post-conquest demographic collapse-latin american studies-oxford bibliographies

3/26/13 Post-Conquest Demographic Collapse - Latin American Studies - Oxford Bibliographies

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Post-Conquest Demographic CollapseDouglas Ubelaker, Keitlyn E. Alcantara

Introduction

The post-contact demographic collapse is firmly documented in Latin America but not fully understood. Much

academic discussion has appropriately concentrated on the numbers. Assessments focusing on population size at contact and

timing and dimensions of the populational nadir have struggled with obtaining accurate and realistic population counts, with the

gradual realization that the nadir varied throughout Latin America. An understanding of this variation calls for comprehensive and

integrated information on the nature of epidemic disease, genetics, history, human skeletal biology, archeological evidence, and

cultural factors. Such an understanding must avoid superficial, nave generalizations but rather seek synthesis of the diverse relevant

data with an appreciation for regional variation and nuance. This bibliography was compiled with these general considerations in

mind. The resources begin with Edited Volumes, because many syntheses originate from such broad, interdisciplinary efforts.

Primary sources then present a sampling of the type of evidence used for historical evaluation (Source Material for Population

Estimates). Precontact Culture and Society provides some sense of the cultural and demographic landscape on the eve of European

contact. Precontact Morbidity and Mortality adds important detail from studies of human skeletal biology, and ethnohistoric and

archival records. Early Historical Demography examines variations of the population-size impact of initial European contact. Because

this scholarly area has proven controversial, Debates in Historical Demography presents different points of view on the methodology

employed. Regional Population Estimates reveals how assessments have been made within different areas of Latin America

employing a range of academic approaches. History of Contact by Region evaluates the effect of timing and circumstances on

contact throughout Latin America. Vectors of Disease provides a scholarly examination of the nature of the influential diseases

themselves. Regional Patterns of Post-Contact Disease documents the varied ways that disease affected aboriginal populations

throughout Latin America. Cultural Implications of Conquest and Region-Specific Cultural Factors focus on important cultural factors

that influenced demographic collapse and contributed to regional variation. Skeletal Studies examines the evidence for morbidity and

mortality presented by the skeletal remains of the affected populations. Finally, Post-Contact Genetic Admixture documents

contributions from population genetics. This selection of predominantly English works is not intended to reflect the available literature

but rather material that can be used to establish a solid overview of the topic. Many Spanish-language sources provide detailed,

region-specific studies and should be consulted for more intensive scholarly research. Similarly, while online resources certainly

exist, at this time the following sources were thought to provide the most appropriate material for the topic at hand.

Edited Volumes

Understanding the complexity of demographic collapse in Latin America demands an overview of bioarchaeology, human skeletal

biology, archaeology, history, archival studies, demography, epidemiology, pathology, and related fields of study. Several key edited

volumes have been instrumental in bringing together the diverse scholarship involved in holistic interpretation, such as Bray 1993

and Cook and Lovell 1991, while others provide a synthetic view of specific topics, such as population estimates in Denevan 1992

and disease factors in Kiple 1993, Kiple and Beck 1997, Swedlund and Armelagos 1990, and Verano and Ubelaker 1992. Kepecs

and Alexander 2005 use archaeological and historical material to create a chronological overview of demographic change in

Mesoamerica. The scholarly inclusive nature of these volumes has broken new academic ground and made them required reading

for anyone entering this field. Too often, scholars concentrate on topics within their own academic areas and ignore relevant

perspective from other fields. The following edited volumes break down these barriers to reveal the complexity and interface of the

diverse information involved.

Bray, Warwick, ed. The Meeting of Two Worlds: Europe and the Americas, 14921650. Proceedings of the British Academy 81.

New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.

This assemblage of essays covers a variety of post-contact topics in an effort to present a general summary of the European and

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indigenous experience. Useful for individuals interested in an overview that touches on multiple viewpoints and aspects.

Cook, Noble David, and W. George Lovell, eds. Secret Judgments of God: Old World Disease in Colonial Spanish America.

Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991.

An edited collection using region-specific essays to disentangle the distinct contexts of post-contact disease outbreaks.

Concentrating on indigenous and colonial cultures, ecology, demography, health, levels of violence, and social organization, this

volume affirms the complex and varied circumstances of demographic collapse. Regions include Central Mexico, Guatemala,

Ecuador, Peru, and Chile. See also Regional Patterns of Post-Contact Disease.

Denevan, William M., ed. The Native Population of the Americas in 1492. 2d ed. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992.

Predominantly concentrates on precontact Latin American population estimates. Gives a good overview of methods of estimation,

estimates by region, and estimates for the Americas as a whole. Useful volume for those with little experience in the topic who

require background regarding previous approximations and the debates surrounding them. See also Debates in Historical

Demography.

Kepecs, Susan, and Rani T. Alexander, eds. The Postclassic to Spanish-Era Transition in Mesoamerica: Archaeological

Perspectives. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2005.

Broadly appraises the many transitions occurring in Mesoamerica from the post-classic to colonial eras. Combining historical and

archaeological evidence, the contributing authors examine the multitude of cultural shifts that made up the widespread changes in

Mesoamerican life after contact. See also Region-Specific Cultural Factors.

Kiple, Kenneth F., ed. The Cambridge World History of Human Disease. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993.

Encyclopedic reference of human disease. Helpful chapters on the disease ecology of South America (Section VII.9, pages 535543)

and disease in the New World (Sections V.8, V.9, and V.10, pages 305333). Descriptions of specific diseases provide such details

as history of transmission, environmental factors, vectors, and symptoms. Valuable for understanding the impact and spread of post-

contact disease. See also Precontact Morbidity and Mortality and Vectors of Disease.

Kiple, Kenneth F., and Stephen V. Beck, eds. Biological Consequences of the European Expansion, 14501800. Brookfield, VT:

Ashgate/Variorum, 1997.

Compilation on the topic of disease following European contact. Originally published in a variety of noteworthy journals, these articles

provide an overview of influential sources in this area of study. The majority of articles focus on Latin America, although Australia,

Europe, and North America are also discussed. See also Vectors of Disease.

Swedlund, Alan C., and George J. Armelagos, eds. Disease in Populations in Transition: Anthropological and Epidemiological

Perspectives. New York: Bergin & Garvey, 1990.

Selection of essays discussing the adaptive responses of populations in transition worldwide and across time. Touches on topics

that are often overlooked in epidemiology, such as social change, environmental change, and genetics. Maintains a productive, broad

perspective, recognizing the frequency and complexity of transition and culture exchange in human history. See also Skeletal Studies.

Verano, John W., and Douglas H. Ubelaker, eds. Disease and Demography in the Americas. Washington, DC: Smithsonian

Institution Press, 1992.



Authors interpret the bioarchaeology and ethnohistory of pre- and post-contact disease and health and the role of population

estimates in understanding these topics. Overviews include the limits and applications of bioarchaeology and historical sources.

Latin American regions of discussion include the Andes and the Amazon. See also Precontact Morbidity and Mortality, Regional

Patterns of Post-Contact Disease, and Skeletal Studies.

Source Material for Population Estimates

Ultimately, ethnohistorical approaches to the assessment of demographic collapse in Latin America depend on the availability and

accurate interpretation of early primary sources. Icazbalceta 1858 provides such an interpretation in a collection of early-16th-century

documents. The context of these primary sources can vary, but generally they represent perspective from individuals with firsthand

experience and direct contact with the people and events of the time. Many of the sources cited in this section date back to the 16th

century and thus to the very foundation of the contact experience, such as Cieza de Lens description of his travels through contact-

era Peru (Cieza de Len 1959). Collectively, they paint contrasting images of the events of the contact period. The 16th-century

writings of Las Casas (Las Casas 1951) must be interpreted within the context of his perspective as a champion of the negative

effects of Spanish contact on the indigenous population. Acosta presents valuable descriptions of Latin American populations in the

16th century but within his dated scholarly worldview (see Acosta 2009, originally published in 1940). The listed early primary

literature also provides useful information about the contact period from the 16th-century perspectives of a friar concentrating on

religious conversion (Motolina 1973), an Aztec descendant (Ixtlilxochitl 1891), and a Spanish soldier (Daz Del Castillo 2008).

Although the 19th-century writings of Clavijero (Clavijero 1964) are more recent than the others, they document interpretation of

archival material in Mexico at the time of publication. Collectively, the primary sources listed here join many others in providing unique

data to fuel the historical interpretations of the early contact period. They document details of life at that time and reveal factors that

contributed to the demographic collapse.

Acosta, Jos de. Historia natural y moral de las Indias. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

In this translation of the original Spanish volume, 16th-century Spanish Jesuit priest Jos de Acosta provides a detailed description

of the New World. Concentrates on aspects such as natural history, Inca and Aztec culture and history, as well as philosophy

surrounding native belief systems and population origins.

Cieza de Len, Pedro de. The Incas. Translated by Harriet de Ons. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1959.

In this translated version of his original 16th-century chronicles, Cieza de Len meticulously describes his journeys throughout Peru.

The thoroughness with which the author recounts the landscape, villages, cultures, and histories that he encounters creates an

invaluable resource for recreating the Peruvian landscape on the eve of contact.

Clavijero, Francisco Javier. Historia antigua de Mxico. Mexico City: Editorial Porra, 1964.

A collection of the work of Clavijero, born in Mexico to Spanish parents. His 18th-century writings record his experience with

indigenous groups as well as his research of archival sources and include reflections on the language, culture, and pre- and post-

contact history of Mexico.

Daz del Castillo, Bernal. The History of the Conquest of New Spain. Edited by David Carrasco. Albuquerque: University of New

Mexico Press, 2008.

An abridged version of an original work. Castillos writings document his experience as a soldier in Hernn Corts conquest of New

Spain, providing accounts of contact, battle, and settlement. Castillos writings have been used by many academics as a starting

point for understanding the conquest of the Americas.



Icazbalceta, Joaqun Garca, ed. Coleccin de documentos para la historia de Mxico. 2 vols. Mexico City, Mxico: J. M. Andrade,

1858.

In an attempt to preserve valuable 16th-century primary sources from destruction, Icazbalceta, a 19th-century Spanish historian,

collected and published these sources in two volumes. In addition, Icazbalceta published several other bibliographies of historic

works, setting a precedent for future historiography in Mexico.

Ixtlilxochitl, Fernando de Alva. Obras historicas. Mexico City, Mexico: Oficina tip. de la Secretaria de fomento, 1891.

A 16th-century Aztec descendant, Ixtlilxochitl spent his life as an academic, recording the history of his Mexican ancestors. His works

remained disorganized and unpublished during his lifetime but would later be recognized as valuable records to be reassembled by

historians, as in this 19th-century version.

Las Casas, Bartolom de. Historia de las Indias. Edited by Augustn Millares Carlo. Mexico City, Mxico: Fondo de Cultura

Econmica, 1951.

One of the earliest accounts of the Spanish arrival in New Spain, this 16th-century work has played a pivotal and controversial role in

studies of the conquest. Chronicling the Spanish mistreatment of natives throughout Latin America, Las Casas is credited with

establishing the Black Myth. Available in multiple languages.

Motolina, Fray Toribio. Motolinas History of the Indians of New Spain. Translated by Elizabeth Andros Foster. Westport, CT:

Greenwood, 1973.

Motolina was a friar among one of the earliest waves of Spanish in New Spain (traveling through Mexico, Guatemala, and

Nicaragua). Unlike Las Casas, his contemporary, Motolina did not vehemently oppose the Spanish treatment of the natives and

writes about the conversion of natives without dwelling on its morality. This was originally published in 1950.

Precontact Culture and Society

When Europeans first arrived in Latin America, they encountered indigenous groups with diverse languages, cultures, and

demographic issues. As noted in Denevan 1992, the population landscape was far from pristine, presenting a variety of complex

problems and factors. With authors who worked in Ecuador, Newson 1995 and Alchon 1991 note the demographic impact of Inka

political domination and the existence of multiple ethnic groups with complex relationships. Similar comprehensive approaches to

cultures in Guatemala (Lovell 1985), Peru (Stern 1982), Brazil (Hemming 1978), and Honduras (Newson 1986) reveal the cultural

intricacies and dynamics that set the demographic stage for European contact. Tung 2012 reveals the deep roots of this complexity.

In her examination of Wari culture in Peru, Tung documents evidence of violence, imperialism, and significant demographic issues

dating back to 600 AD.

Alchon, Suzanne Austin. Along the Avenue of Volcanoes. In Native Society and Disease in Colonial Ecuador. Edited by Suzanne

Austin Alchon, 518. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Summary of the cultural and ecological setting of precontact Ecuador. Provides useful information regarding political relationships,

climate, geography, and population density, all of which would become contributing factors in the demographic collapse following

European contact. See also History of Contact by Region.

Denevan, William M. The Pristine Myth: The Landscape of the Americas in 1492. Annals of the Association of the American

Geographers 82.3 (1992): 369385.



Against the idea of a pristine precontact New World, argues instead for well-developed, widespread civilizations capable of negatively

impacting the landscape. In-depth discussion of ecological relationships, including methods of hunting, farming, and settlement.

Provides unique viewpoint of precontact culture, breaking from the myth of a harmonious relationship with nature.

Hemming, John. Red Gold: The Conquest of the Brazilian Indians. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978.

This narrative devotes its third chapter to the exploration of Brazilian oral history, archaeological remnants, and anthropometric

studies in order to extricate the origins of and relationships between indigenous Brazilian groups prior to contact. See also History of

Contact by Region.

Lovell, W. George. The Cultural Landscape on the Eve of the Spanish Conquest. In Conquest and Survival in Colonial

Guatemala: A Historical Geography of the Cuchumatn Highlands, 15001821. By W. George Lovell, 3757. Kingston, ON: McGill-

Queens University Press, 1985.

This chapter focuses on research of the highland Guatemalan Cuchumatn population directly prior to conquest. Beginning with a

general background of Cuchumatn culture and history and followed by the presentation of archaeological and ethnohistoric records,

Lovell provides a comprehensive interpretation and summary of this highland culture. See also History of Contact by Region and

Region-Specific Cultural Factors.

Newson, Linda A. The Cost of Conquest: Indian Decline in Honduras under Spanish Rule. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1986.

The second chapter of this book relays the highly varied precontact cultural-linguistic groups of Honduras. Discussing differences in

subsistence type, religion/ideology, social organization, language, and many other aspects, Newsons account of the mosaic of

cultures will help readers to understand the similarly varied demographic response to contact. See also History of Contact by Region.

Newson, Linda A. Life and Death in Early Colonial Ecuador. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995.

Parts 2 and 3 of this work provide a comprehensive overview of precontact Ecuador. Discusses topics such as climate, resources,

and social and political organization. Distinguishes the multiple cultural groups of the area and the ensuing political weakness

brought about by the homogenous Inka rule. See also History of Contact by Region.

Stern, Steve J. Pre-Columbian Landscapes. In Perus Indian Peoples and the Challenge of Spanish Conquest: Huamanga to

1640. By Steve J. Stern, 326. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982.

Brings to light the valuable role of the Andean landscape in shaping precontact lifestyles. Vertical landscapes of multiple climate

zones created an archipelago of communities unique to each ecological zone, while kinship was key to maintaining connection.

Further discussion includes the role of religion and issues of conflict and inequality. See also Region-Specific Cultural Factors.

Tung, Tiffiny A. Violence, Ritual, and the Wari Empire: A Social Bioarchaeology of Imperialism in the Ancient Andes. Gainesville:

University Press of Florida, 2012.

Using a bioarchaeological approach, Tung investigates the social relationships underpinning Wari society. Although the Wari were

not contemporary with European contact, this study serves to illustrate the complex and longstanding imperial nature of many

cultures in this area of the Andes.

Precontact Morbidity and Mortality



Although the introduction of new diseases and cultural disruption associated with European contact produced marked morbidity and

mortality among the indigenous populations, many studies demonstrate that health issues were also apparent during the precontact

period. A selection of significant studies and sources is included in this section. In at least some areas of Latin America, trends of

declining health and increased levels of mortality were already in place prior to the arrival of Europeans. Precontact, temporally

increasing health issues were likely linked to the development of agriculture and the related factors of increased population density,

sedentism, and sanitation issues, as discussed in Buikstra 1993 and Cohen and Armelagos 1984. Alchon 1997 and Cook 1946

combine ethnohistoric accounts, ethnographic analogy, archival sources, and images preserved within ancient art to explore

evidence of precontact disease. The primary evidence originates, however, from modern bioarchaeological studies of human

remains recovered from documented archeological contexts. These remains are most often skeletonized, although arid climates can

preserve mummified remains and coprolites, which can be valuable in identifying soft tissue disease and parasites, respectively.

Allison 1984 and Verano 1992 use studies of Chilean and Peruvian mummified remains to provide evidence documenting particular

diseases such as tuberculosis and various types of parasitism. In addition, and perhaps most importantly, such works as Karasch

1993 and others have illuminated patterns of morbidity and mortality, temporal trends, geographical variation, and contributing

cultural/environmental factors. These studies have advanced due to more sophisticated analytical techniques, more thoughtful

procedures for disease diagnosis, and the increasing availability of large, well-documented samples of ancient human remains.

Research conducted to date documents that, prior to European contact, Latin America was not a disease-free paradise. In contrast,

the evidence suggests that substantial morbidity and mortality were present in precontact populations, setting the demographic

stage for the collapse to follow.

Alchon, Suzanne Austin. The Great Killers in Precolumbian America: A Hemispheric Perspective. Latin American Population

History Bulletin 27 (1997):211.

A comprehensive look at disease in the Americas prior to contact, with the goal of dispelling the myth of a disease-free paradise.

Also explores the circumstances leading to contact-period epidemics. Relies on indigenous accounts, colonial documents, and

bioarchaeological findings. Valuable as an in-depth overview of precontact disease.

Allison, Marvin J. Paleopathology in Peruvian and Chilean Populations. In Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture. Edited

by Mark Nathan Cohen and George J. Armelagos, 515529. Orlando, FL: Academic, 1984.

Focuses on the paleopathology of 621 mummified individuals from sixteen pre- and post-contact highland and lowland populations

in Peru and Chile. Examines the relationship of health, society, economy, and environment. The presence of soft tissue has allowed

for extensive diagnosis of specific diseases, particularly those present prior to contact. See also Skeletal Studies.

Buikstra, Jane E. Diseases of the Pre-Columbian Americas. In The Cambridge World History of Human Disease. Edited by

Kenneth F. Kiple, 305317. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993.

Traces the chronology of disease presence in North and South America, transitioning from hunter-gatherer to complex society. Relies

predominantly on skeletal data, covering topics such as trauma, diet, disease, and nonspecific indicators of stress. Gives overview of

previous paleopathological studies while also commenting on areas requiring further research. See also Edited Volumes and

Vectors of Disease.

Cohen, Mark N., and George J. Armelagos, eds. Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture. Orlando, FL: Academic, 1984.

A collection of papers focusing on the impact of agriculture on human health based in archaeological and bioarchaeological data.

Although the volume is not limited to Latin America, it touches on key topics such as precontact health and disease, with specific

chapters on Panama, Ecuador, Peru, and Chile. See also Skeletal Studies.

Cook, Sherburne Friend. The Incidence and Significance of Disease among the Aztecs and Related Tribes. The Hispanic

American Historical Review 26.3 (1946): 320335.



An early call for the recognition of precontact New World disease in the demographic collapse debate. Focuses specifically on

disease as recorded in Aztec texts and contact-period records. In-depth textual analysis of disease descriptions and symptoms

supports the existence of precontact disease but lack of large-scale epidemics.

Karasch, Mary C. Disease Ecologies of South America. In The Cambridge World History of Human Disease. Edited by Kenneth

F. Kiple, 535543. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993.

In this chapter, the varied climates and environments of South America are reviewed in order to establish the ecological boundaries

of specific disease. Additionally, the author discusses both pre- and post-contact society and the presence of disease in each. See

also Edited Volumes and Vectors of Disease.

Verano, John W. Prehistoric Disease and Demography in the Andes. In Disease and Demography in the Americas. Edited by

John W. Verano and Douglas H. Ubelaker, 1524. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992.

As an area of high pre-Hispanic population density, the Andes have a number of mummified and skeletonized remains, often used

for paleopathological study. This chapter provides concise summaries of key studies, allowing the reader to discern the complex

cultural and ecological factors affecting the presence of precontact disease. See also Edited Volumes, Regional Patterns of Post-

Contact Disease, and Skeletal Studies.

Early Historical Demography

Early scholars focusing on the historical demography of New World populations raised valuable issues of geographical and cultural

factors and set the stage for the more detailed work that followed. Although the work of Sauer (see Denevan 1996) emphasizes

geographical context, it also considers the timing and magnitude of disease impact, subsistence, and cultural factors in estimates of

population size and related demographic variables, as do Spinden 1928, Steward 1949, Rosenblat 1954, Cook and Borah 1960, and

Cook and Simpson 1948. While Cook and Borah 1960, Cook and Simpson 1948, and Denevan 1996 show a tendency toward high

population estimates and Rosenblat 1954, Spinden 1928, and Steward 1949 demonstrate a conservative approach, each work

contributed greatly to the formation of the field by drawing attention to the complexity and variability of methods for estimating

population size.

Cook, Sherburne Friend, and Woodrow Borah. The Indian Population of Central Mexico, 15311610. Berkeley: University of

California Press, 1960.

Estimates indigenous population size in Mexico from the 1530s to the 17th century. Suggests a dramatic population decline through

high early estimates that would later be criticized by scholars. Valuable discussion of the limitations of using Spanish religious and

fiscal reports as evidence while also giving clear explanation of the method of calculation.

Cook, Sherburne Friend, and Lesley Byrd Simpson. The Population of Central Mexico in the Sixteenth Century. Berkeley:

University of California Press, 1948.

An extensive analysis of 16th-century archival Mexican population data that unravels the inherent biases and errors of these records.

Resulting population estimates demonstrate adherence to the higher approximations characteristic of the Berkeley School.

Additional calculations show how these approximations can also be reversed to establish a precontact population size.

Denevan, William M. Carl Sauer and Native American Population Size. Geographical Review 86.3 (1996): 385397.

This synopsis of the work of geographer Carl Sauer demonstrates the contributions of a geographic context in interpreting

prehispanic population size. Sauers high population estimates of pre-Hispanic northwest Mexico influenced the formation of the



Berkeley School of historical demography, whose followers included Sherburne F. Cook, Woodrow Borah, and Lesley Simpson.

Rosenblat, ngel. La poblacin indgena y el mestizaje en Amrica. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Editorial Nova, 1954.

Discussion of indigenous population size in America precontact, directly following contact, and in the present (1954). Appendices

give detailed explanations of calculation methods by region while demonstrating Rosenblats tendency to question primary sources

and give conservative estimates in support of a minimally impacted post-contact population.

Spinden, Herbert J. The Population of Ancient America. Geographical Review 18.4 (1928): 641660.

Represents a contribution to low population estimates for the precontact New World. This article provides an example of Spindens

work, particularly in understanding the relationship of current native population size to precontact size and the circumstances

surrounding population decline. Focuses on North, Central, and South American populations.

Steward, Julian Haynes. The Native Population of South America. In The Comparative Ethnology of South American Indians.

Edited by Julian Haynes Steward, 655668. Handbook of South American Indians 5. Washington, DC: US Government Printing

Office, 1949.

Steward, while maintaining a relatively conservative population estimate, relates factors such as culture type, subsistence, and

ecology to account for a widely variable impact of contact. This source provides exhaustive population counts by area, citing sources

with useful commentary.

Debates in Historical Demography

Much of the debate in historical demography has focused on the size of the precontact aboriginal population and the impact of such

estimates on interpretations of subsequent population size decline, as discussed in Dobyns 1966. At the heart of this debate rest

variations in the methodology of population size estimation, which Borah 1976 relays in a useful chronological discussion. Central

issues discussed in Petersen, et al. 1975 and Joralemon 1982 include the extent of reliance on primary sources, evaluation of the

context and likely accuracy of primary sources, techniques of interpretive analogy, projections of information from well-known and

well-studied areas to lesser-known ones, and key interpretations of epidemiological factors. Jacobs 1974 provides additional insight

into the relationship between population estimates and assumptions made about precontact Latin American culture. Among the

multitude of possible interpretations of precontact population size, Ubelaker 1992 suggests region-specific, interdisciplinary

research as a necessary step for future studies in historical demography.

Borah, Woodrow. The Historical Demography of Aboriginal and Colonial America: An Attempt at Perspective. In The Native

Population of the Americas in 1492. Edited by William M. Denevan, 1334. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1976.

Chronological review of Latin American historical demography from contact to present. Extensive survey of the impact of varying

estimates on the academic debate. Focuses particularly on the relationship of perspectives of precontact culture and choice of

method for estimation. See also Edited Volumes.

Dobyns, Henry F. Estimating Aboriginal American Populations: An Appraisal of Techniques with a New Hemispheric Estimate.

Current Anthropology 7.4 (1966): 395416.

Discussion of New World population estimates and the significance assigned to population size in understanding precontact society

and the effect of contact. Provides detailed analysis of various estimates, methods, and subsequent assumptions made by authors

regarding pre-Hispanic culture and population size.



Jacobs, Wilbur R. The Tip of an Iceberg: Pre-Columbian Indian Demography and Some Implications for Revisionism. The

William and Mary Quarterly 31.1 (1974): 123132.

Touches on the impact of high precontact population estimates to those who view European contact with the New World as quiet

expansion. Useful discussion of debates and academic relationships of Rosenblat, Cook, Borah, and others. Brings attention to

potential agents of demographic collapse implied by high estimates.

Joralemon, Donald. New World Depopulation and the Case of Disease. Journal of Anthropological Research 38.1 (1982): 108

127.

Argues that the wide range in population estimates is based in varied interpretations of knowns and constants. Suggests liberal

but careful use of ethnohistorical records, cultural/regional focus, detailed understanding of disease, and the use of known

epidemics as interpretive analogy. Later research can be seen to increasingly follow these guidelines.

Petersen, William, Robert J. Braidwood, Henry F. Dobyns, et al. A Demographers View of Prehistoric Demography [and

Comments and Replies]. Current Anthropology 16.2 (1975): 227245.

A critical review of the demography debate. Views demography not as an exact science but as informed assessment of sources.

Critiques lack of professional training in ethnographical demographic analysis.

Ubelaker, Douglas H. Patterns of Demographic Change in the Americas. Human Biology 64.3 (1992): 361379.

Valuable overview of past and current historical demography of the New World. Notes increased interdisciplinary research and

resulting evidence against continent-wide epidemics and the virgin soil hypothesis. Suggests region-specific epidemics related to

circumstances of contact that can be understood only through more extensive interdisciplinary research and global perspectives.

Regional Population Estimates

Understanding post-contact mortality and demographic collapse in Latin America depends to a large extent on reliable estimates of

regional population size, as explained in Newson 1993. Although such estimates can be challenging and elusive, they are enhanced

through combined approaches utilizing both archaeological and ethnohistorical data, as in Carmack, et al. 1982 (a study of Peru) and

Cook 1981 (a study of Guatemala). Regional population-size estimates, especially those for various time periods, greatly facilitate the

tracking of disease impact. Borah and Cook 1969 use archival resources to map out disease spread in colonial Mexico by specific

town. Lovell 1992 provides a wide-scale study covering much of Latin America but calls attention to the value of regional studies in

understanding unique causes of population decline. Smith 1970 relies on tribute and census data to estimate Andean coast and

Sierra populations but notes that care must be taken to recognize the limitations of methodology for estimating population size,

especially the difficulty of including groups outside of tribute records and related census data. Newson 1982 demonstrates that

evaluations of environmental carrying capacity can provide useful information as well. Covey 2011 uses population surveys to show

that this resource can not only provide evidence of the timing of population decline but document aspects of recovery as well.

Borah, Woodrow, and Sherburne F. Cook. Conquest and Population: A Demographic Approach to Mexican History. Proceedings

of the American Philosophical Society 113.2 (1969): 177183.

Using a series of newly recovered detailed archival sources, Borah and Cook seek to establish population counts specific to

individual towns and time periods. With this approach, the authors are able to explore the intricacies of post-conquest demographic

changes in central Mexico.



Carmack, Robert M., John Early, and Christopher Lutz, eds. The Historical Demography of Highland Guatemala. Albany: Institute

for Mesoamerican Studies, State University of New York, 1982.

This series of essays offers a review of historical demography of the Guatemalan highlands with authors providing regionally

focused research where available. Includes both precontact and post-contact estimates, established through archaeological and

ethnohistorical methods.

Cook, Noble David. Demographic Collapse: Indian Peru, 15201620. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1981.

Cook works to establish a well-researched contact-period estimate for the indigenous population of Peru. Estimate is based on

archival fiscal records, with archaeological material providing valuable information on precontact population density and patterns of

settlement. Cook connects pre- and post-contact information to trace events leading to population change.

Covey, R. Alan. Dynamics of Indigenous Demographic Fluctuations: Lessons from Sixteenth-Century Cusco, Peru. Current

Anthropology 52.3 (2011): 335360.

Study of Yucay Valley, Peru, based on 16th-century population surveys. Excellent example of the value of case studies, as analysis of

records shows evidence of long-term population growth, suggesting not all populations suffered irreparable demographic collapse.

Lovell, W. George. Heavy Shadows and Black Night: Disease and Depopulation in Colonial Spanish America. Annals of the

Association of American Geographers 82.3 (1992): 426443.

Focusing on Hispaniola, Mexico, Guatemala, and the central Andes, Lovell stresses the role of disease in depopulation. Reviewing

related literature to trace the spread and impact of regional epidemics, he provides an in-depth analysis of contrasting population

counts and addresses the myriad of region-specific factors impacting the spread of disease.

Newson, Linda A. The Depopulation of Nicaragua in the Sixteenth Century. Journal of Latin American Studies 14.2 (1982): 253

286.

Provides a review of previous population studies of Nicaragua that base contact-era estimates on ethnohistoric and baptismal

records, as well as land-carrying capacity. Newson further explores changes in population size post-contact through Spanish tribute

and census records, establishing region-specific causes of population decline.

Newson, Linda A. The Demographic Collapse of Native Peoples in the Americas, 14921650. In The Meeting of Two Worlds:

Europe and the Americas, 14921650. Edited by Bray Warwick, 246288. Proceedings of the British Academy 81. New York:

Oxford University Press, 1993.

Advocates the necessity of region-specific studies when trying to understand the overall population decline. Affords a useful

framework for understanding the circumstances conducive to high-impact disease spread and the populations more susceptible to

conquest-related conflict, casualties, and cultural change.

Smith, C. T. Depopulation of the Central Andes in the 16th Century. Current Anthropology 11.45 (1970): 453464.

Observation of the varied nature of the central Andes populations and their likely deviation from a generalized depopulation estimate.

Focusing on a single province, Smith compares coast and sierra populations, reconstructing demography through tribute records.

Notes the difficulty of accounting for nontributary populations. Includes clear description of methods and estimates.



History of Contact by Region

Although the post-contact demographic collapse was generally expressed throughout Latin America, its characteristics varied

considerably. This variation and the associated explanatory factors can be understood through thoughtful and in-depth regional study

of the timing and nature of contact. For example, addressing the Maya central area, Thompson 1966 evaluates ethnohistoric evidence

of morbidity and mortality in both pre- and post-contact society to evaluate variation in the experience based on geographic factors

and levels of Spanish interaction. Lovell 1985 documents how a combination of indigenous social response and environmental

factors affected the impact of conquest in Guatemala. The powerful role of variation in social systems is further documented in

Carmack 1991, a comparative study of the nature and extent of contact impact in Guatemala, Argentina, and Costa Rica. Collier, et al.

1982 also provides a comparative study of the Inca and Aztec empires, demonstrating how indigenous political structure could

influence the success or failure of Spanish conquest. Addressing Honduras, Newson 1986 reveals how social and economic issues

related to Spanish rule contributed to demographic change. In a regional study focusing on Ecuador, Alchon 1991 calls attention to

how historical context, politics, and social structure impacted the timing and severity of population decline. Newson 1995 further

demonstrates how regional variation in demographic history occurred within Ecuador, influenced by environmental and cultural

factors, while Hemming 1978 provides a similar example in Brazil. Collectively, these studies reveal regional variation in both the

timing and nature of contact within Latin America. They also document the complex factors responsible for such variation.

Alchon, Suzanne Austin. Conquest and Epidemic Disease in the Sixteenth Century. In Native Society and Disease in Colonial

Ecuador. Edited by Suzanne Austin Alchon, 3256. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Chronological account of the 16th-century conquest of Quito, Ecuador. Discusses such influential factors as the indigenous political

climate at contact, social structure, demography, frequency of epidemics, and ensuing population decline throughout the first century

of European contact. See also Precontact Culture and Society.

Carmack, Robert M. The Spanish Conquest of Central America: Comparative Cases from Guatemala and Costa Rica. In

Columbian Consequences. Vol. 3, The Spanish Borderlands in Pan-American Perspective. Edited by David Hurst Thomas, 389

409. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991.

Carmack uses a comparative approach to understand the role of precontact social systems in defining demographic change.

Provides case studies of Momostenango, Guatemala, Buenos Aires, and Costa Rica, analyzing them through a Weberian theoretical

framework. Appropriate for those familiar with social science theory and methodology. See also Cultural Implications of Conquest

and Region-Specific Cultural Factors.

Collier, George A., Renato I. Rosaldo, and John D. Wirth, eds. The Inca and Aztec States, 14001800: Anthropology and History.

New York: Academic, 1982.

An edited volume that compares the Inca and Aztec states, two of the largest empires in the Americas at the time of contact. Follows

the history of cultural and political development while also correlating this complex development to the manner in which these

societies responded to Spanish conquest.

Hemming, John. Red Gold: The Conquest of the Brazilian Indians. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978.

Chapter 4 recounts the arrival of Portuguese colonists to the coast of Brazil and the ensuing reaction of Brazilian natives. The chapter

demonstrates the variation in situations of contact, exploring the factors that influenced the many outcomes of interaction. See also

Precontact Culture and Society.

Lovell, W. George. Conquest and Subjugation by Imperial Spain. In Conquest and Survival in Colonial Guatemala: A Historical

Geography of the Cuchumatn Highlands, 15001821. By Lovell, W. George, 5866. Kingston: McGill-Queens University Press,

1985.



Provides a chronology of Spanish conquest particular to Guatemala and the Cuchumatn highlands. The chapter seeks to

demonstrate the varied levels of success of the conquest. Indigenous resistance, population size, social organization, and hard-to-

navigate environments were fundamental aspects surrounding the varied results of conquest in Guatemala. See also Precontact

Culture and Society and Region-Specific Cultural Factors.

Newson, Linda A. The Cost of Conquest: Indian Decline in Honduras under Spanish Rule. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1986.

While chapter 1 provides a summary of patterns of conquest within Honduras, Parts III through V (including chapters 6 to 16) delve

into specific cultural and demographic impacts. Topics include changes in social structure and economy, sources of demographic

decline, and the dramatic effects of imposed religion. See also Precontact Culture and Society.

Newson, Linda A. Life and Death in Early Colonial Ecuador. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995.

Dividing Ecuador into the areas of the Sierra, Coast, and Oriente and further into regions, Newson provides great detail regarding

Spanish occupation throughout Ecuador. The abundance of ethnohistorical accounts for the area, on which these chapters are

based, allow for a uniquely comprehensive view of the Spanish conquest of Ecuador. See also Precontact Culture and Society.

Thompson, J. Eric S. The Maya Central Area at the Spanish Conquest and Later: A Problem of Demography. London: Royal

Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 1966.

Focuses on central Mayan area at time of conquest. Thompson reviews ethnohistoric records of disease and depopulation,

comparing nearby areas to that of the central Maya to decipher possible causes of population decline.

Vectors of Disease

As noted in Ashburn 1947, various diseases played major roles throughout the conquest era. Ashburn describes smallpox, typhus,

and malaria as the shock troops of initial European contact. Other key players in the medical arena were famine, scurvy,

tuberculosis, pleurisy, pneumonia, influenza, meningitis, dysentery, parasitism, syphilis, and others. Merbs 1992 summarizes

scholarly evidence that some diseases that registered significant morbidity and mortality in post-contact periods may have been

present prior to contact. The temporal depth of the roots of disease in the New World represents an important issue as the nature of

immunity is assessed in Curtin 1997. As noted in Newson 1998, understanding the vectors of disease in the New World during the

conquest requires a holistic approach that considers the host and environment, in addition to the disease itself. Environmental

factors can be variable and particular to space and time. Ramenofsky 1993 provides a useful resource for delineating the boundaries

of particular diseases. The disease environment also includes social factors contributing to disease vulnerability and limitation, as is

discussed in McGrath 1991.

Ashburn, P. M. The Ranks of Death: A Medical History of the Conquest. Edited by Frank D. Ashburn. New York: Coward-McCann,

1947.

Using a medical approach unique from most ethnohistorical and archaeological accounts of the conquest, Ashburn closely

examines the role of disease in shaping the colonization of the New World. Tracing vectors both cultural and biological in nature, this

source outlines the circumstances leading to varied disease histories.

Curtin, Philip D. Epidemiology and the Slave Trade. In Biological Consequences of the European Expansion, 14501800. Edited

by Kenneth F. Kiple and Stephen V. Beck, 133159. An Expanding World 26. Brookfield, VT: Ashgate/Variorum, 1997.

Provides an analysis of the influence of immunity or lack thereof among migrating individuals such as those found in the slave trade.

Explores the epidemiological impact of the slave trade culture of South American plantations, looking particularly at variation in



immunity as related to varying disease environments. See also Edited Volumes.

McGrath, Janet W. Biological Impact of Social Disruption Resulting from Epidemic Disease. American Journal of Physical

Anthropology 84.4 (1991): 407419.

Explores the role of social environments in disease transmission, particularly how the lack of a functioning social system can lead to

increased biological vulnerability. Emphasizes the need for an ethnographic approach when reconstructing epidemics, as the state

of social systems may contribute to the varying responses to illness.

Merbs, Charles F. A New World of Infectious Diseases. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 35 (suppl. 15) (1992): 342.

Looks at the presence of infectious diseases in the New World both pre- and post-contact, specifically reviewing the agents of

disease transmission and, where possible, the path of transmission. Provides comprehensive sections for each of the infectious

diseases thought to have affected New World populations.

Newson, Linda A. A Historical-Ecological Perspective on Epidemic Disease. In Advances in Historical Ecology. Edited by

William Bale, 4263. New York: Columbia University Press, 1998.

Newson contributes valuable insight into the symbiotic relationship of disease, host, and environment. Argues for the use of a holistic

approach when reconstructing the post-contact New World disease environment, using both geographically and culturally specific

information to unravel the intricacies of the ever-changing diseasehost relationship.

Ramenofsky, Ann. Diseases of the Americas, 14921700. In The Cambridge World History of Human Disease. Edited by

Kenneth F. Kiple, 317328. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993.

Delineates the general characteristics and behavior patterns of parasites and diseases, as well as the applications and limitations

of this knowledge. Ramenofskys detailed chapter serves as an invaluable resource for attempting to recreate the particular disease

environments found in the New World. See also Edited Volumes and Precontact Morbidity and Mortality.

Regional Patterns of Post-Contact Disease

The study of the pattern of post-contact disease impact within Latin America reveals heterogeneity shaped by cultural, economic,

political, geographic, and demographic factors, in addition to the nature of the diseases themselves. Synthetic, comparative regional

studies in Alchon 2003, Cook 1998, and Cook and Lovell 1991 focus on the diversity of impact and the underlying largely social

factors for variation. More regionally specific publications, including Newson 1993 (Ecuador), Alden and Miller 1987 and Malvido 1975

(Brazil), and Lovell 1988 (Guatemala), provide detail on the complexity of factors involved.

Alchon, Suzanne Austin. A Pest in the Land: New World Epidemics in a Global Perspective. Albuquerque: University of New

Mexico Press, 2003.

A review of the effect of colonialism on New World disease spread, this book also discusses attitudes toward disease and social

organization in the precontact Old and New Worlds. This additional analysis helps to clarify the social structures at play that often

increased the magnitude of New World demographic collapse.

Alden, Dauril, and Joseph C. Miller. Out of Africa: The Slave Trade and the Transmission of Smallpox to Brazil, 15601831. The

Journal of Interdisciplinary History 18.2 (1987): 195224.



Investigates slave trade in Brazil as a contributor to smallpox epidemics. With low indigenous population sizes in Brazil, slave import

provided a unique circumstance for replenishing susceptible populations. This prolonged epidemics in an environment that might

otherwise have had little epidemic impactan important aspect to consider when reconstructing demographic collapse.

Cook, Noble David. Born to Die: Disease and Conquest, 14921650. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

Focusing on the most well-documented episodes of disease, Cooks volume follows disease spread throughout the New World

from contact to the 17th century. The volume explores both epidemic and social causes of demographic collapse.

Cook, Noble David, and W. George Lovell, eds. Secret Judgments of God: Old World Disease in Colonial Spanish America.

Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991.

Composed of multiple essays on the topic of post-contact disease spread from the 16th to the 19th century. Each chapter focuses on

a specific region of Central or South America. The final chapter synthesizes the various case studies, drawing attention to the

complexity of the topic of post-contact disease. See also Edited Volumes.

Cook, Noble David. Impact of Disease in the Sixteenth-Century Andean World. In Disease and Demography in the Americas.

Edited by John W. Verano and Douglas H. Ubelaker, 207213. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992.

Acknowledging the limited accounts of contact-era disease, Cook attempts to provide a chronological history of European disease

and its biological and cultural effects within the Andes. Cook notes the unique circumstances of some Andean populations, who may

have experienced European disease prior to contact. See also Edited Volumes, Precontact Morbidity and Mortality, and Skeletal

Studies.

Lovell, W. George. Las enfermedades del viejo mundo y la mortandad indgena: la viruela y el tabardillo en la sierra de los

Cuchumatnes, Guatemala (17801810). Mesoamrica 9.16 (1988): 239285.

Lovell proposes a drastic demographic collapse for the Cuchumatnes in the late 18th century. The isolated, resource-poor nature of

the landscape discouraged European colonization, preventing epidemic spread of disease until this uncharacteristically late date.

Malvido, Elsa M. Efectos de las epidemias y hambrunas en la poblacin colonial de Mxico (15191810). Salud Pblica de

Mxico, poca V 17.6 (1975): 793802.

Brings attention to the cyclical nature of famines and epidemics in colonial Mexico. Noting the changes in society affecting individual

nutrition, Malvido makes the argument that a variety of cultural pressures (overwork, famine, peonage) contributed to susceptibility to

illness and increased morbidity and mortality.

Newson, Linda A. HighlandLowland Contrasts in the Impact of Old World Diseases in Early Colonial Ecuador. Social Science &

Medicine 39.9 (1993): 11871195.

Arguing against a uniform pattern of disease spread within the Old World, Newson provides evidence of differential impact of disease

in highland versus lowland Ecuador and the varying effect of social organization, population size, and other cultural factors on

disease spread.

Cultural Implications of Conquest

Although many factors influenced the timing and progression of post-contact demographic collapse in Latin America, culture clearly



played a major role, as noted in Crosby 1972, an assessment of the biological impact of cultural change. Cook 1945 further

establishes the fundamental importance of noting cultural factors of population decline, listing several that seem to have occurred

throughout post-contact Latin America. Tinker 1993 focuses on the impact of the church on cultural and demographic change. Melville

1997 discusses the introduction of Old World domesticated animals, showing the profound effects this had on New World lifestyles

and land use and its contribution to the post-contact collapse. The cultural disruption and alteration associated with the indigenous

impact of contact clearly facilitated the morbidity and mortality that fed demographic change. Although that impact was extensive, it

also represented a two-way cultural street in which the dominant culture was affected as well. As noted in Butzer 1992, these newly

defined cultural elements were reflected in patterns of land use and related geographical factors. Weeks and Black 1991 provides a

regionally specific study of the ways in which new cultural contact and religious conversion altered indigenous belief systems but

also generated new cultural synthesis in western Honduras.

Butzer, Karl W. The Americas Before and After 1492: An Introduction to Current Geographical Research. Annals of the

Association of the American Geographers 82.3 (1992): 345368.

Uses a geographical approach to explore the effect of colonization on landscape relationships. Presents a unique dynamic between

indigenous and Spanish populations as each culture mutually incorporated aspects of the other into new lifeways and land-use

patterns.

Cook, Sherburne Friend. Demographic Consequences of European Contact with Primitive Peoples. The ANNALS of the

American Academy of Political and Social Science 237 (1945):107111.

An inaugural essay addressing the numerous causes of post-contact population decline. While not specific to the New World, Cooks

work presents a general pattern found in European contact with indigenous populations. Cited causes of demographic collapse

include warfare and violence, disease, famine, lowered fertility, cultural change, and miscegenation.

Crosby, Alfred W., Jr. The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1972.

Crosby creates a valuable link between the cultural changes forced on indigenous groups after contact and the biological changes

that occurred as a result. The examination of the interaction between these two aspects of contact is crucial in understanding the

multilevel chain reactions caused by the coalescence of extraneous cultures.

Melville, Elinor G. K. A Plague of Sheep: Environmental Consequences of the Conquest of Mexico. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge

University Press, 1997.

An environmentally focused analysis of post-conquest Mexico. Discusses the effects of nonnative Old World species on the balance

of the New World ecosystem. Further examines the influence of introduced domesticates on indigenous modes of production and the

spread of a colonial lifestyle through pastoralism.

Tinker, George E. Missionary Conquest: The Gospel and Native American Cultural Genocide. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 1993.

Considers the primary role of the church in New World colonialism. Assesses the colonists illusion of Western superiority,

demonstrating how this idea served to validate the domination of indigenous culture and religion. Provides a particularly critical view

of Las Casas (see Source Material for Population Estimates), defender of the Indians, criticizing the motivations and ideologies

driving his work.

Weeks, John M., and Nancy J. Black. Mercedarian Missionaries and the Transformation of Lenca Indian Society in Western

Honduras, 15501700. In Columbian Consequences. Vol. 3, The Spanish Borderlands in Pan-American Perspective. Edited by

David Hurst Thomas, 245261. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991.



This case study summarizes recent archaeological research surrounding the varied responses of native communities to the

presence of missionary systems. The authors discuss religious conversion as a supplement to physical conquest serving to subvert

native cultural and belief systems but also often leading to a synthesis of the two cultures. See also Region-Specific Cultural Factors

and History of Contact by Region.

Region-Specific Cultural Factors

The post-contact demographic collapse in Latin America was associated with striking social change. Although assessment of the

numbers is important and historically has received considerable attention, associated cultural factors also represent an important

component. Lovell 1985, an analysis of Spanish colonialism in Guatemala, substantiates the changes in indigenous lifestyle

attributed to the framework of the colonial regime. Farriss 1984 uses an ethnohistorical approach to demonstrate similar changes

among the Maya. To a large extent, variation in the demographic impact reflects cultural differences, as can be seen in Jones 1989, a

comparison between Maya urban populations and those in more rural areas. The foundational culture and its variations influenced

the nature of contact and the emerging post-contact social structure, as shown in Kepecs and Alexander 2005, Megged 1991, and

Stern 1982. As Pinto 1991 points out in Honduras, the occurrences of relocation and absorption represent factors in the numbers

themselves. In addition, Covey, et al. 2011 argues that, in Peru, inaccurate census information triggered burdensome tribute

payments that contributed to demographic collapse. Cultural factors abound in all parameters of the demographic collapse and

largely shape its impact and variations throughout Latin America.

Covey, R. Alan, Geoff Childs, and Rebecca Kippen. Dynamics of Indigenous Demographic Fluctuations: Lessons from Sixteenth-

Century Cusco, Peru. Current Anthropology 52.3 (2011): 335360.

Examines how the lack of accurate demographic data could lead to inappropriate actions from the Spanish Empire. In this particular

case study, inaccurate population counts led to excessive tribute demands, the stress of which might have caused continued

population decline. An example of a cultural construct contributing to demographic collapse.

Farriss, Nancy M. Maya Society under Colonial Rule: The Collective Enterprise of Survival. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University

Press, 1984.

Taking the approach of a historical ethnography, Farriss reconstructs the world of the Maya directly prior to and following contact in

order to demonstrate adaptations and changes in social structure and cultural practices. More widely, Farrisss work serves as an

archetype for change in agrarian societies under colonial rule.

Jones, Grant D. Maya Resistance to Spanish Rule: Time and History on a Colonial Frontier. Albuquerque: University of New

Mexico Press, 1989.

Compares frontier colonial Mayan societies, which often escaped the totalizing Spanish rule found in urban areas. The freedom

provided by weaker Spanish rule harbored indigenous resistance but in return brought about violent punishment by the colonial

regime. Offers a model for cultural factors of colonization in peripheral areas of conquest.

Kepecs, Susan, and Rani T. Alexander, eds. The Postclassic to Spanish-Era Transition in Mesoamerica: Archaeological

Perspectives. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2005.

The essays in this volume evaluate the general cultural factors leading to demographic and societal change in post-classic and post-

contact Mesoamerica. In addition to presenting this general view, the essays demonstrate the manner in which indigenous

populations unique political systems, ideology, and social systems set the stage for varied responses to the Spanish regime. See

also Edited Volumes.



Lovell, W. George. Conquest and Survival in Colonial Guatemala: A Historical Geography of the Cuchumatn Highlands, 1500

1821. Kingston, ON: McGill-Queens University Press, 1985.

Lovells analysis of contact-era Cuchumatn highland populations provides a regionally focused, in-depth view of life after conquest.

Chapters in Section 3 discuss economic and political frameworks established by the Spanish, drawing attention to the multifaceted

cultural changes attributed to these overarching structures. See also History of Contact by Region and Precontact Culture and

Society.

Megged, Amos. Accommodation and Resistance of Elites in Transition: The Case of Chiapa in Early Colonial Mesoamerica.

Hispanic American Historical Review 71.3 (1991): 477500.

Using a case study of Chiapa, a province in southern Mexico, Megged interprets the influence of precontact indigenous political

structure in determining post-contact political and social relationships with colonists and conquerors.

Pinto, Gloria Lara. Change for Survival: The Case of the Sixteenth-Century Indigenous Populations of Northeast and Mideast

Honduras. In Columbian Consequences. Vol. 3, The Spanish Borderlands in Pan-American Perspective. Edited by David Hurst

Thomas, 227243. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991.

Pinto draws attention to the effect of the encomienda system on indigenous identity and survival. Recognizing the sociopolitical

organization, ethnic affiliation, interregional interactions, and territorial limits of indigenous groups, Pinto argues for relocation and

subsequent absorption into new mestizo groups as a significant factor in indigenous demographic decline. See also Cultural

Implications of Conquest and History of Contact by Region.

Stern, Steve J. Perus Indian Peoples and the Challenge of Spanish Conquest: Huamanga to 1640. Madison: University of

Wisconsin Press, 1982.

Stern discusses the manner in which Andean cultures became subverted by the Spanish yet continued to actively influence the

formation of the resulting colonial society. This text helps to show the conquest of Peru as a process of cultural exchange and

adaptation, rather than a sudden demographic collapse. See also Precontact Culture and Society.

Skeletal Studies

As noted in Ortner 1992, ancient human skeletons provide direct evidence of past morbidity and mortality. Working with large

samples of human remains from documented archeological contexts, skeletal biologists have revealed unique details relating to the

health and life expectancy of populations in Latin America both before and after European contact. While these studies largely

document post-contact elevated levels of biological stress and morbidity, as in Klaus and Tam 2009 and Klaus and Tam 2010 (both

studies of Andean populations), they also reveal significant health issues prior to European contact as well. Ubelaker 1994 reveals

such poor health patterns in a precontact Ecuadorian population while also comparing changes in health post-contact. Comparative

studies such as Ubelaker 1994 and Ubelaker and Newson 2002 complement the historical record, revealing information that would

not otherwise be available from ethnohistoric sources. Research of post-contact samples also reveals considerable diversity within

Latin America as demonstrated in White, et al. 1994; Cohen 1994; and Vargas 1990, arguing for heterogeneity in the morbidity and

mortality experience.

Cohen, Mark N. Health and Death at Tipu. In In the Wake of Contact: Biological Responses to Conquest. Edited by Clark

Spencer Larsen and George R. Milner, 121133. New York: Wiley-Liss, 1994.

Using the skeletal remains of 588 historic-period burials, Cohen investigates the bioarchaeology of this colonial-era Mayan site.

Findings show a likely Christian lifestyle (based on burial style), with little trauma or skeletal infection, and relatively good health,

suggesting a site shielded from the direct conflict associated with colonialism.



Klaus, Haagen D., and Manuel E. Tam. Contact in the Andes: Bioarchaeology of Systemic Stress in Colonial Mrrope, Peru.

American Journal of Physical Anthropology 138.3 (2009): 356368.

Comparative study of levels of skeletal stress in pre- and post-contact indigenous populations. Skeletal analysis shows elevated

biological stress post-contact, which, when combined with archaeological and ethnohistorical evidence, can be used to elucidate

quality of life in colonial Mrrope.

Klaus, Haagen D., and Manuel E. Tam. Oral Health and the Postcontact Adaptive Transition: A Contextual Reconstruction of Diet

in Mrrope, Peru. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 141.4 (2010): 594609.

Klaus and Tam study the dentition of 378 pre- and post-contact Peruvian skeletal remains, noting characteristics of poor oral health

in order to understand changes in diet. Comparing their findings to ethnohistorical sources, the authors find an increase in poor

dental health associated with a high-carbohydrate diet after contact.

Ortner, Donald J. Skeletal Paleopathology: Probabilities, Possibilities, and Impossibilities. In Disease and Demography in the

Americas. Edited by John W. Verano and Douglas H. Ubelaker, 513. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992.

For readers unfamiliar with skeletal paleopathology, this source provides a useful summary of the limitations and applications of the

field. Ortner notes that while paleopathological studies can add valuable insight into the impact of post-contact disease, incorrect

identification and deficiencies in methodology and theory can do more harm than good. See also Edited Volumes, Precontact

Morbidity and Mortality, Regional Patterns of Post-Contact Disease, and Skeletal Studies.

Ubelaker, Douglas H. The Biological Impact of European Contact in Ecuador. In In the Wake of Contact: Biological Responses

to Conquest. Edited by Clark Spencer-Larsen and George R. Milner, 147160. New York: Wiley-Liss, 1994.

Using a broad skeletal sample of 1,474 skeletons from coastal and highland sites spanning preagricultural through 20th-century

eras, Ubelaker compares levels of morbidity and mortality across five temporal periods. Results show temporal increase in poor

health prior to contact, with a dramatic increase of disease and death following contact.

Ubelaker, Douglas H., and Linda A. Newson. Patterns of Health and Nutrition in Prehistoric and Historic Ecuador. In The

Backbone of History: Health and Nutrition in the Western Hemisphere. Edited by Richard H. Steckel and Jerome C. Rose, 343

375. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Taking advantage of the numerous human skeletal biology studies conducted in Ecuador, Ubelaker and Newson systematically

review the distinct regional variations in morbidity and mortality throughout human occupation. Main foci include temporal, cultural,

and geographical influences on population health.

Vargas, Luis A. Old and New Transitions and Nutrition in Mexico. In Disease in Populations in Transition: Anthropological and

Epidemiological Perspectives. Edited by Alan C. Swedlund and George J. Armelagos, 146160. New York: Bergin & Garvey, 1990.

Assesses changes in Mexican skeletal populations at three points in time: the dawn of agriculture, the conquest, and contemporary

Mexico (1910). Reviewing several skeletal studies for each period, Vargas is able to emphasize similarities and differences in illness

and systemic stress within each period of transition. See also Edited Volumes.

White, Christine D., Lori E. Wright, and David M. Pendergast. Biological Disruption in the Early Colonial Period at Lamanai. In In

the Wake of Contact: Biological Responses to Conquest. Edited by Clark Spencer Larsen and George R. Milner, 135145. New

York: Wiley-Liss, 1994.



The authors use stable isotopes and dental pathology to assess diet- and anemia-related lesions and enamel defects to examine

physiological stress. Little dietary change is found in the early historic period despite Spanish presence, yet increased indicators of

physiological stress may point to a rise in epidemics.

Post-Contact Genetic Admixture

The academic field of population genetics brings a unique perspective to the study of population collapse in Latin America. Enhanced

by recent DNA methodology, genetic research has focused mostly on contemporary populations but increasingly includes data from

ancient DNA as well. Sources in this section provide examples of how population genetics reveals the extent and nature of admixture

in different populations of Latin America. While this approach informs about the demographic history of distinct groups such as the

gauchos in southern Brazil discussed in Marrero, et al. 2007, it also presents the genetic diversity within Latin America as a whole,

which Wang, et al. 2008 addresses. Such studies document variable population history of the non-indigenous Argentine population

(Seldin, et al. 2007) and complement historical information (Bedoya, et al. 2006). Genetic studies also can reveal how miscegenation

contributed to population decline and even extinction as in Martnez-Cruzado, et al. 2001. Although the primary contribution of

population genetics to the understanding of demographic collapse is documentation of admixture, such studies also can contribute

to other issues as well. For example, Black 1992 notes that the extent of genetic diversity represents a factor in the spread and impact

of epidemic disease. OFallon and Fehren-Schmitz 2011 uses both ancient and modern mitochondrial DNA to suggest the timing

and magnitude of past population contraction, likely related to events following European contact.

Bedoya, Gabriel, Patricia Montoya, Jenny Garca, et al. Admixture Dynamics in Hispanics: A Shift in the Nuclear Genetic Ancestry

of a South American Population Isolate. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103.19 (May 2006): 72347239.

The authors in this article use the varied genetic mixtures of Hispanic ancestry to trace individual populations early demographic

histories. Focusing particularly on the Antioquia province of northwest Columbia, the authors unravel the chronology of admixture to

reveal a narrative that follows recorded historical information.

Black, Francis L. Why Did They Die? Science 258.5089 (1992): 17391740.

Black discusses the possibility of low genetic diversity among New World indigenous groups acting as a factor in the epidemic-

driven demographic collapse. Briefly reviews the processes of infection and immunity within a population.

Marrero, Andrea Rita, Claudio Bravi, Steven Stuart, et al. Pre- and Post-Columbian Gene and Cultural Continuity: The Case of the

Gaucho from Southern Brazil. Human Heredity 64 (2007):160171.

A case study of the gaucho (individuals of European, indigenous, and African ancestry) in Brazil. This study uses Y-chromosomes

and mitochondrial DNA to trace the demographic history of the gauchos, including both pre and post-contact genetic admixture of

individuals, in order to establish a history of genetic exchange.

Martnez-Cruzado, J. C., G. Toro-Labrador, V. Ho-Fung, et al. Mitochondrial DNA Analysis Reveals Substantial Native American

Ancestry in Puerto Rico. Human Biology 73.4 (2001): 491511.

The Tano Indians represent a population thought to have become extinct following European contact. However, these authors reveal

the presence of Tano mtDNA in modern Puerto Rican populations. This study provides an example of population decline through

miscegenation, an aspect of contact often overlooked.

OFallon, Brendan D., and Lars Fehren-Schmitz. Native Americans Experienced a Strong Population Bottleneck Coincident with

European Contact. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108.51 (2011): 2044420448.



Sampling both North American and South American populations, OFallon and Fehren-Schmitz examine ancient DNA to establish the

impact of European contact on population size. Analysis of mtDNA suggests a significant decrease in indigenous population size

approximately 500 years before the present, providing additional evidence for a historically recorded demographic collapse.

Seldin, Michael F., Tian Chao, Russell Shigeta, et al. Argentine Population Genetic Structure: Large Variance in Amerindian

Contribution. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 132.3 (2007): 455462.

Using a sample of ninety-four individuals from a nonindigenous Argentine population, the authors examine genetic structure to

determine genetic composition. Among those sampled, European genes dominated the composition, followed by Amerindian and

African contributions, demonstrating a complex variation in genetic admixture following contact.

Wang, Sijia, Nicolas Ray, Rojas Winston, et al. Geographic Patterns of Genome Admixture in Latin American Mestizos. PLoS

Genetics 4.3 (2008): e1000037.

Examines admixture among modern mestizos, whose ancestry is linked to the colonial era. This extensive study of thirteen

populations from seven countries reveals the admixture among indigenous, African, and European groups while further exploring the

varied genetic composition of the multiple in reply to indigenous groups in existence prior to contact.

LAST MODIFIED: 03/19/2013

DOI: 10.1093/OBO/9780199766581-0134

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