiversionaryapproach.
Thekeychallengefortheclassteacherduringthisphaseistheabilitytohandlethesituationveryskilfullysothatacrisisisavoided.Theteachershouldremainincontrolofhim/herself,theclassandthesituationwhileengagingwiththepupil.
Details of stage 3: The crisis
Notallincidentsdevelopintocrises.Somejustramblealongbelowthecrisislevelbutarenonethelessexhaustingtomanage.Acrisiscomesonlywhenthepupilactsoutinanextremeandunusualmanner.Whenacrisisoccursitislikelytoberelativelybrief:• Anoutburstofverbalabuse• Anattempttorunfromtheroomandevent• Anattempttothreatenverballyorevenphysically.
Itisimportantthatteachersdonotrespondbytriggeringthepupilbacktocrisis,egwhenapupilthrowshis/herbookawayinsistingthats/hegoesandpicksitupimmediately,or,whenapupilhasjustbeenverballyabusive-demandingacompleteapologyatonce.
Inbothoftheseinstances,theindividualmayhaveonlyjustmovedbeyondthepeakofthecrisis.Theinsistenceorimmediateconformitytoteacherauthoritymaybetoosoon,witharousallevelsstillhighandasecond,andperhapsworseissueprecipitated.
Sometimesteachershaveverylittleopportunitytointerveneatthe‘Trigger’and‘Buildup’stagesbecausetheirinvolvementisoftenpromptedbythecrisisitself.Itisimportanttorememberthatsomeincidentsdevelopgraduallywhilstothersseemtoignite,allofasudden.Oncethecrisishasdeveloped,theinitialstrategywoulddependuponthesituationthatteachersencounter.
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Strategies to respond in the crisis stage
Thestrategiestorespondduringthisphasemightinclude:• Invitingthepupiltoleavetheroom• Invitingthepupiltositelsewhereinaseatdesignatedbythe
teacherorHeadofYear• Seekingsupportfromelsewhereifatallpossible• Removingtheaudiencefromthepupil• Removingthepupilfromtheaudience• Resettlingorre-establishingtheclass.
Theseideascanbehelpfulinmanagingdifficultorviolentincidents.Therearealsothingsthatteacherscandoandsaythatmayhelpindealingwiththesituation,including:• Itmaybehelpfultoacknowledgethepupil’semotionalstate-
“Icanseeyou’reveryangry!”ietoempathise,withoutagreeingwithhimorher
• Itmayreducetheescalationoftheincidentifteachersavoidhead-to-head,face-to-faceconfrontationalpositioning
• Itmayimprovematterstolettheindividualventhis/heranger,providingnooneislikelytobehurtandthattheventingquicklyleadstoareductioninactivity
• Theteachershouldtrytocontrolhis/herownemotionsandnotgetangryinreturn.(Provokingtheteachertoangercanbehighlyrewardingandcanescalateanincident)
• Theteachershouldalsoprovidereassurancethatthiscanbemanagedandtheproblem(s)canbedealtwith.
Allofthesearegoodideasbuttheyneedtobediscussedandexploredaheadoftime.Itistoolateifthefirsttimethatteacherstrytothinkaboutthemisinthemiddleofadevelopingincident.Themanagementofthiscrisisphaseremainsakeyconcernforteachers.Teachersoftenwanttobeclearastolimitstotheirroleandresponsibilityinmanagingsuchcrisesastheybalancetheirconcernfortheindividualwiththatofthesafetyofotherpupils,colleaguesorequipment.
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Details of stage 4: The recovery stage
Whenthepeakoftheincidenthasjustpassed,thereisanunderstandablewishto‘sortthingsout’asteachersmayhavebeenunsettledandeventhreatenedbysuchanincident.Thereisaninnerneedtoretaincontrolandtobeseentobeincharge.Sometimesthiscanstemfromteachers’anxietythatiftheyarenotseentobeinchargeofthisparticularindividualthentheymaylosecontrolwithothers.
However,ifthepupilisstillexperiencinghighlevelsofexposure,thenwhilstsoaroused,s/heisunlikelytofinditeasyto:• Listentowhatteachershavetosay• Acknowledgehis/herrole/responsibilityinanincident• Acceptanypunishmentorsanction• Makeanyreparationforwhathashappened.
Strategies to respond in the recovery stage
Whoeverisdealingwiththerecoveryphase(theHeadofYearorteacher)thefollowingguidelinesmaybehelpful:• Observethepupil• Trytoreadandunderstandhows/heisfeeling• Don’tactunnecessarily• Monitorhis/herlevelofarousal• Waituntilthepupilprovidesindicationsthats/heisnowmore
relaxed,eglossofphysicaltension,slumpinpostureetc• Providesomereassurancethats/hecancalmdownandregain
theirself-control• Signalthattheissuewillbedealtwithinfull-butonlywhen
thepupilisreadyandabletoengage-itisimportantforthepupiltoknowthattheissueisnotforgottenbutwillbedealtwithinapropermannerwhentheteacherdeemsittobeappropriate.
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Keytoallofthisisasenseofpaceandtimingandensuringthatthepersonisrecoveringtothepointwheres/hecanacceptand‘hear’theteacher’sresponse.Rushingtheissueorrushingthingsatthisstage,islikelytotriggerresistanceorevenfurtherdifficulties,andtheuseofblamelanguageatthispointisunlikelytoimprovethings,eg:• “Idon’tknowwhatcameoveryou”• “Youreallyletyourselfdown”• “Wewillnottoleratethatsortofbehaviourhere”.
Allofthesethingsmaybesaidbutitismuchbetterthattheyaresaidwhentheywillbeheardandhaveimpact,ratherthanwhenapupilisunabletolisten.
Details of stage 5: The post crisis low
Followingacrisisoranincidentofexplosivebehaviour,thepupilmaycometofeelverydeflated.S/hemayfeelarangeofemotionsfromembarrassment,discomfortorshocktoguiltabouttheincident.Oncethepupilbeginstoexperiencetheseemotionsandhasrelaxeds/heislikelytobemuchmoreaccessibletotheteacherandanyattempttoconfront,challengeandchangehis/herbehaviourwillhaveagreaterlikelihoodofsuccess.
Bywaitingforthepostcrisislow,theteacherdoingthisworkwiththeindividualismuchmorelikelytosecureapositivedialoguewiththeindividualandtoengagehim/herinactivelythinkingaboutchangeandbehavinginadifferentway.Whilstthistakesalittlemoretime,itislikelythattherewillbeamarkedreductioninanyrecurrenceofthisbehaviour.
Strategies to respond in the post crisis low
Inthisphase,theteachertakestheopportunityto:• Getthepupiltoreviewtheincident• Acknowledgehis/herroleinit• Explorewhatcouldhavebeendonetopreventit.
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Inthisphasetheteacherresumescontrolofthesituationinamuchmoredirectway.S/heneedstoconsideranumberofkeyquestions.
• Whatsanctionsneedtofollow?- Howwilltheybedelivered?- Where?- When?- Bywhom?
• Whatreparationneedstobemade-anapology,aletteroranactofreparationorrestoration?
• Whatneedstobedonetopreventsuchanincidenthappeningagain?
• Mostimportantly,anyoneincidentneedstoleadtoanimmediateconsiderationof:- Whatcanbedonetopreventitescalatingasecondtime?- Whatneedstobedonetoensurethepupilmanageshis/herangerinamoreeffectiveway?
Investingtimeinthepositivemanagementofsuchinteractionswouldundoubtedlybringbenefitstotheclassandthewholeschool.
5.3 Safe and effective intervention
Despiteteachers’bestattemptsatpreventingaggressivebehaviourandmanagingincidents,therewillbetimeswhenphysicalinterventionbecomesthemostobviouswaytomanagetheincidentandpreventharmtopupils,teachersandproperty.Localauthoritiesandschoolshavetheirownguidelinesforusingphysicalinterventionwhichallteachersshouldbeveryfamiliarwith.
InNovember2009theWelshAssemblyGovernmentissuedaconsultationdocumentcalledBehaviour in Schools - Safe and Effective Intervention.Thisdocumentrepresentsaconsultationon3aspectsintendedtosupportschools,localauthoritiesandtheirpartnersinprovidingasafeenvironmentforchildrenandyoungpeople.ResponsesclosedinFebruary2010.Itisproposed,subjecttoconsultationthatanynewpowerswouldbecommenced
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inSeptember2010andrevisedguidancewouldbeissuedinSpringof2010.
Theconsultationdocumentcoversthefollowing:• Section 1-Newpowersanddutiesforschooldiscipline,
parentalresponsibilityandexclusion,containedintheEducationandInspectionsAct2006.MuchofthelegislationconsolidatesprovisionsinpreviousActs.
• Section 2-Revisedguidanceontheuseofforcetocontrolorrestrainpupils.ThisismorecomprehensiveguidancereplacingthatcurrentlycontainedinWelshOfficeCircular37/98.Theguidanceissplitintotwomainparts,onerelevantforallschoolsandpupilsandonerelatingtopupilswithseverebehaviouraldifficulties,whichwillbeparticularlyrelevantforspecialschools.
• Section 3-Guidancerelatingtothenewpowerforschoolstobeabletosearchpupilsforweaponswithouttheirconsent,containedintheViolentCrimeReductionAct,2006.Thisisanewpowerratherthanadutyandthereforedoesnotcreateanynewrequirementonschoolsthatchoosenottousethepower.
ThedocumentandfurthersummaryinformationcanbeaccessedfromtheWelshAssemblyGovernmentwebsite:www.wales.gov.uk/inclusionandpupilsupportordirectfromhttp://wales.gov.uk/consultations/childrenandyoungpeople/behaviourinschools/?lang=en
Schoolsmaywishtoconsultwww.bild.org.ukforanaccreditedorganisationfortrainingonphysicalintervention.
ThefollowingsuggestionsmustbeputinthecontextofthelocalpoliciesandWelshguidanceonusingphysicalintervention,butprovidesomebasicpointersforteachers.
Do• Avoidusingphysicalinterventionexceptasaverylastresort• Knowtheprocedureintheschool’sguidelinesfortheuseof
physicalintervention
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• Discusstheprocedureswithaseniormemberofstaffifunsureofanypoint
• Sendforadulthelpearlyifthingsbegintogetoutofhandandphysicalinterventionseemslikely
• Assessthesituationcalmlybeforeacting• Interveneinawaythatmakestheteacher,otherpupils,andthe
troubledpupilsafe• Usetheminimuminterventionfortheminimumtime• Reporttheincidenttotheheadteacherorseniormemberofstaff
assoonaspossible• Completeareportimmediately.
Do not• Placeselfatriskbyattemptingtointervenephysically,
forexample,withapupilwhoisobviouslycarryingaweapon• Attempttorestrainapupilwhentemperislost• Useexcessiveforce• Placeselfatriskoffalseallegation,ieavoidbeingalonewith
apupil,(ifpossible)• ‘Forget’toreporttheincident• Ignoretheneedtorecordtheincidentinwriting.
Whileprofessionalsareoftenallowedtousewhatistermed‘reasonableforce’,thereisnopreciselegaldefinitionof‘reasonableforce’makingthetermalittlevague.Itmaybemoreeasilyexplainedintermsofaspecificeventorincident.Reasonableforcecouldbedefinedasactionneededtomakethesituationsafeandtoreduceanyrisktoothers.
‘Reasonableforce’maybelegitimatewhere:• Apupilattacksateacher• Apupilattacksanotherpupil• Apupiliscausing/likelytocauseinjurytoothers• Adistressedpupil,whoisalreadyatrisk,triestoleavetheschool.
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Tobeabletomanagecriseseffectively,awhole-schoolapproachisneeded.Teachersneedtohavediscussedsuchsituationsaheadoftime.Theyneedtohaveexploredtheirsenseofhowsituationscanbemadesafeandeachindividual’ssenseofhows/hemightrespond.
Teachersmustconstantlymonitortheirowninternal‘earlywarningsigns’ofescalatingangerandcannotaffordtolosecontrol.Aneffectiveoutcomeofanyincidentisoneinwhicheveryonecalmsdown,nobodyishurt,nothingisbroken,nooneistootraumatisedandorderisrestored.Hewitt(1998)callsthis‘doingtheleasttoachievethemost’.
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Chapter 6More specialist approaches to support behaviour change
Sofarthishandbookhasconsideredtechniquesandapproachestomanagingbehaviourwithintheclassroomthatcanbeusedbyallteacherswithouttheneedforspecialisttraining.Thischaptersetsoutanoverviewofaselectionofstrategiesandapproachesthatclassroomteachersmayliketoconsidertosupportbehaviourchange,butwhicharelikelytorequiresomeadditionaltrainingand/orsupporttouseeffectively.
ThischapterDOES NOTprepareteacherstousetheseapproachesinpractice.Itsimplyaimstoprovideanawarenessoftheapproachessothatteacherscanundertakefurtherinvestigationandtrainingiftheythinktheapproachwouldbebeneficialforthemandtheirpupils.
Introductionsareprovidedforthefollowingapproaches:• Restorativejustice• Solution-focusedapproaches• Thetranstheoreticalmodelofchange• Cognitivebehaviouralapproaches.
6.1 An introduction to restorative justice
What is restorative justice (sometimes referred to as restorative practice) in a school context?
AnevaluationbytheScottishexecutive(SE,2007,fromwww.scotland.gsi.gov.uk)definedrestorativejusticepracticesinaneducationalcontextas‘restoringgoodrelationshipswhentherehasbeenconflictorharmanddevelopingschoolethos,policiesandprocedurestoreducethepossibilityofsuchconflictandharmarising’.Theevaluationindicatedthatrestorativepracticescanofferapowerfulandeffectiveapproachtopromotingharmoniousrelationshipsinschoolandtothesuccessfulresolutionofconflictandharm.
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Restorativejusticestressestheimportanceofrelationshipsoverandaboverules.Itseeksatalltimestorestoretherelationshipsbetweenpeoplewhenthesehavebeendamagedbyinappropriateoroffendingbehaviour.
Restorativepracticesdescribearangeofapproachestopreventandrepairconflictinschools.Thepracticesrangefrom:• Developingarestorativeclimateinschoolswithactivitiessuch
ascircletimeandpeersupport• Through‘restorativeconversations’whenteachersorpeer
mediatorsinterveneinasituation• Tothemoreformalrestorativeconferencinginvolvingallthose
affectedbyanincident,includingfamilieswhereappropriate.
Schoolethos,policiesandproceduresneedtobedevelopedtosupportthiswork.Thefocusisonpreventionaswellascure,andtheinvolvementofthewholeschoolcommunityisparamount.Themostwell-documentedapplicationsofrestorativejusticeinschoolstodatearetheprocesseswhichseektorepairundisputedharm(egthroughRestorativeConferencing,FamilyGroupConferencingandVictim/OffenderMediation).Thesearebeingusednotonlyincasesofoffendingbehaviourbutalsowithyoungpeoplewhoareatriskofexclusion(orwhohavebeenexcluded)asawayofaddressingtherelationshipissuesandresidualtensions.
Inschoolswhererestorativepracticesarebeingusedpractitionersarediscoveringthatotherissuescanbedealtwithrestoratively,andthesemayinvolveconflictwherethereisno‘guiltyparty’orwhenbothsidesareblamingtheother.Mediationisoftenanappropriateresponsetosuchsituations,whereneutralfacilitatorsenablethoseinconflicttolistentoeachotherandfindamutuallyacceptablewayforward.
Thekeyprinciplesofrestorativejusticeare:• Fosteringsocialrelationshipsinaschoolcommunityofmutual
engagement• Beingresponsibleandaccountableforone’sownactionsand
theirimpactonothers
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• Respectingotherpeople,theirviewsandfeelings• Empathisingwiththefeelingsofothers• Beingfair• Beingcommittedtoequitableprocesses• Everyoneinschoolbeingactivelyinvolvedindecisionsabouttheir
ownlives• Returningissuesofconflicttotheparticipantsratherthan
pathologisingbehaviour• Beingwillingnesstocreateopportunitiesforreflectivechange
inpupilsandstaff.(Fromhttp://www.betterbehaviourscotland.gov.uk/initiatives/piloting/lowdown.aspx)
Whatmanypupilssaytheywantfromadultswhendealingwithdisciplinaryissuesisfairness.Whethertheyareaperpetratororavictim,theirfocusisnotonwinningorlosing,blameorrevenge,butontrustinginafairprocess.Restorativepracticeshelpteachersensurethatpupils,staffandparentscanbepartofafairprocess,whilehelpingallinvolvedtolearnfromtheharmthathasbeendone,andtounderstandtheimpactoftheirbehaviouronothers.
Restorativepracticescan:• Managethevariedexpectationsofbehaviourstandardswhich
inevitablyexistamongallschoolstaff• Helpdevelopawholeschoolpositiveethos• Encouragemembersoftheschoolcommunitytoeffectively
resolveandlearnfromconflictinawaywhichmaintainsrelationships,orterminatestheminapositiveway
• Supportanynecessarysanctionsbyprocessesoflearningandreconciliation.
RestorativePracticescanbeusedatdifferentlevelsinschool:• Preventative-topromotepositiverelationshipswithinthewhole
schoolcommunity• Responsive-repairingrelationshipswhendifficultiesarise
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• Aspartofsupportandinterventionformorelongtermandpersistentdifficulties.
Theapproachinvolvesincludingthe‘wrongdoer’infindingasolutiontotheproblem.Insteadofasking‘who’stoblameandhowarewegoingtopunishthem?’,focusisputonreasons,causes,responsibilitiesandfeelings.Thoseinvolvedareaskedquestionssuchas‘whohasbeenaffectedandhow?’and‘howcanweputitrightandlearnfromthisexperience?’
DrBelindaHopkins,DirectorofCentreforRestorativeJusticeinEducation,summariseshowrestorativejusticecanimpactonrelationshipsinschools,asopposedtotraditionaldisciplinaryapproaches.
Old model retributive justice in schools
New model restorative justice in schools
Misbehaviourdefinedasbreakingtheschoolrules
Misbehaviourdefinedasadverselyaffectingothers
Focusonestablishingblameorguiltandonthepast(dids/hedoit?)
Focusonproblemsolvingbyexpressingfeelingsandneedsandhowtomeettheminthefuture
Adversarialrelationshipsandprocess Dialogueandnegotiation-everyoneinvolvedincommunicatingandcooperatingwitheachother
Impositionofpainorunpleasantnesstopunishanddeter
Restitutionasameansofrestoringboth/allparties,thegoalbeingreconciliation
Attentiontorights,rulesandadherencetodueprocess
Attentiontorightrelationshipsandachievementofthedesiredoutcome
Conflictrepresentedasimpersonalandabstract:individualversustheschool
Misdemeanoursrecognizedasinterpersonalconflictswithsomevalueforlearning
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Old model retributive justice in schools
New model restorative justice in schools
Onesocialinjuryreplacedbyanother Focusonrepairofsocialinjury/damage
Schoolcommunityasspectators,representedbymemberofstaffdealingwiththesituation
Schoolcommunityinvolvedinfacilitationandrestoration
Peopleaffectedbymisdemeanournotnecessarilyinvolved
Encouragementofallconcernedtobeinvolved-empowerment
Wrongdoer’saccountabilitydefinedintermsofreceivingpunishment
Wrongdoer’saccountabilitydefinedasunderstandingtheimpactoftheaction,seeingitasaconsequenceofchoicesandhelpingtodecidehowtoputthingsright
(Fromhttp://www.transformingconflict.org/Restorative_Justice_in_School.htm)
Some basic restorative justice techniques
Thereisawidespectrumoftechniquesandpracticesthatcanbeusedinarestorativejusticeschool.
Restorative statements, questions and discussion
Forexampleinthecaseofafight/disagreement/name-callingincidentamongpupilsthetraditionalapproachwouldbetoask:• Whoistoblame?• Whydidyoudothat?• Whatistheappropriatepunishment?
Buttherestorativeteacherwillask:• Whathappened?• Whohasbeenaffectedandhow?
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• Howcanweputrighttheharmdone?• Whathavewelearnedfromthissoastomakedifferentchoices
nexttime?
Circle Time
Thislisteningexercisecanbeusedinclassroomstoaddressproblemsthatarisee.g.whereapupilorgroupofpupilspersistentlydisruptsthelearningatmosphere.Theteachercanveryquicklygetthepupilstoarrangetheirchairsinacircle,agreethatonepersonspeaksatatimeandgettheclasstofocusontheproblemthathasarisen.Theprocessisempoweringofthepupilsandthecollectivewillofthegroupisoftenveryeffectiveinresolvingthedifficulties.
Peer Support and Mediation
AnincreasinglywidespreadapplicationinschoolsisthedevelopmentofaPeerMediationService,usuallyrunbypupilsthemselveswhohavebeentrainedtomediateamongsttheirpeersanddealwithconflictsthatariseoutsideoftheclassroom.SuccessfulschemesarerunninginJuniorandSecondaryschoolsaroundtheUKandsecondaryagedpupilshavetheirownYoungMediatorsNetworkandruntheirownconferences.Peermediationislesssuccessfulifmediationisnotanapproachalsousedbytheadultsintheschoolcommunity.
The importance of consistency across the school
Itisimportantthatrestorativejusticeisseennotsimplyasaresponsetoextremebehaviourfrompupilsbutthattheprinciplesareinplaceinstaffrooms,classrooms,playgroundsandcorridorseveryday.
Restorativejusticeispredicatedonthenotionthatdamagehasbeendonetorelationshipsbyinappropriatebehaviourandthatpriortoanincidenttherewererelationshipsthathavesubsequentlybeendamaged.Thismaynothavebeenthecase.Inaschoolcommunityrelationshipsandcommunityneedtobeactivelydevelopedandnottakenforgranted.
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Approachesthathelpdevelopandmaintainrelationshipsacrosstheschoolinclude:• Circletimeforstaff(forstaffdevelopment,teambuildingand
mutualsupport)andforpupils(fordevelopingself-esteem,communicationskillsandaspiritofco-operation)
• Schoolcouncil• Peercounselling,peermentoringandbuddyingschemes• No-blameapproachtobullying• Aself-esteempolicyforstaffandforpupils• Awholeschoolrelationshipmanagementpolicy(asopposedto
a‘behaviourmanagement’policythattendstofocusonpupil’sbehaviour).
Furtherinformationonrestorativejustice• TheRestorativeJusticeConsortium(RJC)haspublished
guidanceonapplyingrestorativejusticeprinciplesinschools-http://www.restorativejustice.org.uk/Resources/pdf/Principles_Schools_2005_2nd_ed.pdf
• TheNationalCentreforRestorativeApproachesinYouthSettings(alsoknownasTransformingConflict)-http://www.transformingconflict.org
• BestPracticeGuidelinesfromtheInternationalInstituteforRestorativePractices-http://www.iirp.org/uk/
• BehaviourScotlandRestorativeJusticePilotsinSchools-http://www.betterbehaviourscotland.gov.uk/initiatives/piloting/lowdown.aspx
• Incorporatingrestorativeapproaches(fromtheEnglishnationalprogrammeforspecialistleadersofbehaviourandattendance)-http://nationalstrategies.standards.dcsf.gov.uk/node/90583
6.2 An introduction to solution-focused approaches
What are solution-focused approaches to change?
Solution-focusedapproachescanbedefinedas:• Theestablishmentofwhata‘preferredfuture’mightbe• Theidentificationofwaysinwhichthisisalreadyhappening.
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Thesolution-focusedapproachtochangeischaracterisedbythefollowingprinciples:• SolutionsNOTproblems• ThefutureNOTthepast• WhattodoNOTwhotoblame.
Thesolution-focusedapproachgivesteachersaproven,positivewayofworkingthathelpspupilsdealwiththeirproblems,reachtheirowndecisionsandgainself-esteemintheprocess.Ratherthandwellingondeficitsorthehistoryoftheproblem,thesolution-focusedteachersearchesfortimeswhentheproblemdoesnotoccur,andusesthese‘exceptions’tobegintoconstructpotentialsolutions.Thismodelisapractical,effectiveapproachtoworkingwithpupilsforchange.Underlyingthesolution-focusedapproachisapositiveandrespectfulattitudetothepupilsandtheirparents.
Usingthisapproach,teacherscollaboratewithpupilsandparentsand:• Assumethattheywanttodowell• Assumethattheyhaveorcandevelopagoalorgoals• Assumethattheyhavethecapacityandpersonalresources
tomovetowardsthegoals-evenifinverysmallsteps• Takeitforgrantedthatpupilsandparentsaretheexpertsintheir
ownlivesandlearning.
Theteacher’sexpertiseisinbeingcurious,askingappropriatequestionsandassistingprogress,whilebeingclearaboutprofessionalboundaries.Solution-focusedplanningandpractice:• Makespositiveassumptionsaboutpupilsandtheirfamilies• Recognisesstrengthsandresources• Elicitspreferredfuturesordesiredoutcomesbyusingrespectful
curiosity• Usespracticalmethodstoencouragestep-by-stepmovement
andactionplanninginthepreferreddirection• Encourageshelpfulandpositivefeedback.
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Some basic solution-focused techniques
Using scales in solution-focused practice
Ascaleisavaluabletooltouseinsolution-focusedpractice.Asimplescalelookslikethis,where0isnormallythelowest/worst/leasteffectiveand10isnormallytheideal/best/thehighestthatthepupilcanaspiretoorhopefor:
Theteacherfocusesonpositives,strengths,resourcesandcompetenciesandlooksathowpupilsmayincreasefromlowtohigh.Teacherscanuseothermetaphorsinsteadofthe0-10scaling,forexamplealadder,atree,oramountain.
Simple steps in using a scale:
1.Where are you now? -So,forexample,ifweareworkingwithapupilwholacksconfidenceincompletingworkatschool,wemightask:“Suppose0standsforyouhavingnoconfidenceatall,and10meansyouarereallyconfidentinyourwork,whereareyoutoday?”Let’ssaytheansweris“4”.Thisgivesbothpartnersanideaofhowconfidentthepersonfeelsnow.
2.How did you get up to there?-Thenextstepistodiscoverwhatthepupilisdoingwellalready,sowecanask:“Howdidyougetfrom0to4?Whatgivesyouthatmuchconfidence?”Wecanaskfordetailsof,forinstance,whatshehaslearnedthatgivesherconfidence,whoissupportivetoher,whatshelikesdoingorknowsshedoeswell,perhapscomplimentsthatothershavegivenher,etc.etc.
3.What will be happening at the next step up?-Or,“Whatwillyoubedoingdifferentlyatnumber5?”Therearenumerouswaysofaskingthisquestion.Wearetryingtogetabehaviouralpictureofhowshewillbewhensheismoreconfident.Wecanask
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
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questionslike:“whatwillbethesmallestsignthatwilltellyouthatyou’removingintherightdirection(intermsofbecomingmoreconfident)?”
4.What will 10 look like?-We’relookingforadescriptivepictureofhowthepupilseesherselfwhenshe’satherbest,orinthiscasemostconfident.Thismayjustbeahopeoravisionasyet.Whatwillshebedoingwhensheisatthislevel?Whatwillothersnotice?Wemayaskifsheisatthislevelofconfidenceinanyotherareaofherlife.Howdoesshelook?Bodylanguage?Expressionintheeyes?Speedingup/slowingdown?Toneofvoice?(Fromwww.northwestsolutions.co.uk/scales-18thJuly2006)
Asking solution-focused questions to support planning and practice
Usingsolution-focusedconversations,theteachercanaskeffectivequestionswhichhelpthepupiltoreachtheirowndecisions,ratherthanmakingstatementsorgivingadvice.Thesolutionfocusedteachersusesappreciative,respectfulcuriositytocreateopportunitiesforthepupiltothinkcreativelyabouthowtoprogresstowardstheirgoals.Asthepupilistheexpertonhis/herownlife,theteachershouldavoidleadingquestions(‘Whydon’tyou...?’,or‘Haveyouthoughtof...?’).Leadingquestionsmayembedtheteacher’ssolutionsandlimitsolutiongenerationbythepupil.
Solution-focusedquestionsinclude:• Whatareyourbesthopesforthislesson?• Whatwouldyouliketoachievetoday?• Howwillyouknowlaterthatthislesson/dayhasbeensuccessful?• Supposeinyournextdayatschoolyou’redoingthingsatyour
verybest:- Whatwillyoubedoingdifferently?- Howwillothersknow?- Whatwilltheysee,hear,feelthatwillbedifferent?
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• Inpastsituationsthatyouhavetoldmeabout:- Whatworkedwell?- Whatwillotherpeoplesaytheylikeaboutyou?- Howdidyoucope?- Whatwillyouliketocontinuetodoorcontinuetohappentoyou?
- Whatwouldyounotwanttohappenagain?- Howwouldyouwanttodoitinadifferentwayifthishappenedagain?
- Whathaveyoulearnedfromwhathappened?• Let’ssupposeyougetuptomorrowandthingsarebetter.
What’sthesmallestsignthatwilltellyouthatthingsareimproving?
• If10equalsthebestlesson/dayever-whereareyoutoday?Whathaveyoudonethat’smadeitworkthiswell?Whatneedstobedifferenttomakeitevenbetternexttime?
The ‘miracle’ or ‘magic’ question
Thisparticularquestioncanhelptoclarifygoals,identifyexistingprogress,clarifyoptionsforactionandactasacatalystforchange.Typicallythequestioniswordedas‘Imagineasyousleeptonighta‘miracle’orsome‘magic’happensandtheproblemsgoaway,butbecauseyouareasleepyoudon’tknowit’shappened.Whenyouwakeinthemorning,whatwouldbeafirstsigntoyouthatsomethinghashappened?’Thiscanalsoremindpupilsthatsomeofthechangestheyneedtoseearealreadyhappening.
Problem-free talk
Onceitisrespectfulandsensitivetodoso,pupilscanbeinvitedtotalkaboutaspectsoftheirlivesotherthantheirproblems.Theymightbeaskedabouthowtheycope,orabouttheirhobbies,orotheraspectsoftheirlifewheretheyenjoymoresuccess.Aswellasprovidingimportantinformationaboutexistingresources,thiscanalsoremindpupilsofabilitiestheymayhaveforgotten,raisingmoraleintheprocess.
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A case study on solution-focused approaches
ThefollowingcasestudywasprovidedbyandisusedwiththepermissionofKateEvan-Hughes,SeniorSchoolImprovementAdviser,Newport.
Lliswerry High School, Newport - Working on What Works With a Class
Withinitialguidanceandmodellingfromthelocalauthority’steacheradviser,wedecidedtoadaptanapproachdevelopedbySolutionFocusedBriefTherapypioneersInsooKimBergandLeeShiltsin2002,inwhichsolutionbasedmethodsareappliedtoagroup.
Theinterventionisprimarilyacoachingone:onememberofstaffactingina‘consultativerole’withaformteacherandherclass.Inourcase,itwastheschoolSENCoandaheadofyearthat,tobeginwith,tookonthiscoachingrole.Therolewasthencascadedfromclasstoclass:theformtutorswhohadwitnessed-andbeenpartof-theprocessthemselvescarryingitoutwithafurtherclass.
Webeganbyusingthemodelwith‘rogueclasses’buthavesubsequentlyemployeditwithother,‘lesstroubled’(!),forms.Thebeautyoftheapproachisthatitusestheaspirationsanddeterminationoftheclassesthemselvestomakeprogressinthewaystheywanttomakeprogress.Everyclasswantstochangesomethingforthebetter:fromimprovingattendanceofthoseintheclasstomakingsubjectlessonsasinterestingandrelevantaspossible.
Whilewe-asisoutlinedbelow-gainedinformationfromandfedbacktosubjectteachersaspartofthemodel,the‘classmeeting’partoftheprocess,solely,wehaveseentohaveaneffectiveness.
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Phase 1: Memo to a class’s subject teachers
Weask-Whatdoyoulike/arethegoodthingsaboutthisclass?Whatworkswiththisclass?Whatwouldyouavoidwiththisclass?Thisinformationiscollated.Itisthenshared,eitherviaamemo/emailor,withparticularly‘difficultclasses’,inashortmeetingbetweenallsubjectteachers.
Phase 2: Creating classroom goals and targets with students and form tutor
Thisfirstclassmeetingwilltakethelongesttime-45to60minutes.Theothermeetingswillbeshorter-perhaps20minutes.Thechairsarearrangedinacircleintheclassroom.Expectationsforbehaviourwithintheclassmeetingaredescribedandagreed.Webeginwithanintroductory,‘fun’,exercise.Wethenaskthestudentswhattheylike/whatisgoodabouttheclass.Thisisrecordedonlargesheetsofpaper-forexample,flipchartpaper.Weaddthecommentsoftheformtutor,togetherwiththecommentsthatwehavecollectedfromformteachersduringphase1.Wethenaskeachstudentwhere,ona0to10scale(0isworstpossible;10bestpossible),theybelievetheclassisatpresent:eachpersonintheclassisaskedtodescribehis/herownscore.Theresultsarerecoded(ontheclasswhiteboard)andanaverageworkedout.
Secondly,weasktheclasswhatitwilltaketomoveuponepointonthescale.Thestudentswillcomeupwithgeneralgoals-improveourbehaviour,cometoschoolforexample.Theformtutoralsojoinsintheprocess:theymightsharetheirperceptionsandtheirgoalsforchange.Fromthelonglistofgoals,weaskthestudents:Whichtwoorthreearemostimportant?Whichshallwetryfirst?Wethenbreakthesegoalsdownintosmalltargets:perhapsdetailingthebehaviourstheclasswilltrytoshowinlessonsorthestepsthattheclasswilltakeinordertoimproveattendance.
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Finally,weaskabouthowwewillknowwehavestartedtomovetowardsthesegoals.Studentsmaytalkaboutreceivingmorepraise,merits;theirpositionintheattendanceleagueswillchangeetc.Theoutlineofthewholemeetingisrecordedonlargesheetsofpaper.Sometimesasummaryofwhatwasagreedisemailedtoteachingstaffsothattheycanbeawareofwhattheclass’sexpectationsareintermsofteachers‘noticing’change.
Phase 3: Scaling classroom success and amplifying - rest of meetings
Thegoalsandtargetsaredescribed.Weaskfor‘evidence’ofchange.Weare‘interested’inthisandamplifysuccesses:Howwasthisdone?Howdidyoumanageit?Whatdoesthattellusaboutthisclass?Wethenasktheclassaboutcontinuingwithpresentgoalsorlookingtomakeprogressonnewones.Eitherduringeachsessionor-certainly-atthelastsession(oftenofthree),werepeatthescalingfromthefirstsession.Duringthelastsession,wesummarisewhatwehaveachieved.
Whiletheprocessdoestakeupthoughtandtime,wehaveseenitsbenefits.Itismoreeconomicalthan‘pickingoff’oneindividualatatime.Itbringsoutthebestinthestudentsandencouragesthemtothinkandactforthemselves-collaboratively.
Furtherinformationonsolution-focusedapproaches• UnitedKingdomAssociationforSolutionFocusedPractice-
http://www.ukasfp.co.uk/• Briefoffertrainingandresourcesonsolutionfocusedapproach-
www.brief.org.uk• SolutionfocusededucationfromBehaviourMatters-
http://www.teachingexpertise.com/articles/solution-focused-education-261
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• SolutionFocusedEducation:ForaHappierSchool(2005)byKerstinMåhlbergandMaudSjöblom-ISBN91-631-2943-4-UKdistributors-SolutionsBooks
• TeachingTowardSolutions:ASolutionFocusedGuidetoImprovingStudentBehaviour,Grades,ParentalSupportandStaffMorale(2003)byLindaMetcalf,ISBN-13:978-1904424079-Publisher:CrownHousePublishing.
6.3 An introduction to the transtheoretical model of change
What is the transtheoretical model of change?
Workingwithpupilstoinitiateachangeinbehaviourcanattimesbefrustratingandcomplex.Teachersmaysometimesfeelthattheyaremakingprogresswithapupilwhensuddenlytheyarebackatsquareone.Apupilmayagreetoaplanofactionyetnotcarryitout.Whydosomeapproachesworkwithoneindividualandnotanother?Whydosomepupilsconsistentlygothroughaprocessofprogressfollowedbyfailure?
Aprocessknownasthetranstheoreticalmodelofchange(sometimessimplyreferredtoasthestagesofchange)proposesawayofbeginningtoanswerthesequestionsaroundchangingbehaviour.Thisapproachmaintainsthattherearedistinctstagesthatpeoplegothroughwhendecidingtoinitiateabehaviourchange.Thestagesarethesamenomatterwhatthebehaviour.Thediagramonthefollowingpagerepresentsthekeystagesina‘wheel’format.
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Thesixstagesofchangehavebeensuggestedasawayofapproachingchangeforavarietyofproblembehaviours.Thecrucialfactoristoascertainthestageatwhichapupilcurrentlyoperatesandtouseapproachesandstrategiesappropriatetothatstage.
Pre-contemplationisthestagewhereapersonhasnointentionofchanginghis/herbehaviourintheforeseeablefuture.Manyindividualsinthisstageareunawareoftheirproblemsorarenotreadytochange.
Contemplationisthestagewhereanindividualisawarethataproblemexistsbuthasnotyetmadeacommitmenttotakeactiontochange.Thepupiliswillingtoconsidertheproblemandthatachangemaybebeneficialtohis/herfuture.
Therearevariouslevelsofambivalencebyapersoninthisstage.Thisbasicallymeansthatapupilcanfeeltwowaysaboutsomethingorsomeone.S/hecangobackandforthbetweenreasonsforconcernandunconcernormotivationstochangeorstaythesame.
RELAPSE Contemplation
The DecisionActive Change
Maintenance
Pre-awareness
EXIT
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Contemplationisnotacommitmenttochange.Intheeducationsettingifapupilagreestobehaveintheclassroombutdayslaterhasreturnedtohis/herpreviousbehaviourthenitmaybethattheindividualwasnotreadyorcommittedenoughtomakingthatchange.Iftheteacherattemptstousestrategiesthatmayonlybeappropriatefortheactionstage,thens/heislikelytoencounterresistance.
Determinationisthestageatwhichapersondecidestotakeactiontoceaseengaginginproblembehaviourand/ortosubstituteapositivebehaviourinitsplace.Thepupilappearsmotivatedtotakeaction.Iftheteachercanfindanacceptable,accessible,appropriateandeffectiveplanthenthepupilwillentertheactionstage.Ifnotthenthepupilwillslipbackintothecontemplationstage.
Actionisthestageinwhichindividualsmodifytheirbehaviour,experiencesorenvironmentinordertoovercometheirproblems.Actioninvolvesthemostovertbehaviouralchangesandrequiresconsiderablecommitmentoftimeandenergy.Heretheindividualgetsinvolvedintheagreedstrategiesintendedforchange.
Maintenanceisthestagewherepeopleworktopreventrelapseandconsolidatethechangesmadeduringtheactionphase.Thelengthoftimeapersonisinvolvedintheactionstageisvariabledependingupontheindividualandthebehaviour.Inthisstage,variousstrategiesandactivesupportfromhelpersisgraduallywithdrawnordecreased.Maintainingchangemayrequireadifferentapproachandskillstothoseneededtoaccomplishthechangeinthefirstplace.Maintenanceisthetestforwhethertheinterventionhasbeensuccessful.
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Therelapsestage,althoughsituatedafterthemaintenancephaseinthe‘wheelofchange’model,canactuallyhappenduringanyofthestages.Theinclusionofarelapsestagegivesrecognitiontothefactthatchanging‘problem’behaviourinmanycasesisdifficulttodoandmaynotalwaysbeovercomeatthefirstattempt.Slipsandrelapsesareexpectedtohappenespeciallyiflongstandingbehaviourisbeingchanged.Thepupil’smotivationmustbeencouraged.Thereisaneedtoreviewthewholeprocessusuallystartingfromthecontemplationstageandtryingtoavoiddiscouragementorthepupilbecomingdemoralised.Itiskeytogothroughanypositivesthatoccurredbeforerelapseandfocusonthese.
Overall,thisapproachallowsforindividualsinanychangeprocesstogoroundthewheelanumberoftimesifnecessarybeforeachievingastablechange.Itisessentialtoidentifythestageapupilisinandadoptanapproachappropriatetothestage.Inmanycaseschangewillnotoccurifstrategiesarediscussedwithapupil,whichareinappropriatetothestagetheyarein.
Whatthechangeisestablishesandbeingmaintained,exitfromthecyclecanbefacilitated.
Asaneasierwayofhelpingtounderstandtheprocess,thefollowingmayaidinterpretation.
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Precontemplation - ‘I’m okay’
• Thepupildoesnotintendtomakeanychangeass/hedoesnotseeaproblem.Thereisadenialthataproblemexists.However,othersdoseethatthereisaproblem.
Contemplation - ‘I don’t know’
• Thepupilmaythinkthats/hehasaproblem• Thereisanincreaseintheconflictofwantingtochangeandstayingthesame.Individualsareopentohelp
• Therearedifferentlevelsofcontemplation• Somepupilsmaygetstuckinchroniccontemplation(substitutethinkingforaction)
• Itisimportanttodiscusstheprosandconsofchange.
Determination - ‘I’ve decided’
• Hereapersonwilldecidetocarryonasbeforeortochange
• Begintomakechangesorsettargetdates• Haveapotentialstrategy/wayforwardinmind.
Action - ‘My first step’ • Decisionisputintopractice• Averyactiveperiodininitiatingachangeinbehaviour• Thepupilcanalsobeatgreatriskofrelapse.
Maintenance - ‘Getting there’
• Changehasbeenachievedanditisimportantthatitismaintained.
Furtherinformationonthetranstheoreticalmodelofchange• Pro-changebehavioursystems-http://www.prochange.com/ttm• Inwikipedia-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transtheoretical_model
6.4 An introduction to cognitive behavioural approaches
What are cognitive behavioural approaches to behaviour change?
Cognitivebehaviouralapproachesaimtosolveproblemsrelatingtodysfunctionalemotions,behavioursandthoughtprocesses(cognitions)throughusingtechniquesthataresystematic,direct,
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timelimitedandfocusedonspecificgoals.Thereisresearchevidencetosupporttheuseofcognitivebehaviouralapproachestoachievingchangeforavarietyofproblems,includingsubstancemisuse,offendingbehaviour,anxiety,posttraumaticstress,depression,eatingdisordersandphobias.
Cognitivebehaviouralapproachesweredevelopedthroughamergingofbehaviouralandcognitiveapproaches.Whilerootedindifferenttheories,thesetwotraditionsfoundcommongroundinfocusingonthe‘hereandnow’,andonalleviatingsymptoms.
Behavioural theory and approaches
Behaviouraltheoryisbasedontheprinciplethatbehaviourislearnt,andcanthereforebeunlearnt,orreconditioned(themostfamousexamplesofconditioningarethoseofIvanPavlovandB.FSkinner).Behaviouralapproachesareconcernedwiththepresent,withoutfocusingonthepasttofindareasonforthebehaviour.Behaviouralapproachesareoftenusedwiththosewhorequiresomesortofbehaviourchange,suchasaddictions,phobiasandanxietydisorders.
Cognitive theory and approaches
Cognitivetheoryisbasedontheprinciplethatthewayweperceivesituationsinfluenceshowwefeelaboutthem.Cognitiveapproachesusuallyfocusonthepresentandareproblem-solvingorientated.Cognitiveapproachesinvolvelearninghowtoidentifyandreplacedistortedthoughtsandbeliefs,ultimatelychangingtheassociatedhabitualbehaviourtowardsthem.
Whenindividualsaredistressedtheyoftencan’trecognisethattheirthoughtsaredistorted,socognitiveapproacheshelpthemtoidentifythesethoughtsandreassessthem.Forexample,ifanindividualmakesasmallmistaketheymaythink“I’museless,Ican’tdoanythingright”.Stronglybelievingthismaycausethemtoavoidtheactivitywheretheymadeamistakeandconfirmthisbeliefdeeper.Addressingthesethoughts,andreassessingthemcanleadtomoreflexiblewaysofthinking,allowingtheindividualtofeelmorepositive,belesslikelytoavoidsituationsandbeabletochallengetheirnegativebelief.
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Cognitive behavioural theory and approaches
Cognitivebehaviouraltheorycombinescognitiveandbehaviouraltheory.Itisbasedontheprinciplethatindividualslearnunhelpfulwaysofthinkingandbehavingoveralongperiodoftime.However,identifyingthesethoughtsandhowtheycanbeproblematictofeelingsandbehaviourscanenableindividualstochallengenegativewaysofthinking,leadingtopositivefeelingsandbehaviouralchanges.
Cognitivebehaviouralapproachesinvolvechangingthewayindividualsthink(cognitive)andhowtheyrespondtothesethoughts(behaviour).Thefocusisonthe‘hereandnow’insteadoffocusingonthecauseoftheissue,andlargeproblemsarebrokenintosmallerpartstomakethemeasiertodealwith.Thesesmallerpartscanbedescribedasthoughts,emotions,physicalfeelingsandactions.Eachofthesehastheabilitytoaffecttheother,e.g.thewayanindividualthinksaboutthingscanaffecthowtheyfeelemotionallyandphysically,andultimatelyhowtheybehave.
Theemphasisoncognitiveorbehaviouraspectsoftheapproachcanvarydependingontheissue.However,cognitivebehaviouralapproachesarelikelytoworkbestwhenusedtohelpchangespecificissuesasfocuscanbeplacedonparticularproblemsandhowtoovercomethem.
Changing pupils thinking and behaviour
Peoplerespondtoeventsonthebasisoftheirthinkingandbeliefs.Thesebeliefsdeterminehowtheyfeelandbehaveinanysituation.Thishelpsexplainwhy,giventhesamesituationandstimulus,differentpupilswillreactindifferentwaysbecausetheirthinkingisdifferentfromeachother.
Forexample,duringanEnglishlessonagroupmadeupofthreepupils,Julie,JamesandDebs,presenttheirpieceofworktotherestoftheclass.MrsAdamstheirteacherrespondswith“Thatwasexcellent;welldone”.
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• Julieglowswithpride,smilesandsays‘ThankyouMiss’.• Jameslooksawaywhilestickingtwofingersdownhisopen
mouthasiftobesick.Hemutterstohimself‘Howembarrassing’.• DebssniggersandshoutsbackatMissJones,‘Youalwayssay
thatbutnevergiveusan‘A’sowhat’sthepoint?’
Theresponsesofeachoftheabovepupilstothesameeventaregovernedbytheirthinkingandbeliefaboutwhatistakingplace.WhenMrsAdamssays,‘Thatwasexcellent;welldone’thesemaybethebeliefsbehindeachoftheresponses:
Julie• Sheisimpressed• Shethinkswehavedonewell
• ShebelievesIamsmart• Sheappreciatesmy/oureffortsandabilities
• Sheisagoodteacher
James• Onlygirlslikebeingpraisedinpublic
• Idon’t’believeheranyway
• MyfriendswillnowthinkthatIamaswotandateacher’spet
Debs• MrsAdamshatesmeanywaybutpretendsthatshedoesn’t
• Shesaysnicethingsaboutyourworktomakeyoutryharder
• ShewontgiveyouanAifsheknowsyouwantit
InordertoeffectanychangeinJames’andDebs’behaviourtheteacherneedstohelpthemchangethethinkingthatgovernstheirbehaviour.Changeinbehaviourwillonlybesustainedifthethinkingbehindthatbehaviouralters.
MrsAdamscouldchallengeJamesandsay:‘Thatisnothowtobehave.Ihavejusttoldyouhowgoodyourprojectis.Youshouldbepleased’.IfJameswastolookherintheeyes,clasphishandsinfrontofhim,smileandsay‘ThankyouMiss’,achangeinbehaviourseemstohavebeenachieved.However,itisextremelydoubtfulthatJameswillsustainthischangeinbehaviourbecausehisbeliefsaboutMrsJoneshavenotaltered.Toeffectchangeinpupils’thinkingandbehaviouroftenrequiressignificanttimeandattention.Thestepstochangingthinkingandbehaviourareoutlinedbelow.
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Thecasestudybelowillustrateshowthestepstochangingthinkingandbehaviourmightbeusedinaspecificsituation.
Case study - Declan
DeclantransferredintoWestHighSchoolinthemiddleofYear9.NowinYear10,Declanalwaysgetsintofightswithpupilsinhisclass.Heisnodifferentontheplaygroundwhenheiswithpupilsyoungerorolderthanhim.Heissmallforhisagebutwhateverhelacksinsize,hemakesupforwithhisfists.Hehardlytalkstoanybodyandhasfewfriends.
1. Challenge dysfunctional thinking behind the behaviour
2. Explore new and different ways of thinking
3. Test out these alternative ways of thinking and behaving in a new context
4. Develop a repertoire of alternative responses
5. Evaluate the effectiveness of these responses
6. Learn what forms the most effective responses in given situations
7. Apply this approach to other difficulties
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Athome,Declanisthemiddleofsevensiblings.Hehadbeenbulliedforaslongashecanremember,bytwoofhisolderbrothers.Hisfather’sresponsewastoencourageDeclantofightback‘towinrespect’.Once,Declanhithisbrothersohardwithacricketbatthathisbrotherendedupspendingtwoweeksinhospital.ThebullyingathomestoppedafterthatincidentandDeclanandhisbrotherslearnedtoavoideachother.
Declanbelievesthatthebestwaytowinrespectandnotbeconsideredawimpbyothersistobeaggressiveandviolenttowardspeople.Thisthinkingandbeliefhasgovernedhisbehavioursinceenteringsecondaryschool.SofarmostofDeclan’sexperienceshaveconfirmedthisview.
Steps for changing Declan’s thinking and behaviour
1.Challengedysfunctionalthinkingbehindthebehaviour
Declanthinks‘Ifanyoneupsetsme,IhitthembecausethatisthewaytoprovethatIamnotawimp’.ExplaintoDeclanthathittingpeoplehasnothingtodowithbeinga‘wimp’ornot.ExplorewithDeclantheconsequencesofhittingpeople.
2.Explorenewanddifferentwaysofthinking
HelpDeclantoappreciatethat‘Astrongpersonsayshowtheyfeelwhentheyareupsetsothatotherscanunderstandhowtheyfeelandstopupsettingthem’.
3.Testoutthesealternativewaysofthinkingandbehavinginanewcontext
Whenaclassmatejumpsthequeueatlunchtime,insteadofhittingthem,whatwouldhappenifDeclanpolitelyaskshimtogototheendofthequeue?
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4.Developarepertoireofalternativeresponses
HelpDeclantoexploreotherwaysofbehaving,egwhensomeoneupsetsDeclanhecould:• Walkawaytillhecalmsdown• Telltheteacheroranadult• Refusetobeupset.Seethefunnysideofthesituation.
5.Evaluatetheeffectivenessoftheseresponses
DoanyoftheseresponsescauseachangeinDeclan’sbehaviour,iedoeshestophittingothers?
6.Learnwhatformsthemosteffectiveresponsesingivensituations
Declanrealisesthatthemosteffectiveresponseistellingpeoplehowhefeels-thisresponseimproveshisbehaviourandstopshimfromgettingintotrouble.Hebecomesahappierperson.
7.Applythisapproachtootherdifficulties
Declanlearnstoexpresshisfeelingsratherthangettingintofightstoresolvehisdifficulties.
.
Teachersmaywishtousethisapproachforotherdifficulties.Changingthinkingisnotaneasythingtodoandwillinvolvesubstantialinvestmentoftimeandeffort,butforsomepupilsthismaybetheonlywaytoachievesustainedbehaviourchange.
Some basic cognitive behavioural techniques
Exploring thinking through ‘Like me/Unlike’ me or ‘True/False’ scales
Somepupilsmightfinditrelativelyeasytodiscusstheirbeliefsandthoughts,butmanyareless‘open’and/orfinditdifficulttotalkaboutthemselves,theirideasandhowtheyfeelandthink-possiblybecauseofdysfunctionalcognitiveoperations.Therearepublishedsourcesthatcanbeusedtoelicitsuchbeliefs,orteacherscandeveloptheirownwaysofenablingpupilstorespondandtoexpresstheirownviewsandopinions.
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OneexampleistheLikeme/UnlikemeORTrue/Falsescales.Thesescalescanhelpteacherstoexplorethoughtsandbeliefswithpupils.Thequestionscanrelateonlytoonespecificissueorcoverarangeofissues.Somequestionsshouldbepositiveandsomenegative.Likemescalesmayfeelmorepersonalthattruefalsescales,butmayillicitdeeperinsights.Teachersshouldcarefullyconsiderwhichtouseandwhatquestionstouse.
ExamplesofLikeme/Notlikeme:
1) Ionlymisbehaveforalaugh Likeme/Unlikeme
2) IthinkpeoplefindmefunnywhenIjokeinclass
Likeme/Unlikeme
3) Idothinkmybehaviourisaproblem Likeme/Unlikeme
4) Otherpeoplegetmetomisbehave Likeme/Unlikeme
5) Ichooseandcontrolmyownbehaviour Likeme/Unlikeme
6) Myteachercanhelpmetobehavebetter Likeme/Unlikeme
ExamplesofTrue/False:
1) Fightingisabadwaytosolveproblemswithothers
True/False
2) Hittingpeoplemakesmefeelbad True/False
3) Somepeopledeservetobehit True/False
4) Peoplewhodon’tfightareweak True/False
5) NobodyreallygetshurtwhenIhitthem True/False
6) Peopledon’tlikekidswhofightothers True/False
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Cognitive restructuring
Acognitiverestructuringapproachinvolvesdrawingoutthepupilsviewofevents(throughdiscussionandtheuseofelementssuchas‘Likeme/Unlikeme’or‘True/False’scales)andtheunderstandinginferencesandevaluationsandworkingtogethertochangethem.Aninferenceisaninterpretationofaneventthathashappenedorwillhappen.Itcanbeseenasthepupil’shypothesisabouteventsand,therefore,canbetestedoutwithevidence.Theevidencemayormaynotsupportthehypothesis.Wherethepupil’sinferencesarehabituallynegative,itisquitelikelythattheevidencewillnotsupportthem,andasaresult,newandmorerealisticinferencescanbedeveloped.Aninferenceisdrawnfromtheinformationavailabletothepupil.However,itistheevaluationoftheinferenceasnegativeorpositive,intermsofitsmeaningforthepupil,whichhasanemotionalconsequence.
Anegativeevaluationwillleadtoanegativeemotion.Astheevaluationsbecomemoreextremeandmoreunrealistic,theyleadtomoresignificantemotionalandbehaviouralconsequences.Thefirstevaluationmaybereasonablyaccurate.Thesecondoneisattachingextremelynegativeweighttothisevent.Thethirdmayleadtounwantedbehaviour.
Forexample:
Event:
StevenhaschosentositwithPeterintheclass,ratherthanAdrian.
Adrian’s negative inferences, evaluations and actions:
“StevenhasdecidedtotakesideswithPeteroverme.”(Inference)
“Stevendoesn’tlikeme”(firstvaluation)
“NobodylikesmesoitdoesnotmatterwhatIdo.”(secondevaluation)
“EveryonehatesmesoImayaswellactlikeanidiotandmakeeveryoneelsesuffer”(thirdevaluation)
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Inferencescanbechallengedbyturningthemintohypothesesandthenaskingthepupiltoconsidertheevidencethatsupportsorrejectsthosehypotheses.Achallengecanbemadebyencouragingthepupiltoconsiderwhatalternativeconclusionsheorshemightdrawfromtheevidence.
Forexample:
Event:
StevenhaschosentositwithPeterintheclass,ratherthanAdrian.
Possible neutral or positive inferences, evaluations and actions:
AdriandevelopshypothesesaboutwhyStevenmighthavesatwithPeter.ItcouldbePeterisgoodatMaths.
StevenfindsiteasiertobehavewhensatwithPeter.
Theteacherhasaskedhimtomove.
TocheckoutthesehypothesesAdriantalkstoStevenafterthelesson.Stevenhadbeenaskedtomovebytheteacher.AdrianandStevenarestillfriendsandAdrianmanagedhisownbehaviourthroughoutthelesson.
Teacherneedtoworkwiththepupilto:• Clarifyemotionsandidentifytheunderlyingassumptions/beliefs
thatshapethinking• Challengetheutilityandhelpfulnessofthesebeliefsandweigh
uptheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofcontinuingtoholdthesebeliefsandassumptions
• Generatealternative,moreeffectiveandadaptivebeliefs.
Problem solving
Manypupilswhoexperiencedifficultywiththeirbeliefs,thinking,emotionsandbehaviourmakearestrictedorstereotypedresponsetosocialsituationsinparticular.Thisresponsemaybecomeahabit,mayormaynotbereinforcedbyoutcomes,andmaybereinforcedbythepupilsunhelpfulthinking.Pupilswhomakeerroneous
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andhabitualresponsestogivensituationsmaybesaidtohavearestrictedrangeofresponses.Mostteacherswillhaveencounteredpupilswho:• Reactandfightwhenconfrontedwithsomethingtheycannotdo,
don’tknow,orevensomethingaboutwhichtheyfeeluncertain• Takeflightandtrytoescapeoravoidsituationsthatthey
experienceasthreatening,intimidatingandinsomecases,situationsthataresimplynewandunknowntothem
• Withdrawinwardsinresponsetoasituationthattheydonotlike,donotenjoy,orinwhichtheyrisksomeexposure,lossoffaceordamagetotheirself-esteem
• Allowotherstomakedecisionsforthem.
Suchpupilsfunctionwitharestrictedsetofpossibilities.Theirresponsescanbecomehabitualanddysfunctionalandmayleadtotheirrejectionorexclusionfromaclasssetting.
Thechangetaskbecomesoneofenablingthepupiltouse‘alternative-solutionthinking’,ie:• Tounderstandtheproblematicsituationsthatheorshe
encounters• Toappreciatethefactthatitispossibletomakeanumber
ofdifferentresponsestoanygivensituation• Todeveloparangeofalternativeresponsestoagivensituation• Toexplorethelikelyoutcomesofapplyingeachresponse• Toevaluatewhichofthesepossibleresponsesistheonemost
likelytoachievesuccess.
Wherepupilsfinditdifficultorthreateningtoexplorealternativestotheirownhabitualresponse,itcanbehelpfultobeginbyexploringconflicts/difficultiesexperiencedbyathirdparty.Theteacherneedstohavepreparedscenariosandexamplesthatthepupilisabletorelateto,ieinvolvingothersofroughlythesameageandstatus,and,mosthelpfully,thesamegender.Thisenablesthepupiltodevelopaproblem-solvingapproachtomeetingtheneedsofothers.S/hecanthenbesupportedintransferringthisapproachtoaddressinghis/herownresponsetoproblematicsituations.
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Havingsupportedthepupilingeneratingarangeofresponsestoagivensituation,theteacherneedstohelpthepupillookobjectivelyateachpossibleresponse,consideringtheprosandconsofeachonecarefully.Theteacherthenhelpsthepupiltotestout’thepreferredresponsebeforetryingtheminarealsetting.Theuseofrole-playcanbehelpful.
Havingevaluatedthelikelihoodofaparticularresponseworkinginagivensituation,thepupiliscoachedinhis/herperformancesothats/heisreasonablyaccomplishedinrespondinginthisnewway.Thepupilisthenencouragedtoapplythisnewapproachincontextandtoevaluateitsimpactperhapsusingtheself-monitoringtechniquesalreadydescribed.
Theteachermayencourageothersaroundthepupiltobealertto,andreadyfor,thisnewresponse.Thisisimportant,asthereisariskthattheytoomaycontinuetorespondtothepupilinanhabitualwayevenwhenthepupil’sresponsehaschanged!
Theformatprovidedbelowmayofferausefulframeworkforengaginginthisapproachwithapupil.
A Problem-Solving Approach
Name:
Theproblem/difficulty/situation:
Myusualresponse:
Five other ways to respond The likely outcome from each response
1.
2.
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Five other ways to respond The likely outcome from each response
3.
4.
5.
Whichisthebestresponse?Explainyourchoice
Furtherinformationoncognitivebehaviouralapproaches• NACRO(2000)Usingcognitivebehaviouralapproacheswith
childrenandyoungpeoplewhooffend.London,NACRO• NeenanM.andPalmerS(2001)CognitiveBehaviouralCoaching,
FirstpublishedinStressNews,July2001,Vol.13No3.• RoyalCollegeofPsychiatrists-Informationandlinkson
cognitivebehaviouraltherapy-http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/mentalhealthinformation/therapies/cognitivebehaviouraltherapy.aspx
• StallardP(2002)ThinkGood-FeelGood:ACognitiveBehaviourTherapyWorkbookforChildrenandYoungPeople.JohnWileyandSonsLtd,England
• TheYoungMind(Co-editedbySueBaileyandMikeShooter)-Informationfromhttp://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/pdf/The%20Young%20Mind%20Leaf-Col.pdf
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References and further reading
• Albano,M.,&KearneyC.(2000).When children refuse school: a cognitive behavioural therapy approach: Therapist guide. PsychologicalCorporation
• Churches,R&Terry,R(2007) NLP for Teachers: How to be a Highly Effective TeacherCrownHousePublishing
• Churches,R&Terry,R(2010) Effective Classroom Communication Pocketbook (Teachers Pocketbook) ManagementPocketbooks,ISBN-10:1906610118
• ColeT,(2007) A Review of ‘Attendance and Behaviour’ Reports and Guidance Issued by Government and Government Agencies in the British Isles,SEBDA-www.seba/org.uk-CommissionedbyWAG
• Corpus,J.H.,Lepper,M.R.(2007)Praising the person or what they do - do different types of praise have different effects on pupils’ motivation? Educationalpsychology,Vol.27,No.4,August2007,pp.487-508
• Counselling directory-http://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/behavioural.html
• DuckworthK,AkermanR,MacGregorA,SalterEandVorhausJ(2009)Self-Regulated Learning: A Literature Review.InCentreforResearchontheWiderBenefitsofLearningInstituteofEducation
• Frameworkforintervention(2001)Behaviour in Schools: Framework for Intervention Getting Started BirminghamCityCouncil
• French,Abe.(2007)Thinking Matters Facilitator Manual
• HewittD(ed)(1998)Challenging behaviour principles and practice,DavidFultonPublishers,London
• HigginsS,HallE,WallK,WoolnerP&McCaugheyC(2005)The Impact of School Environments: A literature review,DesignCouncil
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• Kelly,S(2007)How does classroom discussion affect pupils’ learning?InSocialPsychologyofEducation(2007)Vol.10,00331-352
• GrundyW&JonesD(2002)TheManagementofPupils’ChallengingBehaviour:Confrontationmanagement-StrategiesforPromotingPositiveBehaviourandAttendance-PartofthematerialsforTheNationalProgrammeforSpecialistLeadersofBehaviourandAttendance,DfES2004,CrownPublishing
• ManderM(2008)Critical incidents: effective responses and the factors behind them,NCSL-Fromhttp://www.nationalcollege.org.uk/docinfo?id=17138&filename=critical-incidents-full-report.pdf
• McGuire,J(2000) Cognitive - Behavioural Approaches: An introduction to theory and research,DepartmentofJustice-accessedfromhttp://www.justice.gov.uk/inspectorates/hmi-probation/docs/cogbeh1-rps.pdf
• Mooney,P;Ryan,J.B;Uhing,B,M;Reid,R&Epstein,M.H.(2005)A review of self-management interventions targeting academic outcomes for pupils with emotional and behaviour disorders.InJournalofBehavioralEducation(2005)Vol.14(3),pp.203-221
• Morris-MacleanS.(2000)Working with Difficult Pupils: A case study of teacher effectiveness.PresentedattheInternationalSpecialEducationCongress2000byPeterPumfrey
• OECD(2009)Creating Effective Teaching and Learning Environments: First Results from TALIS(TeachingandLearningInternationalSurvey)ISBN978-92-64-05605-3
• O’Brien,T(1998)Promoting positive behaviourLondon:DavidFulton
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• Porter,L(2001)Behaviour in Schools - Theory and Practice for Teachers,OpenUniversityPress,Buckingham
• RobertsonJ(1996)Effective Classroom control: Understanding teacher - pupil relationships,HodderandStoughton,London.
• RogersB.(2006a)Classroom Behaviour - A Practical guide to effective teaching, behaviour management and colleague support (2ndedition),SagePublicationsLtd,London
• RogersB.(2006b)Cracking the hard class (2nd edition),SagePublicationsLtd,London
• RogersB.(2006c)How to Manage Children’s Challenging Behaviour (2nd edition),SagePublicationsLtd,London
• RogersB.(2004)Behaviour recovery (2nd edition),SagePublicationsLtd,London
• Smith,CJandLaslett,R(1993)Effective Classroom Management: A teacher’s guide,Routledge,London
• Steer,A(2009)Review of Pupil Behaviour, Interim Report 4,InstituteofEducation
• Squires,G.(2001)Using cognitive behavioural psychology with groups of pupils to improve self-control of behaviour.EducationalPsychologyinPractice,Vol.17,No.4,pp.317-335
• Wannarka,R.;Ruhl,K.2008)Seating arrangements that promote positive academic and behavioural outcomes: a review of empirical research;inSupportforLearning,Vol23;Number2,BlackwellPublishingLtd
• WelshAssemblyGovernment(2010)Thinking Positively: Emotional Health and Well-being in Schools and Early Years Settings
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• WelshAssemblyGovernment(2001)The Learning Country
• WelshAssemblyGovernment(2006)The Learning Country: Vision into Action
• WelshAssemblyGovernment(2006) Inclusion and Pupil Support, Circular 47/06
• WelshAssemblyGovernment(2002)Narrowing the gap in the performance of schools,DfTEinformationdocument029-02,Oct2002.
• WelshAssemblyGovernment(2008)The School Effectiveness Framework
• WelshAssemblyGovernment(2008)National Behaviour and Attendance Review
• WelshAssemblyGovernment(2009) Behaving and Attending: Action Plan Responding to the National Behaviour and Attendance Review
• YoungMinds(1996)Mental Health in Your School