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Research Philosophy Research Ontology Research Epistemology Research Methodology Research Axiology Quantitative versus Qualitative Research

Philosophy and Approaches

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“The progress of scientific practice based on people’s philosophies and assumptions about the world and the nature of knowledge”

Paradigms offer a framework comprising an accepted set of theories, methods, and ways of defining data

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In natural science it is defined as the set of practices that define a scientific discipline during a particular period of time.

In social science the term is used to describe the set of experiences, beliefs and values that affect the way an individual perceives reality and responds to that perception

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What is the form and nature of reality?

If you assume there is a “real” world, then:

What is there that can be known about the reality?◦ How things really are?◦ How things really work?

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What is valid knowledge? What is the nature of the relationship

between the knower or would-be knower? What can be known?If we assume there is a “real” reality, then: The position of the knower must be

objective or detach from the reality in order to discover “how things really are?” and “how things really work?”

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The branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge, which seeks to inform us how we can know the world

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What distinguishes true knowledge from false knowledge

True- and false-colour images of Uranus.05/03/23 8

What is the role of values that underpin :◦ What is the valid knowledge?◦ What is the nature of the relationship between the

knower or would-be knower?◦ What can be known?

If we assume there is a “real” reality, then: The position of the knower must be

value/moral/aesthetic free from the reality in order to discover “how things really are?” and “how things really work?”

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How can the would-be-knower go about finding out whatever he or she believes can be known?

If we assume there is a “real” reality, then: He or she will employ objective methods that

mandates him or her to control possible confounding factors via using selective observation or experiment

“The methodological question cannot be reduced to a question of methods; methods must be fitted to predetermined methodology” (

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Early theories ◦ absolute permanent

Later theories ◦ Relativity◦ Situation dependence◦ Continuous development

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Positivist

Interpretivist

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Quantitative

Qualitative

Positivist

Interpretivist

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Positivism Interpretivism

Ontology: what is thenature of reality?

Epistemology:What is validknowledge?

Axiology:Role of values

RESEARCHSTRATEGY

Reality is objective andsingular, apart from theresearcher

Researcher is independentfrom that being researched

Value free and un-biased

• Cross-sectional studies• Experimental studies• Longitudinal studies• Surveys• Etc...

Reality is subjectiveand multiple as seenby the participants

Researcher interactswith that being researched

Value-laden and biased

• Action Research• Case Studies• Ethnography• Grounded Theory• Hermeneutics, etc...

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Positivist paradigm Interpretive paradigm

Tends to produce quantitative data Tends to produce qualitative data

Uses large samples Uses small samples

Concerned with hypothesis testing Concerned with generating theories

Data is highly specific and precise Data is rich and subjective

The location is artificial The location is natural

Reliability is high Reliability is low

Validity is low Validity is high

Generalises from sample to population

Generalises from one setting to another

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Positivism is a philosophy states that the only authentic knowledge is scientific knowledge, and that such knowledge can only come from positive affirmation of theories through strict scientific method.

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Adapted from Maylor and Blackmon (2005)

Define your research topic

Define your research question(s)i.e. hypothesis

Literature review

Collect data

Analyse data

Interpret results

Report your findings

Design data collection

Design data analysis

Pilot study

Deductive

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Research which combines a deductive approach with precise measurement of quantitative data to enable the discovery and confirmation of causal laws

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A generally accepted set of procedures for developing and testing theories

An idealised model to arrive at “the truth” through:

◦ Objective observation◦ Measurement◦ Careful and accurate analysis of data◦ Minimising pre-conceptions about how the world

works

What paradigm are we in here?

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Interpretivism, is a way to gain insights through discovering meanings by improving our comprehension of the whole. Qualitative research explores the richness, depth, and complexity of phenomena. 

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Research which combines an inductive approach with communication and observation of qualitative data to discover the reasons for events.

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A generally accepted set of procedures for collecting information about the world

An idealised model to arrive at “the data” through:

◦ Subjective observation◦ Being led by the data (ie. induction)◦ Trying to overcome biases about the situation◦ Avoiding conceptual frameworks or instruments

that might influence what is observed

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Adapted from Maylor and Blackmon (2005)

Define your research topic

Define your research question(s)

Literature review

Collect data

Literature reviewAnalyse data

Interpret data

Report your findings

Research question answered?

Design data collectionInductive

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DeductiveDeductive - begins with an abstract idea and principle and works toward the concrete details to test these ideas.

  InductiveInductive - begins

with concrete details and then works toward abstract ideas or general principles or laws.

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DeductiveDeductive – Theory testing

  InductiveInductive – Theory

building

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Characteristic Positivism Phenomenology

Questions that can be answeredWhat?How much?

Why?How?

Associated methodsSurvey,Experiment

Direct observation,Interviews,Participant observation

Data type Predominantly numbers Predominantly words

Finding Measure Meaning

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Whether you take a scientific (positivist) or interpretivist approach will influence:

What research questions you ask What methods you use to collect your data What type of data you collect What techniques you use to analyse your

data

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quantitative numbers

qualitative words, sounds or pictures

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quantitative ImpersonalMeasurementQuestionnaires (closed)

qualitative Questionnaires (open)PersonalInterviews

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quantitative how many

qualitative how or why

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quantitative Natural science model

qualitative social science model

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natural science model:natural science model: representative sampling, formulation and testing of an hypothesis

social science model:social science model: an ethnographic approach to data collection, a research question. Seeks information about reality. Not testing of reality

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positivist,positivist,systematic, orsystematic, orscientific scientific

researchers using a researchers using a positivist positivist epistemologyepistemologygenerally seek generally seek to to collectcollectquantitative dataquantitative data

anti-positivist, anti-positivist, interpretivist,interpretivist,ethnographicethnographicor naturalisticor naturalistic

researchers using an researchers using an anti-positivist anti-positivist epistemologyepistemologygenerally seek to generally seek to collectcollectqualitative dataqualitative data

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  QualitativeQualitative 

QuantitativeQuantitative

The productThe product textualtextual 

numericalnumerical 

The epistemologyThe epistemology interpretive (empathy interpretive (empathy and understandingand understanding)

positivist (measuring positivist (measuring and collecting facts)and collecting facts)

The dataThe data 

‘‘subjective’subjective’andand ‘soft’‘soft’

‘‘objective’ andobjective’ and‘‘hard’hard’

Aim of researchAim of research discovery orienteddiscovery oriented verificationverification

MethodMethod non-experimentalnon-experimental 

experimentalexperimental

Process of inquiryProcess of inquiry concepts derived concepts derived from understanding from understanding the actor’s point of the actor’s point of view (inductive)view (inductive) 

concepts pre-defined concepts pre-defined from established from established theorytheory(deductive(deductive)) 

Use of theoryUse of theory theory buildingtheory building 

theory testingtheory testing05/03/23 35

Source: © Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2006

The research ‘onion’

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