Political Theories Political Theories

5th lecture.5th lecture.

The postmodern theories and the The postmodern theories and the 21st century 21st century

Division of the semester Division of the semester 1st lecture: Introduction and Classical Antiquity.1st lecture: Introduction and Classical Antiquity. 2nd lecture: Political ideas of the Middle Ages. Church 2nd lecture: Political ideas of the Middle Ages. Church

and state in medieval Europe. The investiture and state in medieval Europe. The investiture controversy.controversy.

3rd lecture: Political ideas of early Modern Age. 3rd lecture: Political ideas of early Modern Age. Separation of Church and State. The Separation of Separation of Church and State. The Separation of powers, and the importance of institutions. Machiavelli, powers, and the importance of institutions. Machiavelli, Hobbes, Montesquieu.Hobbes, Montesquieu.

4th lecture: Political ideas of 19th century. Birth of 4th lecture: Political ideas of 19th century. Birth of modern streams of political thinking. Liberalism, modern streams of political thinking. Liberalism, conservativism and left-wing movements, (Marx and conservativism and left-wing movements, (Marx and Marxism).Marxism).

5th lecture: Main trends in political movements (thinkers 5th lecture: Main trends in political movements (thinkers and ideas and institutions in the 20th century.) and ideas and institutions in the 20th century.)

Assessment process Assessment process

Obligatory literature: „Civilizations and world-religions” and the Obligatory literature: „Civilizations and world-religions” and the „History of political ideas” ppt-presentations on the web-page: „History of political ideas” ppt-presentations on the web-page: www.marosan.com

Recommended literature: Marosán György. (2006): Hogyan Recommended literature: Marosán György. (2006): Hogyan készül a történelem? Money-Plan kftkészül a történelem? Money-Plan kft

The course implies an exam. There are two components of the The course implies an exam. There are two components of the mark: an essay and a written exam. mark: an essay and a written exam.

If someone participates at least 3 lectures from the 5, and writes If someone participates at least 3 lectures from the 5, and writes an acceptable essay at home, then he or she could receive a an acceptable essay at home, then he or she could receive a mark after his or her essay, (that is: no written exam needed mark after his or her essay, (that is: no written exam needed then).then).

When someone does not participate enough lectures, and/or his When someone does not participate enough lectures, and/or his or her essay is not acceptable or is not good enough, then he or her essay is not acceptable or is not good enough, then he or she must make a written exam or she must make a written exam tootoo..

The topic/theme of the essay must be in a connection with the The topic/theme of the essay must be in a connection with the subject matter of the course, and it should be an analysis of a subject matter of the course, and it should be an analysis of a definite, designed topic, or movie.definite, designed topic, or movie.

The essay must be of 2600 words long, the dead-line is: 17. The essay must be of 2600 words long, the dead-line is: 17. december, 2012. december, 2012.

Topics and treatments of Topics and treatments of essaysessays

Everybody should write two essays: one from Everybody should write two essays: one from „Civilizations and World-religions” and another from „Civilizations and World-religions” and another from „History of Political Ideas”.„History of Political Ideas”.

The topic of the first essay: one should watch a film, The topic of the first essay: one should watch a film, (which is set in the case of each student (which is set in the case of each student individually), then write an essay concerning the individually), then write an essay concerning the topic or theme of the movie, (perhaps a topic or theme of the movie, (perhaps a recommendation of 20 lines at the end of the essay).recommendation of 20 lines at the end of the essay).

The topic of the second essay: the decisive events of The topic of the second essay: the decisive events of 21st century on the basis of articles and news 21st century on the basis of articles and news downloaded from the internet. The student must downloaded from the internet. The student must choose 5 news, events or articles, and write an essay choose 5 news, events or articles, and write an essay on its ground. on its ground.

Both essays should be unbiassed, objective, multisided.Both essays should be unbiassed, objective, multisided.

Movie-titles.Movie-titles.Possible themes for essayPossible themes for essay

1.1. A katedrális (német-kanadai)A katedrális (német-kanadai)2.2. Hullám (N) Hullám (N) 3.3. Ajami (Izraeli film)Ajami (Izraeli film)4.4. Ég velünk (USA)Ég velünk (USA)5.5. A vágy forradalma (francia)A vágy forradalma (francia)6.6. Ütközések (USA)Ütközések (USA)7.7. Vittorio de Sica: Csoda Milánóban Vittorio de Sica: Csoda Milánóban

(Olasz)(Olasz)8.8. Aki szelet vet (USA) Aki szelet vet (USA) 9.9. Isten nagy, én kicsi vagyok (francia)Isten nagy, én kicsi vagyok (francia)10.10. Fellini: Róma (Olasz)Fellini: Róma (Olasz)11.11. Megfoghatatlan (Il Divó) Andreotti film Megfoghatatlan (Il Divó) Andreotti film

(O) (O) 12.12. Pasolini: Médeia (Olasz)Pasolini: Médeia (Olasz)13.13. Rosellini: Róma nyílt város (Olasz)Rosellini: Róma nyílt város (Olasz)14.14. A háborúnak vége (F) Semprun A háborúnak vége (F) Semprun

könyvből filmkönyvből film15.15. Berlin fölött az ég, (német)Berlin fölött az ég, (német)16.16. Kapcsolat (USA, Jodie Fosterrel, 1997)Kapcsolat (USA, Jodie Fosterrel, 1997)17.17. Tarkovszkij: A tükör Tarkovszkij: A tükör 18.18. A kelet, az kelet. (A) A kelet, az kelet. (A) 19.19. Anna és a király (USA)Anna és a király (USA)20.20. Pasolini: Máté Evangéliuma (Olasz)Pasolini: Máté Evangéliuma (Olasz)21.21. Polanski: Rosemary gyermeke (USA)Polanski: Rosemary gyermeke (USA)

1.1. Enyedi Ildikó: Simon mágus (magyar) Enyedi Ildikó: Simon mágus (magyar) 2.2. Ámen (francia-német-német film) Ámen (francia-német-német film) 3.3. Bergman: Úrvacsora (svéd)Bergman: Úrvacsora (svéd)4.4. Andrzej Wajda: Szenthét (Lengyel)Andrzej Wajda: Szenthét (Lengyel)5.5. A paradicsom meghódítása (Angol-A paradicsom meghódítása (Angol-

amerikai-francia-spanyol) amerikai-francia-spanyol) 6.6. Bergman: Suttogások, sikolyok (svéd)Bergman: Suttogások, sikolyok (svéd)7.7. A Magdolna nővérek (ír)A Magdolna nővérek (ír)8.8. Luther (N)Luther (N)9.9. Goya kísértetei, (spanyol).Goya kísértetei, (spanyol).10.10. Mennyei királyság, (Amerikai-angol, Mennyei királyság, (Amerikai-angol,

stb.)stb.)11.11. Bergman: A hetedik pecsét Bergman: A hetedik pecsét 12.12. Bresson: Egy falusi plébános naplója Bresson: Egy falusi plébános naplója

(francia) (francia) 13.13. Bergman: Tükör által homályosan (svéd)Bergman: Tükör által homályosan (svéd)14.14. Tarkovszkij: Andrej Rubljov (szovjet-Tarkovszkij: Andrej Rubljov (szovjet-

orosz)orosz)15.15. Szent Lajos király hídja (spanyol-angol-Szent Lajos király hídja (spanyol-angol-

francia) francia) 16.16. Enyedi Ildikó: A bűvös vadász (magyar) Enyedi Ildikó: A bűvös vadász (magyar) 17.17. Hét év Tibetben (Amerikai) Hét év Tibetben (Amerikai) 18.18. Bresson: Jeanne D’Arc pereBresson: Jeanne D’Arc pere19.19. Vera DrakeVera Drake20.20. Bresson: A bűn angyalai (francia)Bresson: A bűn angyalai (francia)

The points of view of the analysis The points of view of the analysis of the film: of the film:

What is the movie about? What is the movie about? What is its relationship to the particular, chosen topic (to Religions or What is its relationship to the particular, chosen topic (to Religions or

History of Political Ideas) History of Political Ideas) What is the „message” of the movie? What is the „message” of the movie? What is its peculiar importance in relationship to the history of 20th and What is its peculiar importance in relationship to the history of 20th and

21st century?21st century? Does it have a „message” in regard of nowadays Hungary?Does it have a „message” in regard of nowadays Hungary? Which opposite opinions are expressed in the movie? Which opposite opinions are expressed in the movie? Which opposite opinions are present according to the topic in question in Which opposite opinions are present according to the topic in question in

the contemporary Hungarian and/or global society? the contemporary Hungarian and/or global society? You could select the behaviour, story or path of life of one or more You could select the behaviour, story or path of life of one or more

characters, and you could present and analyse them in your essay. characters, and you could present and analyse them in your essay. With what other movies and literary works could you compare the With what other movies and literary works could you compare the

actual, chosen movie?actual, chosen movie? What is the relationship of this film to the reality: does it alter the latter What is the relationship of this film to the reality: does it alter the latter

drastically or rather mirrors it in a quite acceptable, adequate way?drastically or rather mirrors it in a quite acceptable, adequate way?

Topic of the other essayTopic of the other essay

There were three options: There were three options:

1.1. You should choose and download from the You should choose and download from the internet 5 events, news, information in the last internet 5 events, news, information in the last two years, which you consider to be decisive in two years, which you consider to be decisive in regard of the history of 21st century.regard of the history of 21st century.

2.2. I will give you one case, about which you could I will give you one case, about which you could write an essay.write an essay.

3.3. There are some TED case, which also provide There are some TED case, which also provide option to write essay. option to write essay.

The points of view of the The points of view of the analysis concerning the 21st analysis concerning the 21st

centurycenturyYou should choose and download from the internet 5 events, news, You should choose and download from the internet 5 events, news,

information in the last two years, which you consider to be information in the last two years, which you consider to be decisive in regard of the history of 21st century.decisive in regard of the history of 21st century.

You should show and argue for why do you think You should show and argue for why do you think thesethese events to events to be decisive (rather than others).be decisive (rather than others).

You should unfold their connections and internal relationship, You should unfold their connections and internal relationship, and form your opinion what kind of future they foreshadow and form your opinion what kind of future they foreshadow together.together.

You should determine the possible message of this You should determine the possible message of this foreshadowed picture in regard of Europe, and in particular in foreshadowed picture in regard of Europe, and in particular in regard of East-Europe.regard of East-Europe.

You should determine the possible message of this You should determine the possible message of this foreshadowed picture in regard of present Hungarian society. foreshadowed picture in regard of present Hungarian society.

The essay must be approximately 8 pages, out of which one page The essay must be approximately 8 pages, out of which one page should be about the analysis of these five tendencies.should be about the analysis of these five tendencies.

Deadline: 17. December, 2012. Room, E II 22.Deadline: 17. December, 2012. Room, E II 22.

An example An example

At least 45 people, including women and children, have been killed in At least 45 people, including women and children, have been killed in sectarian violence involving two ethnic groups over land row in Nigeria's sectarian violence involving two ethnic groups over land row in Nigeria's northern state of Benue, police and witnesses said today.northern state of Benue, police and witnesses said today. Those killed Those killed belong to Tiv ethnic group while the attackers were the Fulani people who belong to Tiv ethnic group while the attackers were the Fulani people who are mostly cattle herdsmen, witnesses said.are mostly cattle herdsmen, witnesses said.

The Tiv, who are mostly farmers, also had some of their houses burnt The Tiv, who are mostly farmers, also had some of their houses burnt down by the invaders.down by the invaders. Ejike Alaribe, the police spokesman, said the Ejike Alaribe, the police spokesman, said the number of people killed in Sunday's violence is 16 but a witness who number of people killed in Sunday's violence is 16 but a witness who spoke to PTI on condition of anonymity insisted the number could not be spoke to PTI on condition of anonymity insisted the number could not be less than 45, adding that the country's police is known for reducing less than 45, adding that the country's police is known for reducing casualty figures.casualty figures.

The cause of the violence is related to land row between the two ethnic The cause of the violence is related to land row between the two ethnic groups. The Fulanis, who are mostly Muslims, seek land for their cattle to groups. The Fulanis, who are mostly Muslims, seek land for their cattle to graze while the Tivs want to preserve it for farming.graze while the Tivs want to preserve it for farming.

Ethnic conflict over land are widespread in northern Nigeria. Most Ethnic conflict over land are widespread in northern Nigeria. Most frequently, these occure in the country's north-central state of Plateau frequently, these occure in the country's north-central state of Plateau where Fulani herdsmen engage in clashes with the Biroms and other where Fulani herdsmen engage in clashes with the Biroms and other ethnic groups.ethnic groups.

Suggested TED presentations Suggested TED presentations (www.TED.org)(www.TED.org)

1.1. Paddy Ashdown: The global power shift. Paddy Ashdown: The global power shift.

2.2. Clay Shiky: Institution vs. collaborationClay Shiky: Institution vs. collaboration

3.3. Clay Shirky: How the internet transform Clay Shirky: How the internet transform governmentgovernment

4.4. Rachel Botsman: The currency of the new Rachel Botsman: The currency of the new economyeconomy

5.5. Jammy Drummond: Let’s crowsource Jammy Drummond: Let’s crowsource

6.6. Don Tapscott: Four principles for open world Don Tapscott: Four principles for open world

7.7. Howard Rheingold: The new power of Howard Rheingold: The new power of collaborationcollaboration

8.8. Yochai Benkler: New open-source economics Yochai Benkler: New open-source economics

9.9. Sam Harris: Science can answer moral Sam Harris: Science can answer moral questionsquestions

10.10. Schlomo Benartzi: Saving for tomorrow, Schlomo Benartzi: Saving for tomorrow, tomorowtomorow

11.11. R. Wilkinson: How economic inequality harms R. Wilkinson: How economic inequality harms societysociety

12.12. Niall Ferguson: A jólét 6 kegyetlenül jó "app"-Niall Ferguson: A jólét 6 kegyetlenül jó "app"-jeje

13.13. Mark Forsyth: What’s a snowgosterMark Forsyth: What’s a snowgoster

14.14. M. Jakubowski: Nyílt forráskódú tervrajzok a M. Jakubowski: Nyílt forráskódú tervrajzok a civilizációhoz civilizációhoz

15.15. Gladwell: Choice, happiness, spagetti sauceGladwell: Choice, happiness, spagetti sauce

16.16. Lean-Baptist Michel: The mathematics of Lean-Baptist Michel: The mathematics of histotyhistoty

17.17. J. Diamond: Why societies collapseJ. Diamond: Why societies collapse

1.1. J. Haidt: Religion, evolution, and the J. Haidt: Religion, evolution, and the extasy of self-transcenceextasy of self-transcence

2.2. J. Haidt: The moral roots of liberalismJ. Haidt: The moral roots of liberalism

3.3. Hans Rosling: A vallások és a demográfia Hans Rosling: A vallások és a demográfia

4.4. Hans Rosling: The best statistics…Hans Rosling: The best statistics…

5.5. Frans de Waal: Moral behavior in animalsFrans de Waal: Moral behavior in animals

6.6. Dan Ariely – irracionalitásaink..Dan Ariely – irracionalitásaink..

7.7. D. Ariely: Our buggy moralD. Ariely: Our buggy moral

8.8. Devdutt Pattenaik: Kelet kontra nyugat – Devdutt Pattenaik: Kelet kontra nyugat – elkápráztató mítoszokelkápráztató mítoszok

9.9. Joseph Pine: What consumer wantsJoseph Pine: What consumer wants

10.10. Roy Sutherland: an add man life Roy Sutherland: an add man life

11.11. Gopnik: What do babies thinkGopnik: What do babies think

12.12. Jamie Drummond: Let’t crowsource .. Jamie Drummond: Let’t crowsource ..

13.13. Marc Googman: A vision of crime int he Marc Googman: A vision of crime int he future future

14.14. Jean Baptiste Michel: Matehmatics of Jean Baptiste Michel: Matehmatics of history history

15.15. Sherry Turtle: Connected but alona Sherry Turtle: Connected but alona

16.16. Berry Schwartz: Paradox of choice Berry Schwartz: Paradox of choice

17.17. Laurie Santos: Monkey economy Laurie Santos: Monkey economy

18.18. Geoffrey West: A városok és cégek Geoffrey West: A városok és cégek meglepő matematikája meglepő matematikája

Main features of a Main features of a political theorypolitical theory

A political theory treats the principles, guide-lines, norms A political theory treats the principles, guide-lines, norms and values according to which (in the thinker’s opinion) and values according to which (in the thinker’s opinion) the society has to organize its institutions, functions, the society has to organize its institutions, functions, structures, hierarchy and its general way of working.structures, hierarchy and its general way of working.

The aim of a political theory is to find the best way of The aim of a political theory is to find the best way of running a society and a state. running a society and a state.

The political thinker in question has to argue for his or The political thinker in question has to argue for his or her ideas, so for his or her opinion according to which her ideas, so for his or her opinion according to which she/he finds some values to be the best for a society.she/he finds some values to be the best for a society.

She or he has to fix the most basic values according to She or he has to fix the most basic values according to which the society or the state has to organize itself, and which the society or the state has to organize itself, and its particular way of functioning. So: she or he has to say its particular way of functioning. So: she or he has to say what she/he thinks to be the most important in regard of what she/he thinks to be the most important in regard of a society: the preserving the traditional values of a nation a society: the preserving the traditional values of a nation (conservativism), guaranteeing the invulnerability of (conservativism), guaranteeing the invulnerability of sphere of personal, individual freedom (liberalism), social sphere of personal, individual freedom (liberalism), social justice and the defense of the rights of the needy (left-justice and the defense of the rights of the needy (left-wing movements, Social democracy).wing movements, Social democracy).

How to govern a state? Two How to govern a state? Two solutionssolutions

For the Greek political thinkers there were generally For the Greek political thinkers there were generally three possible ways of governance: kingship, aristocracy three possible ways of governance: kingship, aristocracy and politeia (democracy, republic).and politeia (democracy, republic).

Kingship or kingdom, which meant monarchy, was the Kingship or kingdom, which meant monarchy, was the dominance of one person or family, that „privatized” the dominance of one person or family, that „privatized” the community, and its most important resources, using the community, and its most important resources, using the latter entirely at his and their will and pleasure.latter entirely at his and their will and pleasure.

The republic (democracy, politeia) was the community of The republic (democracy, politeia) was the community of several, principally equal citizens, who looked for the several, principally equal citizens, who looked for the proper method of how to decide those question together, proper method of how to decide those question together, which were decided in a kingdom by only one person or which were decided in a kingdom by only one person or just a few. just a few.

Of course there are transitional forms between republic Of course there are transitional forms between republic and kingdom, which were described by the theoreticians and kingdom, which were described by the theoreticians of Athenian democracy, (e.g. oligarchy, aristocracy – the of Athenian democracy, (e.g. oligarchy, aristocracy – the dominance of a few people).dominance of a few people).

Recurrent problems of republicsRecurrent problems of republics

How can we achieve that everybody could have a How can we achieve that everybody could have a role in the republic? – Everybody is eligible. role in the republic? – Everybody is eligible.

How can we achieve that everbody could have an How can we achieve that everbody could have an equal chance to have an access to the public state? – equal chance to have an access to the public state? – The elections were done by means of drawing of lots The elections were done by means of drawing of lots (sortition).(sortition).

How could we avoid the tyranny? – By ostracism. How could we avoid the tyranny? – By ostracism. How could we achieve that the people participate in How could we achieve that the people participate in

political life in real? – We should make the political life in real? – We should make the participation in politics an obligation, and we should participation in politics an obligation, and we should pay for managing the proper social, political, public pay for managing the proper social, political, public offices. offices.

„„Assigned sovereignity” as an Assigned sovereignity” as an achievement of the history of achievement of the history of

European civilizationEuropean civilization

The sovereign and all-powerful monarch assigns The sovereign and all-powerful monarch assigns certain rights in certain fields that an organization certain rights in certain fields that an organization could determine and controll its functions and could determine and controll its functions and working in an autonomous, sovereign and free working in an autonomous, sovereign and free way. Thus emerge in the history of Europe:way. Thus emerge in the history of Europe:

Free cities,Free cities, Free guilds,Free guilds, Free religious communities,Free religious communities, Free universities,Free universities, Free societies (e.g. Academies)Free societies (e.g. Academies) Free enterprisesFree enterprises

Evolution of separation of powers, Evolution of separation of powers, 1.1.

John of Salisbury, AD1120-1180.John of Salisbury, AD1120-1180. He wittnesses the assassination of his mentor Thomas He wittnesses the assassination of his mentor Thomas

Becket by the men of the king, Henrik II, in 1174.Becket by the men of the king, Henrik II, in 1174. His main work is „Policraticus” (1159), in which he His main work is „Policraticus” (1159), in which he

determined the just governance limited and controlled by determined the just governance limited and controlled by laws, and acceptance of separation of powers as the laws, and acceptance of separation of powers as the highest task of the monarch.highest task of the monarch.

On the one hand he wrote about the difference between On the one hand he wrote about the difference between monarch and tyrrant, according to which the monarch monarch and tyrrant, according to which the monarch subjects himself to the reign of just law, while the tyrrant subjects himself to the reign of just law, while the tyrrant subjects everything to his own subjective will and pleasure.subjects everything to his own subjective will and pleasure.

On the other hand he argues for that the Church is such an On the other hand he argues for that the Church is such an autonomous, sovereign organization, which falls beyond autonomous, sovereign organization, which falls beyond the sphere of competence of the king; thus the people, the sphere of competence of the king; thus the people, dominions, lands, properties and rights to nominate its dominions, lands, properties and rights to nominate its own people to ecclesiastic positions are inviolable, own people to ecclesiastic positions are inviolable, invulnerable by the king.invulnerable by the king.

The activitiy index of the first European Parlaments from the 11. to the 17. century.

There are interesting differences development of parlamentarism between the North and South Europa

MachiavelliMachiavelli , "Il Principe," contains a number of maxims , "Il Principe," contains a number of maxims

concerning politics, but rather than the more concerning politics, but rather than the more traditional subject of a hereditary prince, it traditional subject of a hereditary prince, it concentrates on the possibility of a "new prince." concentrates on the possibility of a "new prince." To retain power, the hereditary prince must To retain power, the hereditary prince must carefully maintain the socio-political institutions carefully maintain the socio-political institutions to which the people are accustomed. to which the people are accustomed.

Scholars often note that Machiavelli glorifies Scholars often note that Machiavelli glorifies instrumentality in state-building - an approach instrumentality in state-building - an approach embodied by the saying that "embodied by the saying that "the ends justify the means.„. .„.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) Evolution of separation of powers, Evolution of separation of powers,

2.2.

The pre-historical period before state organization was The pre-historical period before state organization was not – as it was generally thought by many – a time of not – as it was generally thought by many – a time of harmony, a „golden age of young and innocent harmony, a „golden age of young and innocent mankind”, but just the opposite: the world of permanent mankind”, but just the opposite: the world of permanent and brutal conflicts. It was the time of „bellum omnium and brutal conflicts. It was the time of „bellum omnium contra omnes”, „contra omnes”, „the war of all against allthe war of all against all”.”.

But the man possesses not only instinct, but also reason, But the man possesses not only instinct, but also reason, he is capable of thinking of the future, of anticipation, he is capable of thinking of the future, of anticipation, and it makes him able to end this period of „natural and it makes him able to end this period of „natural state”, following his own interests.state”, following his own interests.

He founds the He founds the social contractsocial contract, according to which each , according to which each man abandon his or her absolute right to self-man abandon his or her absolute right to self-affirmation, to do whatever he wants, and assign this affirmation, to do whatever he wants, and assign this right to an absolute sovereign – if and only every other right to an absolute sovereign – if and only every other man does the same.man does the same.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

„„In such condition, there is no place for industry; because the fruit In such condition, there is no place for industry; because the fruit thereof is uncertain: and consequently no culture of the earth; no thereof is uncertain: and consequently no culture of the earth; no navigation, nor use of the commodities that may be imported by sea; navigation, nor use of the commodities that may be imported by sea; no commodious building; no instruments of moving, and removing, no commodious building; no instruments of moving, and removing, such things as require much force; no knowledge of the face of the such things as require much force; no knowledge of the face of the earth; no account of time; no arts; no letters; no society; and which earth; no account of time; no arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear, and danger of violent death; and the is worst of all, continual fear, and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short”.life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short”.

Hobbes was a champion of Hobbes was a champion of absolutism for the sovereign but he also but he also developed some of the fundamentals of European developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought: : the right of the individual; the natural equality of all men; the the right of the individual; the natural equality of all men; the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between distinction between civil society and the state); the view that all and the state); the view that all legitimate political power must be "representative" and based on the legitimate political power must be "representative" and based on the consent of the peopleconsent of the people

John Locke (1632-1704)John Locke (1632-1704). . Birth of Birth of modern statemodern state

Evolution of separation of powers, Evolution of separation of powers, 3.3.

The man adds his work to the goods of nature, and he creates The man adds his work to the goods of nature, and he creates value. Thus he gains the right to have property. The work is the value. Thus he gains the right to have property. The work is the basis for all kind of property.basis for all kind of property.

This idyllic picture of natural state was collapsed by the This idyllic picture of natural state was collapsed by the emegence of money. The money made possible the emegence of money. The money made possible the accumulation of wealth, and it resulted great inequalities.accumulation of wealth, and it resulted great inequalities.

The inequal distribution of properties brought sharp conflicts, The inequal distribution of properties brought sharp conflicts, which must be controlled. „which must be controlled. „To avoid these inconveniences, To avoid these inconveniences, which disorder men's propperties in the state of nature, men which disorder men's propperties in the state of nature, men unite into societies, that they may have the united strength of unite into societies, that they may have the united strength of the whole society the whole society to secure and defend their propertiesto secure and defend their properties, and , and may have standing rules to bound it, by which every one may may have standing rules to bound it, by which every one may know what is hisknow what is his”, Locke, „Second Treatise on Civil ”, Locke, „Second Treatise on Civil Government”, [1690], London, 1821: 306.Government”, [1690], London, 1821: 306.

Locke rejects Hobbes’ solution, according to which the people Locke rejects Hobbes’ solution, according to which the people should abandon their rights in favour of the monarch. The should abandon their rights in favour of the monarch. The people would be crazy to offer all their rights for a monarch people would be crazy to offer all their rights for a monarch with unlimited, absolute power, and trust their fate to this with unlimited, absolute power, and trust their fate to this uncontrolled, unrestricted overlord.uncontrolled, unrestricted overlord.

Montesquieu (1689-1755).Montesquieu (1689-1755).The share of powers, „The Spirit of The share of powers, „The Spirit of

the Laws”the Laws”

He tooks the principle of separation of powers from Locke, but he He tooks the principle of separation of powers from Locke, but he elaborates this idea in great details in his work „The Spirit of the elaborates this idea in great details in his work „The Spirit of the Laws”, („De l’espirit des lois”, 1748).Laws”, („De l’espirit des lois”, 1748).

„„In every government there are three sorts of power: the legislative; In every government there are three sorts of power: the legislative; the executive in respect to things dependent on the law of nations; the executive in respect to things dependent on the law of nations; and the executive in regard to matters that depend on the civil law.and the executive in regard to matters that depend on the civil law.

By virtue of the first, the prince or magistrate enacts temporary or By virtue of the first, the prince or magistrate enacts temporary or perpetual laws, and amends or abrogates those that have been perpetual laws, and amends or abrogates those that have been already enacted. By the second, he makes peace or war, sends or already enacted. By the second, he makes peace or war, sends or receives embassies, establishes the public security, and provides receives embassies, establishes the public security, and provides against invasions. By the third, he punishes criminals, or against invasions. By the third, he punishes criminals, or determines the disputes that arise between individuals. The latter determines the disputes that arise between individuals. The latter we shall call the judiciary power, and the other simply the we shall call the judiciary power, and the other simply the executive power of the state.executive power of the state.”, The Spirit of the Laws, 11th book, ”, The Spirit of the Laws, 11th book, 6, 6, Of the Constitution of EnglandOf the Constitution of England..

Montesquieu. Continuation.Montesquieu. Continuation.The evolution of separation of The evolution of separation of

powers, 4.powers, 4.

Montesquieu: Montesquieu: „„The political liberty of the subject is a tranquillity of mind, The political liberty of the subject is a tranquillity of mind,

arising from the opinion each person has of his safety. In arising from the opinion each person has of his safety. In order to have this liberty, it is requisite the government be order to have this liberty, it is requisite the government be so constituted as one man need not be afraid of` another. so constituted as one man need not be afraid of` another.

When the legislative and executive powers are united in the When the legislative and executive powers are united in the same person, or in the same body of magistrates, there can same person, or in the same body of magistrates, there can be no liberty; because apprehensions may anse, lest the be no liberty; because apprehensions may anse, lest the same monarch or senate should enact tyrannical laws, to same monarch or senate should enact tyrannical laws, to execute them in a tyrannical manner.execute them in a tyrannical manner. ”, The Spirit of Laws.”, The Spirit of Laws.

In the background of this conception one could find a In the background of this conception one could find a peculiar insight: the effective and succesfull governance peculiar insight: the effective and succesfull governance depends primarily not on the eminence of politicians, but depends primarily not on the eminence of politicians, but on the appropriate manner and character of institutions.on the appropriate manner and character of institutions.

Montesquieu (1689-1755) Montesquieu (1689-1755)

Montesquieu saw two types of governmental power Montesquieu saw two types of governmental power existing: the existing: the sovereign and the and the administrative. The . The administrative powers were the administrative powers were the executive, the , the legislative, and the , and the judicial. These should be separate . These should be separate from and dependent upon each other so that the from and dependent upon each other so that the influence of any one power would not be able to influence of any one power would not be able to exceed that of the other two, either singly or in exceed that of the other two, either singly or in combination. combination.

This was a radical idea because it completely This was a radical idea because it completely eliminated the three eliminated the three Estates structure of the French structure of the French Monarchy: the Monarchy: the clergy, the aristocracy, and the people , the aristocracy, and the people at large represented by the at large represented by the Estates-General, thereby , thereby erasing the last vestige of a erasing the last vestige of a feudalistic structure. structure.

J. Locke J. Locke

Locke's political theory was founded on Locke's political theory was founded on social contract theory. theory. Unlike Thomas Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature is Unlike Thomas Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature is characterised by reason and tolerance. Like Hobbes, Locke characterised by reason and tolerance. Like Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature allowed men to be selfish. This is believed that human nature allowed men to be selfish. This is apparent with the introduction of currency. In a natural state all apparent with the introduction of currency. In a natural state all people were equal and independent, and everyone had a natural people were equal and independent, and everyone had a natural right to defend his “Life, health, Liberty, or Possessions".right to defend his “Life, health, Liberty, or Possessions". [21][21] Most Most scholars trace the phrase, "life, liberty, and the pursuit of scholars trace the phrase, "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness," in the American Declaration of Independence to happiness," in the American Declaration of Independence to Locke's theory of rights,Locke's theory of rights,[22][22] though other origins have been though other origins have been suggested.suggested.[23][23]

J. Locke (2) J. Locke (2)

Like Hobbes, Locke assumed that the sole right Like Hobbes, Locke assumed that the sole right to defend in the state of nature was not enough, to defend in the state of nature was not enough, so people established a civil society to resolve so people established a civil society to resolve conflicts in a civil way with help from government conflicts in a civil way with help from government in a state of society. However, Locke never refers in a state of society. However, Locke never refers to Hobbes by name and may instead have been to Hobbes by name and may instead have been responding to other writers of the day.responding to other writers of the day.[24][24] Locke Locke also advocated governmental separation of also advocated governmental separation of powers and believed that revolution is not only a powers and believed that revolution is not only a right but an obligation in some circumstances. right but an obligation in some circumstances. These ideas would come to have profound These ideas would come to have profound influence on the Declaration of Independence and influence on the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States.the Constitution of the United States.

Rousseau Rousseau

„„The first man who, having fenced in a piece of The first man who, having fenced in a piece of land, said "This is mine," and found people naïve land, said "This is mine," and found people naïve enough to believe him, that man was the true enough to believe him, that man was the true founder of civil society. From how many crimes, founder of civil society. From how many crimes, wars, and murders, from how many horrors and wars, and murders, from how many horrors and misfortunes might not any one have saved misfortunes might not any one have saved mankind, by pulling up the stakes, or filling up mankind, by pulling up the stakes, or filling up the ditch, and crying to his fellows: Beware of the ditch, and crying to his fellows: Beware of listening to this impostor; you are undone if you listening to this impostor; you are undone if you once forget that the fruits of the earth belong to once forget that the fruits of the earth belong to us all, and the earth itself to nobody.us all, and the earth itself to nobody.

The lesson of French Revolution The lesson of French Revolution

The theoreticians will be more suspicious and The theoreticians will be more suspicious and careful with the conception of unlimited, absolute careful with the conception of unlimited, absolute power, no matter whether it is practiced by a king, power, no matter whether it is practiced by a king, a group of nobles, aristocrats or eminent political a group of nobles, aristocrats or eminent political people, or the entire people.people, or the entire people.

They will be more careful with separating the They will be more careful with separating the representation and the final, ultimate executive representation and the final, ultimate executive power.power.

The claim increases amongst them towards the The claim increases amongst them towards the securing of private, individual rights, of defending securing of private, individual rights, of defending the rights of the minority against the power of the the rights of the minority against the power of the actual majority of the society in question.actual majority of the society in question.

Separation of powers after the Separation of powers after the Second World War Second World War

The number of voters (freemen) increases by leaps and The number of voters (freemen) increases by leaps and bounds (the age limit is brought down, there is no bounds (the age limit is brought down, there is no property qualification in voting anymore, women got a property qualification in voting anymore, women got a right to vote also).right to vote also).

The new voters are interested in voting and politics in The new voters are interested in voting and politics in general less – they have no time, they are disinterested general less – they have no time, they are disinterested and no experience either. It is a question of how their and no experience either. It is a question of how their own interest could be realized in political praxis.own interest could be realized in political praxis.

A subtly balanced system was formed and consolidated:A subtly balanced system was formed and consolidated: Parliament (with the Opposition), Government, Parliament (with the Opposition), Government, Shared and separated powers, Shared and separated powers, Constitutional Court, President (King),Constitutional Court, President (King), National Bank, National Audit Office, National Bank, National Audit Office, Media, Media, Civil organizations (civil advocacy groups), local Civil organizations (civil advocacy groups), local

governments/ authorities,governments/ authorities, Central Statistical Office, National Academy. Central Statistical Office, National Academy.

The problem of separation of The problem of separation of powers at the end of the 20th powers at the end of the 20th

centurycenturyHow could such an organization be governed, that has – in case if it is a How could such an organization be governed, that has – in case if it is a

corporation – more than one hundred thousand shareholders, and – in corporation – more than one hundred thousand shareholders, and – in case if it is a state – several million citizens who have the right to vote?case if it is a state – several million citizens who have the right to vote?

How could it be guaranteed that the interests of such a huge amount of How could it be guaranteed that the interests of such a huge amount of „beneficiaries” - shareholders or voters – would be continually „beneficiaries” - shareholders or voters – would be continually represented in real and – as far as it is possible – realized by those who represented in real and – as far as it is possible – realized by those who were trusted to manage and take care the main duties and affairs of the were trusted to manage and take care the main duties and affairs of the community in question?community in question?

These questions are justified by the same fact in both cases: the These questions are justified by the same fact in both cases: the „appropriate agents”„appropriate agents”

(1)(1) do not see through the situation in its entire complexity, do not see through the situation in its entire complexity, (2)(2) do not take the trouble to receive detailed information in a do not take the trouble to receive detailed information in a

circumspective and prudent way,circumspective and prudent way,(3)(3) do not participate the shareholders’/owners assembly or the elections, do not participate the shareholders’/owners assembly or the elections, (4)(4) do not take care at all of their property/state, do not spend any time and do not take care at all of their property/state, do not spend any time and

energy concerning it; the maximum is that they whine or curse when the energy concerning it; the maximum is that they whine or curse when the bankruptsy or the crisis comes in. bankruptsy or the crisis comes in.

The political and business sciences though different way but found the same The political and business sciences though different way but found the same solution to these questions : and the answer is the institutional way of solution to these questions : and the answer is the institutional way of sharing or separating of powers. sharing or separating of powers.

Factors of good governance Factors of good governance

1) Participation1) Participation

2) Rule of law2) Rule of law

3) Transparency3) Transparency

4) Responsiveness4) Responsiveness

5) Consensus orientation5) Consensus orientation

6) Equity6) Equity

7) Effectiveness and efficiency7) Effectiveness and efficiency

8) Accountability8) Accountability

9) Strategic vision9) Strategic vision

DDimensions of the rule of lawimensions of the rule of law

» Limited government powers» Limited government powers » Absence of corruption» Absence of corruption » Order and security» Order and security » Fundamental rights» Fundamental rights » Open government» Open government » Effective regulatory enforcement» Effective regulatory enforcement » Access to civil justice» Access to civil justice » Effective criminal justice» Effective criminal justice » Informal justice» Informal justice

The waves of the historyThe waves of the history

1000 1500

1815

2000

1650

1300

1875

19291973

2000

Population, Production, and Consumption

The question: is there a change in the trends after 2000?

?

History of the last 500 years in a History of the last 500 years in a few wordsfew words

Upsurge (the „long 16th century” – from Upsurge (the „long 16th century” – from 1492 to 1618) 1492 to 1618)

Change of speed (1650-1750)Change of speed (1650-1750)

„„Take-off” –(1750-1850) Take-off” –(1750-1850)

Acceleration (1850-1970)Acceleration (1850-1970)

Run-away and overshot (1950-?)Run-away and overshot (1950-?)

The central question of 21th century: The central question of 21th century: stabilization or collapse.stabilization or collapse.

The „triple” revolution The „triple” revolution of the end of 18th centuryof the end of 18th century

1.1. Industrial revolution (revolution of Industrial revolution (revolution of technique and technology) technique and technology)

2.2. Political revolution (the birth of modern Political revolution (the birth of modern civil society) civil society)

3.3. Social revolution (birth of new social Social revolution (birth of new social identities: nation and class) identities: nation and class)

The political ideas of 19th and 20th century The political ideas of 19th and 20th century was mainly determined and was mainly determined and characterized by the ways in which the characterized by the ways in which the political thinkers and ideologues reacted political thinkers and ideologues reacted to these events.to these events.

The liberal answer and evaluationThe liberal answer and evaluation

1.1. The triple slogan of French Revolution – liberty, The triple slogan of French Revolution – liberty, equality, brotherhood – could be regarded in equality, brotherhood – could be regarded in principle as the victory of liberal thought. The principle as the victory of liberal thought. The French Revolution gave birth to the unitary French Revolution gave birth to the unitary national state, which earlier was made up of national state, which earlier was made up of separate orders.separate orders.

2.2. The industrial revolution opened the way to a The industrial revolution opened the way to a dynamic development, and the liberal thinking dynamic development, and the liberal thinking welcomed that. The liberal thinkers were the welcomed that. The liberal thinkers were the pioneers of technical and technological pioneers of technical and technological advancement and development. advancement and development.

3.3. They treated the social questions and problems as They treated the social questions and problems as necessary implications of social changes and necessary implications of social changes and transformations. They proposed a strict and iron-transformations. They proposed a strict and iron-handed defence of private property by the state. handed defence of private property by the state. They considered the miseries and paurerdom as They considered the miseries and paurerdom as temporary problems of society, but they advocated temporary problems of society, but they advocated the social reforms.the social reforms.

Conservative respond and Conservative respond and evaluationevaluation

1.1. The revolution is considered as the disruption of social The revolution is considered as the disruption of social harmony. For a conservative thinker the revolution is harmony. For a conservative thinker the revolution is nothing else but anarchy and general social confusion. nothing else but anarchy and general social confusion. It is a conspiracy against traditional state and It is a conspiracy against traditional state and traditional institutions organized by some free-thinkers traditional institutions organized by some free-thinkers (especially freemasonry) and libertines, carried out (especially freemasonry) and libertines, carried out through the manipulation and deception of masses and through the manipulation and deception of masses and the plebs.the plebs.

2.2. The industrial revolution is considered as the disruption The industrial revolution is considered as the disruption of earlier „peaceful” and „natural” mode of production, of earlier „peaceful” and „natural” mode of production, which lead to new contradictions and antinomies in the which lead to new contradictions and antinomies in the society. society.

3.3. They glanced at the masses of social difficulties and They glanced at the masses of social difficulties and antinomies, at the emergence of a new and apparently antinomies, at the emergence of a new and apparently uncontrollable class with fear, and principally with a uncontrollable class with fear, and principally with a critical attitude. They reject the „mechanical and critical attitude. They reject the „mechanical and alianated” civilization. They regard the disappearance alianated” civilization. They regard the disappearance of traditional society as disintegration and of traditional society as disintegration and disorganization.disorganization.

The socialist respond and The socialist respond and evaluationevaluation

1.1. The social revolution is the motor of The social revolution is the motor of development, the Jacobin terror – as a development, the Jacobin terror – as a necessity and respond to the counter-necessity and respond to the counter-revolutionary revolts – is the possiblity of a revolutionary revolts – is the possiblity of a radical political way to realize the social radical political way to realize the social equality. equality.

2.2. The industrial revolution is the possibility of The industrial revolution is the possibility of enrichment and advancement, but every enrichment and advancement, but every burden is placed onto the proletariat.burden is placed onto the proletariat.

3.3. The social change results the emergence of The social change results the emergence of a new class, which is deprived of any a new class, which is deprived of any defence, and which is exposed to extreme defence, and which is exposed to extreme urban pauperdom and neediness, to cruel urban pauperdom and neediness, to cruel conditions of work, and to necessary conditions of work, and to necessary unemployment.unemployment.

What is liberalism?What is liberalism?Its central subjects are individual freedom, intangibility Its central subjects are individual freedom, intangibility

and inviolability of private property, and in favour of and inviolability of private property, and in favour of both is the limitation of the state, (Hobbes, then Locke).both is the limitation of the state, (Hobbes, then Locke).

Main features: the affirmation of reason and advancament, Main features: the affirmation of reason and advancament, religious tolerance, the common good or public benefit religious tolerance, the common good or public benefit is a result of conflict and competition of private is a result of conflict and competition of private interests, free competition, pursuit of welfare through interests, free competition, pursuit of welfare through the above-mentioned issues.the above-mentioned issues.

Liberalism emphasizes the equality of rights. Its basic Liberalism emphasizes the equality of rights. Its basic claims are the principal, essential civil rights: the rights claims are the principal, essential civil rights: the rights of association and assembly, the freedom of opinion and of association and assembly, the freedom of opinion and publication.publication.

With all these also some spiritual or intellectual rights: With all these also some spiritual or intellectual rights: freedom of conscience and religion, and also some freedom of conscience and religion, and also some economic rights: the freedom of enterprise and economic rights: the freedom of enterprise and (economic) contract.(economic) contract.

What is conservativism? What is conservativism?

Originally it was a general tendency of traditionalism: it Originally it was a general tendency of traditionalism: it was the conception of advocation of traditional morals, was the conception of advocation of traditional morals, values, religion, following of inherited rules and norms, values, religion, following of inherited rules and norms, and the maintenance of the and the maintenance of the status quostatus quo..

The main feature of conservative feeling of life and style of The main feature of conservative feeling of life and style of thinking: concentrating on concrete phenomena, thinking: concentrating on concrete phenomena, rejection of theoretical speculations. rejection of theoretical speculations.

The conservative thinker rejects the abstract, egalitarian The conservative thinker rejects the abstract, egalitarian conception of freedom (socialism) as well as the negative conception of freedom (socialism) as well as the negative conception of freedom given by the liberal thinkers.conception of freedom given by the liberal thinkers.

„„The progressive thinker considers the actual present as The progressive thinker considers the actual present as the beginning of the future, while the conservative the beginning of the future, while the conservative regards it as the last station of the past”, (Karl regards it as the last station of the past”, (Karl Mannheim, Mannheim, Conservatism. A Contribution to the Conservatism. A Contribution to the Sociology of KnowledgeSociology of Knowledge ).).

What is socialism? What is socialism?

The expression „socialism” appeared in the 30s years The expression „socialism” appeared in the 30s years of the 19th century. Its advocators propagated the of the 19th century. Its advocators propagated the war against the defencelessness of the worker in the war against the defencelessness of the worker in the name of the man’s dignity. They supported the name of the man’s dignity. They supported the advancement and the civil revolution. advancement and the civil revolution.

They agree with the liberals concerning the central They agree with the liberals concerning the central role of reason and rationality, and the importance of role of reason and rationality, and the importance of industrial revolution, but they rejected the industrial revolution, but they rejected the circumstances which lead to the miserable circumstances which lead to the miserable conditions of the members of working class. conditions of the members of working class.

In accordance with the conservatives they emphasized In accordance with the conservatives they emphasized the importance of common values, but they rejected the importance of common values, but they rejected the idea of eternal and necessary inequality. the idea of eternal and necessary inequality.

Their aim was to realize the promises of the French Their aim was to realize the promises of the French Revolution to everybody: the principles of liberty, Revolution to everybody: the principles of liberty, equality and brotherhood.equality and brotherhood.