potential of renewable energy development for water desalination in tunisia

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www[elsevier[com:locate:reneneRenewable Energy 07 "0888# 220Ð236

9859!0370:88:, ! see front matter Þ 0888 Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reservedPII] S 9 8 5 9 ! 0 3 7 0 " 8 7 # 9 9 7 9 6 ! 5

Potential of renewable energy development forwater desalination in Tunisia

F[ BenJemaa�\ I[ Houcine\ M[H[ ChahbaniInstitut National de Recherche Scienti_que et Technique\ BP 84\ 1949 Hammam!Lif\ Tunisia

Received 05 October 0887^ accepted 3 November 0887

Abstract

Potential renewable energy sources\ which can be harnessed toward brackish and seawaterdesalination in Tunisia\ have been evaluated[ These sources of energy\ mainly] solar\ wind andgeothermal\ have been identi_ed throughout the country and their suitability for coupling withdi}erent desalting technologies have been investigated[ Renewable energies are expected tohave a ~ourishing future and an important role in the domain of brackish and seawaterdesalination[ Of special interest\ are small desalination plants which can be operated with smallquantities of energy[ Small!scale renewable energy driven desalination plants might be the mosteconomical solution for providing portable water to remote and isolated communities wherethe electric grid and the proper infrastructure are lacking[ By exploiting renewable energies forfresh water production\ three main problems can be addressed] fresh water scarcity\ fossil energydepletion and environmental degradation due to gas emissions and hydrocarbon pollution[Þ 0888 Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved[

Keywords] Desalination^ Water resources^ Solar energy^ Wind energy^ Geothermal energy^ Tunisia

0[ Introduction

Like many other countries in the North African and Middle East region\ Tunisiais confronted with the acute problem of fresh water shortage[ The problem is furtheraggravated by the exponentially growing demand for water due to a progressiveurbanization and industrialization process[ In addition to the growing population\ asteady rise in the living standards causes the speci_c water consumption per capita to

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F[ BenJemaa et al[ : Renewable Ener`y 07 "0888# 220Ð236221

increase many fold[ The need for adopting desalination as a solution to the freshwater problem is dictated not only by the water resources scarcity but also by thequality of the available water[ In many parts of the country and particularly inthe south\ groundwater sources are often brackish\ thus unsuitable for drinking orirrigation[ Figure 0 shows available water resources in the country[ Out of the modestquantities of water available\ only a small portion meets the standards for potablewater due to high salinity levels[ Only 7[3) of the total shallow groundwater havesalinity levels inferior to 0[4 g:l[ Figure 1 shows a detailed classi_cation of waterresources in Tunisia according to their salinity[ It is clear that a large percentage ofthese waters need to be desalted before they can be exploited[

Currently\ desalination is carried out in Tunisia on a small scale mainly in thesouthern region of Gabe�s and in the Islands of Kerkenah and Djerba[ However\ giventhe statistics on water resources availability and water demand _gures\ desalinationis expected to be carried out on a wider scale in the near future[ All desalinationstations currently under operation in the country are powered by conventional energysources[ By closely examining the energy situation in the country\ the demand is soonexpected to exceed the available fossil energy sources[ In fact\ by the year 1909\ theenergy consumption is expected to reach 09[1 Mtep:year whereas the fossil energyavailable will only be 1[8 Mtep:year[ Also\ and from an environmental point of view\

Fig[ 0[ Total available water resources in Tunisia[

F[ BenJemaa et al[ : Renewable Ener`y 07 "0888# 220Ð236 222

Fig[ 1[ Water resources classi_cation according to salinity levels[

it is worth noting that the use of fossil energy sources\ especially hydrocarbons\ has anegative e}ect on the environment and contributes to a progressive pollution anddeterioration in the quality of soil\ water and air[

Faced with a depletion of its fossil energy sources and a progressive degradation ofits environment due to pollution and gas emissions\ Tunisia looks for the answer tothe water scarcity problem in the use of its abundant and readily available renewableenergy sources as a cleaner and safer way for providing fresh water[ Given its locationwithin the solar belt of the world\ Tunisia has an ample source of solar energy thatcan be harnessed toward many development projects[ Solar radiation intensity canreach an average of 349 cal:cm1:day in the southern part of the country[ In additionto the abundant solar energy source\ Tunisia is blessed with at least two other formsof renewable energy sources[ A number of geothermal groundwater sources can befound in various parts of the country[ In addition\ many parts of the country\ inparticular the coastal regions\ have average wind speeds exceeding 4Ð5 m:s[


Desalination by means of renewable energy sources is a suitable solution forproviding fresh water to a number of regions in Tunisia and in the MediterraneanBasin in general[ This solution becomes more and more competitive especially forremote and rural areas where small quantities of water are needed[ Nowadays\ andgiven the advances in desalination technologies\ small and medium size desalinationunits can be easily designed[ These plants can be operated at temperatures as low as59Ð69>C which make them suitable for use with renewable energies[

It is well known that the cost of power extraction from renewable energy sourcesis progressively decreasing over the years[ The challenge\ however\ is to overcomesome barriers that are still hindering the development of these sources over a widerscale^ these obstacles are mainly] unequal access to investment capitals\ distortedenergy markets and inadequate institutional capacity to commercialize immaturetechnologies ð0Ł[ To guarantee a real evolution in the world|s energy strategy towardthe use of renewable energies\ four credibility factors have to be ful_lled] the technicalviability\ the economic competitiveness\ the environmental aspect and the politicalwill ð1Ł[

1[ Potential renewable energy sources

Given its geographical location\ its topography and its geomorphology\ Tunisia isblessed with a number of renewable energy sources[ These sources of energy vary intheir importance and distribution from one region to the other[ A survey of thesesources showed that at any territorial region of the country at least one or moresources of renewable energy are readily available\ especially solar energy which ispresent over the entirety of the country[ The main renewable energy sources\ whichare considered as potentially suitable for powering water desalination plants\ arediscussed here[

1[0[ Solar ener`y

Being the most abundant form of renewable energy\ solar energy constitutes a bigasset for arid and semi!arid regions[ Unfortunately\ this abundant and free form ofenergy is being under!exploited due to the lack of economically competitive conversionprocesses that take advantage of this energy[ Tunisia receives an average of 249cal:cm1:day of solar radiation in the north[ The intensity of solar radiation gets evenhigher in the southern part of the country reaching an average of 349 cal:cm1:daywith a total insolation period of 2499 h:year and 249 sunny days per year[ Figure 2shows a contour map of the mean yearly solar radiation intensity in Tunisia[ Theestimated annual solar energy potential can reach a magnitude of 154\999 Tep ð2Ł[ Itis important to note that the southern part of the country with a higher solar radiationis the region where the problem of fresh water shortage is most acute[

Climatic data for the site of the National Institute for Scienti_c Research "InstitutNational de Recherche Scienti_que et Technique\ INRST# show that the mean dailysolar radiation exceeds 6[6 kWh:m1 in the summer "Fig[ 3#[ The mean daily insolation


Fig[ 2[ Contour map of mean yearly solar radiation intensity in Tunisia[

ranges from 4 h of sunshine per day in December to 01[02 h in July "Fig[ 4#[Temperatures can reach as high as 37>C in the summer with means not falling below09[6>C all year round "Fig[ 5#[

On the experimental level\ Tunisia has pioneered in exploring the feasibility ofwater desalination by means of solar energy ð3Ð6Ł[ A number of ambitious pilot plantsconsisting of single basin solar stills have been constructed to produce fresh waterfrom brackish groundwater under the supervision of the Tunisian Atomic Energy


Fig[ 3[ Mean daily solar radiation at the INRST experimental desalination station[

Commission in the late 0859|s[ More recently\ an experimental desalination stationfor brackish and seawater desalination using renewable energies "mainly solar andwind# has been built in 0870 within the National Institute for Scienti_c Research"INRST# at its site of Borj!Cedria on the southern suburbs of Tunis city[ Researchand development in the domain has since progressed steadily[ In contrast\ applicationsat the commercial scale have been hindered by the economical constraints and thelack of inexpensive and su.ciently advanced technologies that make renewable energydriven desalination competitive or at least equivalent to conventional desalination[

1[1[ Wind ener`y

The wind energy potential in Tunisia is signi_cant and may reach as much as899 kWh:m1:year ð7Ł[ By examining the map of wind distribution over the country"Fig[ 6#\ three zones of high wind potential can be identi_ed[ The _rst and mostimportant zone extends from the northeastern coast to the northwestern coast\ thesecond covers the gulf of Gabe�s and the third is located at the mountainous region ofTala[ The windiest zone is that of the northeastern region of Cap!Bon where the meanyearly wind energy exceeds 899 kWh:m1[ Data taken at the INRST site show average


Fig[ 4[ Mean daily insolation at the INRST experimental desalination station[

wind speeds of about 4 m:s[ Maximum wind speeds however\ can temporarily reachvery high values "Fig[ 7#[

Wind energy has been exploited for water pumping for a long time in manyparts of the country using traditional windmills[ Recently\ a new project has beencommissioned for installing a wind park consisting of a series of aerogeneratorturbines in the northeastern Cap!Bon region for electricity generation with a totalproduction capacity of 099 MWe[ Despite the great interest in the use of wind energyfor pumping and for electricity production\ the use of this form of energy for poweringdesalination plants in Tunisia has not been considered yet[ It is however importantnot to overlook the tentative of coupling wind energy to water desalination throughthe installation of two aerogenerators of 0014 VA and 3499 VA at the site of theINRST experimental desalination station in the early 0879|s ð3Ł[

1[2[ Geothermal ener`y

A number of places with geothermal springs have been known for a long time inTunisia\ some of which have been used for bathing and therapeutic treatments "e[g[\Korbous\ El!Hamma\ and Hammam!Zriba#[ Recently\ geothermal groundwater sour!


Fig[ 5[ Mean daily ambient temperature at the INRST experimental desalination station[

ces destined for irrigation are a priori used for heating agricultural greenhouses as aresult\ a considerable increase in greenhouse farming has been recorded in recentyears ð8Ł[ Most geothermal sources in Tunisia have low enthalpy with maximumtemperatures of 69Ð89>C[ Nevertheless\ the northwestern part of the country is char!acterized with a geothermal zone of high energy[ Ben Dhia ð09Ł subdivided the countryinto _ve major geothermal districts[ Recorded hot spring temperatures range from10Ð62>C with ~ow rates of 9[0Ð39 l:s[ Figure 8 shows the regions of the country withknown geothermal sources[ These sources can be found not only in the northern partof the country where desalination is least needed\ but also along coastal regions andin the south where the fresh water problem is most acute[ Coastal towns\ touristresorts and islands are characterized with high population factors and huge in~uxesof summer tourists and visitors causing a dramatic increase in the demand for potablewater[ Southern parts of the country\ in the contrary\ have a lower population density[However\ available groundwater resources in the south are mostly brackish[

1[3[ Other renewable ener`y sources

Aside from the above!cited sources\ a number of other renewable energies can beidenti_ed[ Even though these sources may have a considerable potential for other


Fig[ 6[ Contour map of mean wind energy distribution in Tunisia[

applications\ they are regarded as unsuitable for coupling with desalination plantsgiven the currently available technologies[ An important renewable energy source\which can be found in the northern part of the country\ consists of the hydraulicpotential[ This form of energy has been traditionally exploited for electricityproduction[ Even though electrical power produced by hydraulically driven turbinescan serve for powering desalination plants\ desalting water is generally not needed inregions with important surface water resources[ Other sources of renewable energyare industrial\ municipal and farm wastes[ In fact\ considerable amounts of energycan be recuperated from solid as well as liquid wastes[ An unlimited yet unexploredsource of energy in Tunisia is tidal energy[ Tidal or wave energy generated from the


Fig[ 7[ Monthly average and maximum wind speeds at the INRST site[

perpetual movement of the oceans can be coupled to RO "Reverse Osmosis# desali!nation plants ð00\ 01Ł[ Marine kinetic energy can be harnessed using techniques similarto those used for extracting wind energy by implementing submarine turbines or{tidemills| similar in design to windmills[ Given the high density of water\ in com!parison with air\ even low ~ow velocities can produce a considerable amount ofenergy^ for example\ a water ~ow velocity of 2 m:s "i[e[\ 5 knots# yields approximately02 kW:m1[ To obtain an equivalent amount of power from wind energy\ a windvelocity of 07 m:s is required ð02Ł[ However\ most of these forms of energy arecurrently considered as unsuitable for coupling with desalination plants either forbeing too immature\ too expensive or limited ð03Ł[

2[ Renewable energy coupling to desalting technologies

It is worth noting that the most investigated mode of coupling between renewableenergy sources and desalination processes is the use of direct sun rays to producefresh water by means of solar stills[ Many solar stills have been constructed in manyplaces worldwide since the turn of the twentieth century[ Numerous attempts to


Fig[ 8[ Map location of regions with known geothermal sources in Tunisia[

harness solar thermal energy for water distillation have been carried out even earlierin history ð04\ 05Ł[ Many studies have investigated the e}ect of di}erent designparameters on the overall performance of solar stills[ To mention a few\ we cite theworks of Garg and Mann ð06Ł\ Rajvanshi ð07Ł\ Tiwari et al[ ð01\ 08Ł\ Zaki et al[ ð10Ł\Al!Hussaini and Smith ð11Ł and Singh et al[ ð12Ł[ In this context\ Tunisia has been apioneer in exploring the possibility of water desalination through single basin solarstills[ A number of desalination plants consisting of glass covered solar stills havebeen constructed in many parts of the country in the late 0859|s ð3\ 6Ł[


Even though the use of direct solar thermal energy for desalting water throughsolar stills is very well known\ it is not considered in the classi_cation of di}erentcoupling combinations given below[ The investigated coupling combinations includeonly the currently commercialized desalination processes which are considered as{technologically developed|[ Numerous attempts and experiments have been carriedout throughout the world in an attempt to _nd suitable coupling procedures betweendesalination processes and renewable energy sources[ The suitability of a given renew!able energy source for powering certain desalting processes depends on both therequirements of such processes and the form of energy that can be obtained fromthe considered source[ Di}erent plausible combinations between renewable energysources and desalination technologies can be envisaged ð13Ł[ The forms of energywhich can be obtained from renewable energy sources are mainly] thermal energy\mechanical energy and electrical energy[ Since the end form of energy needed by thedesalting process is the main factor in determining the suitability of certain renewableenergy sources for powering certain desalination technologies\ a ~ow chart relatingdi}erent desalination technologies to potentially suitable renewable energy sources isdeveloped "Fig[ 09# based on the works of Rodri�guez!Girone�s et al[ ð13Ł and Hunterð03Ł[

3[ Reliability and coupling concerns

Beyond the economic considerations\ the main concern that arises when couplingdesalination plants to renewable energy sources is the reliability of the system giventhe intermittence character of most renewable energy sources[

In recent years\ a number of research experiments have been undertaken in Tunisiafor the purpose of modeling and investigating the feasibility of coupling desalinationunits\ mainly MED "Multiple!E}ect Distillation# and MSF "Multiple!Stage Flashdistillation#\ to solar thermal energy via the use of a solar pond ð14Ð17Ł or a solarcollector ð18Ł[ Many successful pilot projects of solar energy driven desalination plantshave been recorded worldwide[ In Abu Dhabi\ a solar desalination plant has been

Fig[ 09[ A ~ow chart representation of di}erent options for renewable energy coupling with desalinationtechnologies[


successfully operated since 0873 ð29Ł[ The plant consists of a Multi!E}ect StackEvaporator with an average yearly production of 74 m2:day[ Solar thermal energyrequired by the plant is supplied via an 0751 m1 ~at plate collectors "evacuated tubetype#[ Mu�ller et al[ ð20Ł described a small!scale seawater desalination plant using solarthermal energy[ The plant\ consisting of a Multi!E}ect Humidi_cation unit\ has beencoupled to a solar collector linked to a heat storage tank allowing continuous oper!ation of the plant throughout the day[ In Almeri�a\ Spain\ a 61 m2:day 03!e}ect MEDsolar seawater desalination plant has been tested from 0877Ð0883 ð21Ł[ The plant waspowered by a _eld of solar parabolic trough collectors delivering a daily average of5[4 MWt of energy[ The collector _eld is connected to a 004 m1 heat storage vessel[The plant e}ects operated at temperatures ranging from 69>C\ in the _rst e}ect\ to22>C\ in the last[

Photovoltaic "PV# driven desalination plants have also been implemented in variousparts of the world[ A small PV driven RO pilot plant has been tested in Gran CanariaIsland ð22Ł[ The pilot plant\ having an average production capacity of 2[1 m2:day offresh water\ is coupled to a stand!alone PV system and storage batteries[ The averagenominal power consumption of the plant\ including the high pressure pumps\ is1[24 kW[ The U[S[ Bureau of Reclamation has developed a PV powered EDR"Electrodialysis Reversal# desalination unit with a daily production of 6[4Ð00[3 m2 offresh water ð23Ł[ The unit is coupled to two 0 kW tracking ~at plate arrays for pumpingand three _xed arrays providing 1[2 kW of energy for the EDR system[

Concerning geothermal sources\ energy output is generally invariant with lessintermittence problems making them ideal for thermal desalination processes[ Eventhough most of the geothermal sources in the country are of low enthalpy class\ theycannot be disquali_ed from potential coupling with desalination plants[ Karystsasð24Ł has described a case study of a low enthalpy geothermal energy driven seawaterdesalination plant on Milos Island\ Greece[ The proposed design consists of couplingMED "Multi!E}ect Distillation# units to a geothermal groundwater source withtemperatures ranging from 64>C to 89>C[ The study results showed that the exploi!tation of the low enthalpy geothermal energy would help save the equivalent of 4999TOE:year for a proposed plant capacity of 599Ð799 m2:day of fresh water[ Even inthe case of limited geothermal energy\ thermal desalination processes such as MED\TVC "Thermal Vapor Compression#\ SF "Single Stage Flash distillation# and MSFcan bene_t greatly when coupled to geothermal sources by economizing considerableamounts of energy needed for preheating[

4[ Conclusions and outlook

The problem of fresh water shortage is not merely restricted to a few countries[ Inthe Mediterranean region alone\ not less than six countries*including Tunisia*arealready below the threshold of 0999 m2:year of potable water per capita ð25Ł[ Givenpopulation growth and the progressive urbanization and industrialization\ at leastten Mediterranean countries are expected to fall below the aforementioned thresholdby the year 1914[ As a result\ the a}ected population will grow beyond 159 millions[


In Tunisia\ fresh water demand is expected to reach 766 million m2:year by the year1914\ whereas available fresh water from conventional sources is assessed not to beable to cover the total demand beyond the year 1909[ As a result\ resorting to non!conventional means\ such as desalination\ to make up for the de_cit is becominginevitable[ It is important to note that global _gures for water demand and availabilityare somehow misleading[ In fact\ even though the quantity of fresh water maycurrently exceed the demand on a global scale\ southern regions of the country arealready having a fresh water de_cit and water transfers over long distances prove tobe very costly[

If desalination of brackish and seawater is emerging as a promising solution to thewater scarcity problem\ a number of related predicaments have to be urgentlyaddressed so as to guarantee a sustainable and long lasting development of the waterdesalination industry[ Of paramount importance is to make provision for the hugeamount of energy required by di}erent desalination technologies[ Given the fact thatfossil energy reserves are limited and the negative e}ects they in~ict on the environ!ment due to pollutants and gas emissions\ development of renewable energy sourcesis immediately needed more than ever before[

The prospects of renewable energy development in Tunisia show a ~ourishingfuture[ Solar energy\ being the most promising form\ has been assessed to be availablein huge quantities throughout the country and all year round[ With a higher potentialin the southern part of the country\ solar energy is in perfect synergy with locationswhere water desalination is most needed[ It is also encouraging to know that a largepercentage of the population in the south lives in small agglomerations and remotevillages\ making the implementation of small size desalination plants a perfectlyadequate solution[ These small desalination plants can be operated with minimalenergy requirements^ thus suitable for coupling with renewable energy sources[

Wind potential in the country is more abundant in the northern part and in coastalregions[ This form of renewable energy is also suitable for use with small capacitydesalination units\ especially RO type[ If water desalination for urban use is lessneeded in the northern part of the country\ the wind energy potential can surely beof great use especially in the coastal region where numerous tourist resorts arepotential users of small desalination plants[

The geothermal energy potential has been assessed as limited\ given that most ofthe geothermal sources in the country are of low enthalpy[ However\ their direct usein thermal desalination plants "e[g[\ MED\ TVC# can still give promising resultsknowing that these desalination processes can be operated at relatively low tempera!tures[ Of special value are the geothermal sources in the south where importantbrackish groundwater sources need to be desalted[

The assessment of the general potential for coupling various renewable energysources and desalination technologies can be found in detail in the literature ð03Ł[ InTunisia\ the potential of any of the three main renewable energy sources describedabove is considerable[ However\ a higher potential can be obtained by coupling twoor more of these energies within a hybrid desalination system[ It is\ for example\ avery attractive idea to couple both geothermal and solar energies\ especially inlocations where both are present in substantial amounts[


Given the fragile status of renewable energy industries due to numerous obstaclesand market challenges\ government and institutional assistance is indispensable for asuccessful startup[ Aware of these challenges\ Tunisia has recently instituted a numberof decrees and laws giving companies and consumers attractive incentives "e[g[\ loansat low interest rates# and tax reductions on renewable energy activities and productsð8Ł[ In addition\ subsidies for oil and hydrocarbons have been eliminated\ thus restor!ing real energy prices allowing the renewable energy industry to compete on fairgrounds[ It remains\ however\ to see what practical constraints have to be overcomein order to transform the existing renewable energy potential into reality[

In summary\ a substantial potential exists for the use of renewable energy sourcesfor brackish and seawater desalination in Tunisia[ Given the location of the countrywithin the most insolated region of the world\ the most promising source is that ofsolar energy which can be coupled with a number of desalination technologies eitherin the form of thermal energy or PV energy[ Solar energy is well suited for poweringmost of desalting techniques[ In addition\ to direct solar radiation usage via solarstills\ solar energy can be coupled to MED and TVC processes in the form ofheat energy as well as to RO\ ED "Electrodialysis# and MVC "Mechanical VaporCompression# in the form of electrical energy[ Wind energy comes second in terms ofsuitability for coupling to desalination plants[ Wind energy is most promising in thecoastal and mountainous regions for powering RO and MVC plants in the form ofmechanical energy[ In the form of electrical energy\ wind energy can be coupledfavorably to ED\ RO and MVC plants[ Geothermal sources are also adequate forpowering thermal desalination processes\ mainly] MED and TVC[ Finally\ hybriddesalination systems taking advantage of several sources of renewable energies are tobe considered for _nding the optimal combination which is most suited for any speci_csite[

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ð25Ł Margat J\ Nogaret E\ Mayer D\ Neirac\ F[ Potential for water desalination with renewable energiesin the southern Mediterranean countries[ Proceedings Mediterranean conference on renewable energysources for water production\ Santorini\ Greece\ June 09Ð01\ 0885[ p[ 148Ð53[

potential of renewable energy development for water desalination in tunisia

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