Political Participation of Women in India

-An Overview

55

Chapter III

Democracy implies equality for all human persons, men and women. As against this

basic notion of democracy what is normally seen is that women are excluded from

different walks of life, more visibly in Politics. The U.N. observes that women

constitute "world's largest excluded category". For the attainment of true democratic

spirit shall be ensured better political participation. "In the struggle for gender justice",

Usha Narayanan argues, "Political participation constitutes the first and foremost step

in that direction."1.

In any political system, right from the developed to the developing countries, presence

of women is very low compared to men. In many countries women had to wage long

battles to get right to vote. Today the percentage of women as voters has increased

considerably, but their political participation is not equal to men and therefore women

are unable to get an equal share in organization that require decision making. Women

have not been regarded as significant part of the political arena. Politics at every level

of participation is dominated by men.

Milbrath and Goel observed that it is a tradition in almost all societies that politics is

mainly an affair of men and that women should fall in line with them politically. The

changes brought by modern industrial societies are eroding this sex difference but the

impact of tradition is still visible. Men tend to be more psychologically involved in

politics than women.2

Discrimination against women, says Henry Chafe, finds in the deep rooted structure of

society, in the roles women play and in a sexual division of labour which restricted

females primarily to the domestic sphere of life.3 Therefore, it is argued that only

substantial social changes capable of demolishing the structural basis regarding the

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traditional views of male and female roles is necessary to modify the existing trends in

the political participation of men and women.4

The omission of women from positions of power seriously affects the ability to

challenge the subordination of women in all its manifestation. Women have to be in

politics and power to participate as women and to change the very nature of that power

which excludes them. Women who consist of almost half of the population need to be

represented significantly in decision making bodies. Otherwise the goal of development

cannot be achieved. Gender equity is very essential for the progress of any society.

Political Participation – Definition

Political participation has been defined in various ways. Political participation means

not only exercising the right to vote, but also power sharing, co-decision making, co-

policy making at all levels of governance of the state.5

Political participation is broadly defined as being a process through which individual

plays a role in political life of his society, has the opportunity to take part in deciding

what the common goals of that society are and the best way of achieving these goals.

Political participation refers to actual participation in these voluntary activities by

which members of the society share in the selection of rulers and directly or indirectly

in the formulation of public policy.6

Political participation refers to an activity by which citizens are designed to influence

the decision-making process of the government.7The citizens are active participants in

the political input process, the process by which the political decisions are made.8 As

such Almond-Powel denotes participation, “The pressure from groups in the society for

having a part in the decision-making of the political system”.9 Subsequently such

involvement has to do with rapid increase in the volume and intensity of demands for a

share by various groups and strata in the society10. Such activity is focused on public

authorities, those are generally recognized as having the final legitimate decision on the

authoritative allocation of values. Participation may be individual or collective,

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organized or spontaneous, sustained or sporadic, peaceful or violent, legal or illegal and

effective or ineffective.11 In fact, the processes like protests, riots, demonstrations,

rallies, processions, fasting and even in an abstract sense, those forms of insurgent

violence that are designed and intended to influence the public authorities are the one

dimension or other dimensions of participation.12

Political participation is a process by which people take part in political activities.

Political participation is not just casting vote. It includes wide range of other activities-

like membership of political party, electoral campaigning, attending party meetings,

demonstrations, communication with leaders, holding party positions, contesting

elections, membership in representative bodies, influencing decision making and other

related activities.

With this understanding of political participation, the evidence shows that in most of

the countries participation of women is not impressive as the number of women

participating in active politics is smaller compared to men. Women who are able to

acquire decision making power are mostly from urban and elite groups. Large mass of

women are kept out of political arena due to various reasons. There was no serious

attempt to accommodate women in politics. In many countries women had to wage long

battles to get their rights. Despite that, they were not able to get rightful position in the

arena of politics.

The most common and accepted political action in elections is voting. This is exercised

by women equal to men and in fact the number of women voters is increasing day by

day. But women until the 20th century did not have the right to vote. American women

were the first to start fighting for their rights to vote. In most of the western liberal

democracies, women won voting rights after their systematic fight with the system.

Indian women, as early as 1917 raised the issue of universal adult franchise. The British

government granted the right to vote on the basis of wifehood, property and education.

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The 1935 Government of India Act provided for right to vote for all women above 21

years of age who fulfilled the conditions of property and education. The Constitution of

India which came into existence in the year 1950 granted universal adult franchise to all

its citizens.

Besides the exercising of voting rights, the representation of women in legislative

bodies as policy formulators or decision makers is very low. Women have been

demanding for more space in legislative bodies. Most countries in the world have failed

to give due space and representation to women in their political systems, only in a

handful of countries women are moving equally with men, for example, Germany,

Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Finland. In these countries women are making

substantial inroads into decision making process. In the advanced countries like

Western Europe and North America, female presence in legislature remains small and

relatively insignificant.

The statistics (2014) indicate that the world average of women representatives in

legislature is 21.90%, both the houses combined. It is 22.30% in lower house and

19.80 % in upper house. The regional variations are however significant.

Table No. 3.1: Regional Variation of Women in Parliament (2014)

Single House or lower House

Upper House or Senate

Both Houses Combined

Nordic countries 42.10% --- --- Americas 25.70% 26.40% 25.80% Europe - OSCE member countries including Nordic countries

24.90% 22.80% 24.40%

Europe - OSCE member countries excluding Nordic countries

23.20% 22.80% 23.10%

Sub-Saharan Africa 22.90% 19.80% 22.50% Asia 19.30% 14.30% 18.70% Arab States 17.80% 7.70% 15.90% Pacific 13.40% 38.60% 16.20%

Source: Inter Parliamentary Union, April, 2014

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The table 3.1 shows that the highest percentage of women in parliament is in the

Nordic countries at 42.10% followed by America at 25.8%, Europe (including

the Nordic Countries) at 24.9%, Europe (excluding the Nordic Countries) at

23.2%, Asia at 19.30%, Sub-Saharan Africa at 22.9%, and the Arab States at

17.8 % and the lowest in Pacific at 13.4% . Among the individual countries,

Cuba ranks first with 48.90% of women in parliament, followed by Sweden at

45% and Finland at 42.50%.

Table No.3.2: Percentage Representation Of Women In Legislatures In

Various Countries. (2014)

Country Percentage of Women Rep. in Lower House

America 18.30% Bangladesh 19.10% Brazil 8.60% Canada 25.10% China 23.40% Cuba 48.90% Denmark 39.10% Finland 42.50% Greece 21.00% Germany 36.50% India 11.40% Indonesia 18.60% Japan 8.10% Nepal 29.90% Pakistan 20.70% Russia 13.60% Sri Lanka 5.80% Sweden 45.00% United Arab Emirates 17.50% United Kingdom 22.60%

Source: Inter Parliamentary Union, April, 2014

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The table 3.2 shows a very marginal representation of women in various legislatures

including India. Comparatively our neighboring countries such as China and Pakistan

are in much better position with 23.40% and 20.70% respectively. Representation of

Indian women in parliament is far from satisfactory.

It has been stated that the personality traits and the socio economic and cultural

environment is to a great extent responsible for women’s marginal participation in

politics. The culture which puts maximum premium on the males, the political

environment of instability, criminalization and absence of political ideology are factors

which influence the extent of political participation. Socio political environment

determines the participation and involvement of women in politics.13

Political Participation of Indian Women

"Women's lives in India and the world over are circumscribed by what can be termed as

five 'Ps' Patriarchy, Productive resources access inadequacy, Poverty, Promotion

advancement insufficiency and powerlessness" 14. It is estimated that women do two-

thirds of the world's work. In exchange they receive only 10 percent of all the income

and own a mere one percent of the entire world's means of production.

It is a fact that the real social status and the real level of political participation of

women cannot be analyzed in isolation. On the contrary it is interlinked with the socio-

economic conditions, political climate and inequalities inherent in the traditional social

structure, its norms and values, customs and rituals. All these factors together determine

the actual social status of women. Not only that, women's status differs according to

region, caste, class and religion and also on considerations of tribal, rural and urban

areas." The status of a person is a great force in participating wholeheartedly in the

developmental process. In the case of women, their inferior status relegated to them due

to fundamentalism of tradition and religious beliefs blocked them from active

participation in developmental process.15

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Historically women are supposed to carry forward the traditions, norms and the values

of society. The process of socialisation that they undergo in their families does not

prepare them for non-traditional roles. A better understanding of this position needs a

historical analysis of status of women in India.

Status of Women in Early Indian Society

In ancient India, reverence was given to women as mother's image, a symbol of life,

strength and purity, with immense capacity for patience, sacrifice and sufferings. In the

Vedic and upanishadic periods women enjoyed considerable freedom so far as political,

social and educational activities were concerned and thus enjoyed a status and prestige

in society. In homes, women were given superior position to that of men as they were

treated as the embodiment of goddess of wealth, strength and wisdom. 16 Woman was

depicted as 'shakti', and it was an accepted belief that where woman is respected, there

is divine presence. According to Manu, where women are neglected, all rites and

ceremonies are fruitless and that family quickly perishes, but where women do not

grieve that family always prospers.17

Rig-Vedic women played a key role in the family, in the society and even in the

political life.18 They enjoyed a position of equality and were respected both in the

family and society as well. They were not ornamental objects but co- partners in life, in

its pleasures and hurdles, in its joys and sorrows.19They were imparted education like

men and enjoyed considerable freedom in their personal matters. These are evidences

of women actively participating in the political activities. They participated in the

deliberations of Vidhatha (the earliest folk assembly of Indo-Aryans) and Sabha along

with men.20

In short, it may be said that women enjoyed a fairly satisfactory position during ancient

times. The communities as a whole showed proper concern and respect for women,

allowing them considerable freedom in different activities of social and political life.

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The Medieval period witnessed a gradual decline in the position and status of women in

India. Women were considered weak and it was the responsibility of man to protect

them. Since they were sensitive in temperament, they should be treated with love and

care. They were considered dependent on men throughout their lives. In childhood the

father looks after her, in youth the husband and in the old age her sons supported her.

Therefore, all her life she had to depend on someone or the other and never enjoyed

unrestrained freedom.21

During this period, there emerged social evils like female infanticide, child marriage

and the practice of sati in the Hindu society. 22 Such atrocious practices were

responsible for the deterioration of the status and role of women to a great extent both

in the family and in the society. At the same time the spread of Islam and the beginning

of Sikhism provided a healing touch to the degradation of women. Guru Nanak, the

founder of Sikh religion, wanted women to be treated by men as equals. He said,

"Within a woman is a man conceived, from a woman he is born, he is married to a

woman and with her goes through life… Why call her bad. She gives birth to Kings.

None may exist without a woman. Only the one true God is exterior to women. 23

However, it was a fact that the position of common womenfolk in the country remained

miserable. Their only function was bearing and rearing of children. They were confined

to the four walls of their homes, leading an ignorant and illiterate life.

The Reform Movement

The disintegration of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century and the consequent

political anarchy added to the miseries of Indian women. When the British rule started

their position was the worst in the history of the country.24 From the ideological point

of view women were considered an inferior species. She was inferior to male having no

personality and significance. From the social point of view she was kept in a state of

utter subjection, denied any right, totally suppressed and oppressed. "The customs of

polygamy, the purdha, the denial of women's rights over property, child marriage, sati

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and ban on remarriage to widows - all these practices in this period resulted in the

development of a very weak personality of women”. 25

The British influence was positive in the direction of women's upliftment. The close

contacts with western cultural tradition, literature and education affected very deeply

the minds of the Indian leaders. The natural result was the social movements for

reforms of those evils, which were prevalent in the society. Consequently a number of

reform movements emerged. The leaders and the social reformers of significance who

were in the forefront of the struggle for women's emancipation were Raja Ram Mohan

Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidhyasagar, Swami Dayananda Saraswati, Swami Vivekanand,

Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru and such others.26 These social reformers felt that

the social evils can be eradicated by raising consciousness and making people sensitive

to the injustice perpetrated on women. One of the important offshoots of the social

reform movement was the establishment of the National Social Conference in 1887,

which provided a forum for the reformers to discuss various practices and institutions

which needed to be reformed.27 At this juncture there emerged a number of institutions

organised by great social reformers led by Raja Ram Mohan Roy who is rightly called

the father of Indian Renaissance. The 19th century reform movements and social

renaissance initiated the process of improving the status of women. While spreading

consciousness and pride in indigenous cultural tradition, institutions like the Arya

Samaj, Rama Krishna Mission, the Prarthana Samaj etc. encouraged social service,

educational and reform activities to bring about social change favoring women's

upliftment. 28

The struggle for the emancipation of women took place mainly in three directions - (1)

to make necessary laws for social reforms; (2) to provide maximum opportunities for

their education; and (3) provide them with the fundamental political rights. Attention

was concentrated on the first two in the 19th and early 20th centuries whereas political

rights of women got attention only during the last phase of the independence

movement. 29

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In the early twentieth century, many women’s organizations sprang up. That included

the Women India Association (WIA, 1917), The National Council of Women of India

(NCWI, 1925), and The All India Women’s Conference (AIWC, 1926). The basic

concern of these women’s organizations was to seek legislative enactment for

upliftment of women and gender equality in many fields of human activity, besides

demanding adult suffrage. A lead in this regard was given by Annie Besant who urged

women to join the Home Rule League. As a result of the efforts of leading women

leaders like Margaret Cousins, Joshi and Herabai Tata besides Annie Besant and

Sarojini Naidu, Voting right for women were provided first by the madras Legislature

in 1920.

Women in National Movement

The Indian National Movement under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi inspired

Indian women to enter the open field of politics. He recognized the importance of

women's participation in the freedom struggle. He said, "In the Non-violent struggle,

women have an advantage over men, for women are in any way superior to men in their

religious devotion. Silent and dignified service is the badge of her sex. Woman is

sacrifice personified. When she does a thing in them right spirit, she moves

mountains".30

In the Non Cooperation Movement of 1921 and the Civil Disobedience Movement of

1930, new techniques like picketing and boycotting of foreign goods, liquor shops and

non-cooperation in various governmental activities were used. Mahatma Gandhi had

immense faith in the women's inner strength and their moral appeal. In various non-

violent agitations not only the upper class urban women but at many places, simple

unsophisticated rural women also assumed leadership. Women organised themselves

into groups and were willing to join processions, face police firing and go to prison.

They broke the salt law, picketed shops selling liquor and boycotted foreign

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manufactured cloths. There were also women who joined terrorist group; and helped in

editing and distributing banned news papers and even manufacturing bombs.

The independence movement brought the two streams of politically involved

womenfolk together, the elite and the masses, both participated in the struggles for

independence.31 Mahatma Gandhi encouraged women to participate in all aspects and

phases of nationalist activities, particularly in the constructive programme and the non-

violent satyagraha, for it required not physical strength but moral courage and spiritual

determination. Thus the nationalist movement was, for Mahatma Gandhi, not merely a

political struggle but a means of regenerating and rejuvenating the society.32

It was Mahatma Gandhi who gave a new direction, strength and inspiration to the

freedom movement. He played a pivotal role in extending women's active participation

in political life through the national movement. While he accepted the concept of

women's rights to individual dignity and legal equality from the beginning, he had

viewed their role in the freedom struggle as supportive of man in the earlier period.

Though the implications of Gandhi and social philosophy were not fully realised even

by his followers, the massive involvement of women in the freedom struggle resulted in

the transformation of women's position in the eyes of society

After securing the right to vote, the next item on the agenda was to obtain the right to

sit in the Legislative council in order to promote the cause of political equality between

men and women. In 1926, Dr. Muthulalakshmi Reddy became the first woman to be

nominated to the madras legislative council in the 1932 elections to the provincial

Assemblies. Many women contested and only few of them got elected. The first woman

to serve in the cabinet was Vijayalaxmi Pandit in Uttar Pradesh with the portfolio of

local self-government and public health. Several other prominent leaders like Padmaja

Naidu, Raj Kumari, Begum Hamid Ali, Amrit Kura and Sucheta Kriplani registered

their significant presence in Indian politics.

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By the time of independence women from all sections of society had become active in

politics. Direct political participation promoted women's confidence and self-reliance

and broke the barriers of public and private dichotomies in their lives.33However, while

the basic issue of women's right to participate in politics was thus settled, the content of

their political role continued to be an open question.34

The social reform movement which began in the 19th century emphasized improvement

of women's status through education, restriction of child marriage, improvement in the

conditions of widows and provision of property rights to Hindu widows. The reformers

were not very much interested in establishing equality in roles between men and

women. They saw women as custodians of the family and responsible for the well

being of children, inculcating in them cultural values and heritage of the Indian

civilization.35

Participation of Women in Post Independent Period

The foundation of political participation of women was laid down during the national

movement. The transfer of power from British to Indian hand gave women opportunity

to participate in democratic process. Large number of legal, social and economic

measures has been taken up by the Independent government to raise the status of

women in India. Women too have become politically conscious, as they have started

participating in national and state politics.

Constitutional Provisions

On attaining Independence in the year 1947, India became a republic. The Constitution

of India adopted a parliamentary form of government. The government functions at

different levels. At the apex level, there is the national government and governments at

states and union territories. At the centre, the parliament consists of two houses i.e. the

Upper House called the Rajya Sabha or the council of states and the Lower House

called the Lok Sabha (House of People). At the state level, the upper house is called the

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Legislative Council and the Lower House is called the Legislative Assembly. Each state

has its own local self governments known as Panchayati Raj Institutions both at urban

and rural areas Rural Panchayati Raj Institution has three tier structures consisting of

the Zilla Panchayat at the district level, Taluk Panchayat at the taluk level, and Gram

Panchayat at the village level.

The Constitution of India, one of the greatest documents ever produced came into force

in the year 1950 guarantee justice, liberty and equality to all citizens. The preamble of

the Constitution of India resolved to secure to all its citizens justice, social, economic

and political, liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith, and to worship, equality of

status and opportunity and to promote among them fraternity assuring the dignity of

individual and the unity of nation. To attain this, the Constitution guarantees

fundamental rights. Specific articles and amendments have been enacted to ensure that

women and children enjoy the Constitutional rights. The Constitution not only grants

equality of treatment to women but also calls upon the state to adopt measures favoring

women neutralizing the socio- economic, educational and political disadvantages that

they face. The following are the various provisions in the constitution which ensures

equality between men and women.

Article 14 guarantees equality before law and equal protection of law within the

territory of India. This Article stands for absence of any discrimination by law or in

their administration.

Article 15 prohibits discrimination on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex, place of

birth. It is a guarantee against every form of discrimination. According to article 15(3),

nothing shall prevent the state from making special provisions for the benefit of women

and children.

Article 16 guarantees equality of opportunity for all citizens in matter relating to

employment or appointment to any office under state. Secondly no citizen shall, on

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grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, decent, place of birth, residence or any of them, be

eligible for, or discriminated against in respect of any employment or office under the

state.

Article 39- a) guarantees right to an adequate means of livelihood for all citizen.

Article 39 b) guarantees equal pay for equal work for both men and women. c) that the

health and strength of workers, men and women, and the tender age of children are not

abused and that citizen are not forced by economic necessity to enter occupations

unsuited for their age or strength.

Article 42 guarantees just and humane condition of work and maternity relief. This is in

accordance with Article 23 and 25 of Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

Article 51-A clause (e) says that it shall be the duty of every citizen of India- to

promote harmony and sprit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India,

transcending religious, linguistic and religious or sectional diversities, to renounce

practice derogatory to the dignity of women.36

The 73rd Constitutional Amendment has added the following articles to the

Constitution providing reservation for women in Panchayati Raj Institutions.

Article 243-(D) (2) states not less than 1/3 of the seats reserved under clause (1) shall

be reserved for women belonging to S.C or as the case may be S.T.

Article 243-(D) (3)-extends political reservation to women not less than 1/3 of the total

number of seats to be filled by direct election in every panchayat shall be reserved for

women and such seats shall be allotted by rotation to different constituencies in a

panchayat.

Article 243-(D) (4) extends reservation to elected offices as well. The office of the

chairpersons in the panchayats or any other level shall be reserved S.C and the S.Ts and

women in such a manner as legislature of a state may, by law provide.

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The legal Constitutional framework in India would appear a combination of

Communitarian perspective on one hand and that of liberal democracy on the other

hand. In spite of such provisions in the Constitution, the decades following

independence witnessed a decline in the women’s participation in politics. These rights

appeared illusionary as there was a shift from the aims of the Constitution. Gap started

widening in all political spheres. Article 325 and 326 guarantees political equality,

equal right to participate in political activity and right to vote, respectively. While the

latter has been accessed and enjoyed by large number of women, the right to equal

participation is still a distant dream. The lack of space for participation in political

bodies has resulted in their presence in meager numbers in this decision making bodies.

Representation of Women in Lok Sabha of India

Post independent women continued to play a significant role in less conventional

activities such as environmental movements, anti-alcohol agitations, peace movements

and even revolutionary activities which equally effect power relationships as they have

the capacity to influence the state. Yet politics proved to be a very inhospitable terrain

for women and continues to be the male domain where entry to women is severely

restricted. Representation of women in parliament and state assemblies remain at a very

low level. Their representation is 10.8% in parliament. No doubt a few seats have been

given to women but it has not been in proportion to women’s strength in population.

Table 3.3 and 3.4 presents the participation of women in the two houses of parliament.

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Table 3.3: Representation of Women in Lok Sabha of India

Year Members in Lok Sabha

Total Members Female Percent

1952 499 22 4.41 1957 500 27 5.40 1962 503 34 6.76 1967 523 31 5.93 1971 521 22 4.22 1977 544 19 3.49 1980 544 28 5.15 1984 544 44 8.09 1989 517 27 5.22 1991 554 39 7.04 1996 543 39 7.18 1998 543 43 7.92 1999 543 49 9.02 2004 539 44 8.16 2009 543 59 10.87

Source: Election Commission, 2009.

The Table 3.3 shows the percentage of women in the Lok Sabha in relation to the total

number of seats. In the year 1952 it was 4.4%. It increased slightly in 1957 to 5.4% in

1962 it was 6.7%, 5.9% in 1967 to fell again to 4.2% in 1971, 3.4% the lowest in 1977

and increase slightly to 8.9% in 1984. Then it improved slightly to 7.1% in 1991 to

7.9% in 1998 and 9% in 1999. But it decreased to 8.2% in 2004. This table shows that

the percentage of women representatives in the Lok Sabha is very low and women’s

representation has not crossed 11% till date. The presence of women in the upper house

has been slightly higher compared to Lok Sabha, probably due to indirect election and

nomination of women members.

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Table 3.4: Year Wise Membership of Women in Rajya Sabha of India

Year Total Seats

Members Percentage

Males Females 1952 219 203 16 7.31 1957 237 219 18 7.59 1962 238 220 18 7.56 1967 240 220 20 8.33 1971 243 226 17 7.00 1977 244 219 25 10.25 1980 244 220 24 9.84 1984 244 216 28 11.48 1989 245 221 24 9.80 1991 245 207 38 15.51 1996 245 204 19 7.76 1998 245 230 15 6.12 1999 245 226 19 7.76 2005 245 218 25 10.20 2006 242 218 24 9.92 2008 241 219 23 9.54

Source: Election Commission, 2009.

From the above data it could be observed that women representation in Rajya Sabha too

has not improved since 1952.

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Women Contestants in General Election

The Table 3.5 depicts the total percentage of women who have contested the Lok Sabha

elections since 1952 till 2009.

Table 3.5: Women as Contestants during Various Elections

Year Males Females Total Females (%)

Males winning

(%)

Females Winning

(%) 1952 1831 43 1874 2.3 26.08 51.16 1957 1473 45 1518 3 31.7 60 1962 1915 70 1985 3.5 24 50 1967 2302 67 2369 2.8 21.3 44.8 1971 2698 86 2784 3 18.5 24.4 1977 2369 70 2439 2.8 22.1 27.1 1980 4478 142 4620 3 11.5 19.7 1984 5406 164 5570 2.9 9.2 25.6 1989 5962 198 6160 3.2 8.5 13.6 1991 8374 325 8699 3.7 5.9 12 1996 13353 599 13952 4.2 3.8 6.7 1998 4476 274 4750 5.7 11.2 15.7 1999 3976 278 4254 5.8 12.3 17.3 2004 5050 355 5405 6.5 9.8 12.6 2009 7514 556 8070 6.8 6.4 10.6

Source: Parliamentary Information Bureau, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.

The Table 3.5 shows number of women contesting elections is very low compared to

men. It increased from 2.3% in 1952 to 6.8% in the year 2009, compared to the

population, the percentage of women contestants is very low. Even today, more than

93% of the total contestants are men. But interestingly the percentage of women

winning elections has always been higher than men. This can be seen from the Table

3.5 The percentage of males who won elections in 1952 is 26.05% whereas women

were 51.16%. In the year 2004,. 9.8% men won the elections out of the total male

contestants and 12.6% women won out of the total female contestants. In the 15th Lok

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Sabha elections 10.6% female contestants won the elections. Political parties deny

tickets to women candidates presuming that they are not capable of winning elections.

These results show that the percentage of women wining elections is more than the

percentage of men winning the elections.

The Table 3.6 shows the representation of women in the Council of Ministers,

Government of India since 1952. The representation of women has been very low in

the ministries that were formed and women were given less important portfolios like

health, welfare, local government etc. The case has been same in the state governments

as well.

Table 3.6: Women Ministers in Various Cabinets of the Government of India

www.parliamentofindia.nic.in

Year No of Women Ministers

1952 3 1957 3 1962 5 1967 5 1971 3 1977 2 1980 8 1984 5 1989 1 1991 5 1996 5 1998 4 1999 9 2004 10 2009 9

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The position of women in the Indian political scene remains by and large, low-profiled

and unrecognized except for those women who are from elite families, who are related

closely to the political leaders and women who are high- profiled in their professions

and their glamour is considered to be a plus point with their entry into the increasing

glitter of politics. The current political culture in the country makes women’s

participation in politics difficult. They expressed their views that women are never

taken seriously in politics. They have to prove themselves at every point. They have to

work harder than their male colleagues and yet their bonafides are suspected and often

they get no credit.

A study conducted by UNESCO in Seven South East Asian countries indicates that in

terms of awareness, party membership, contesting election, voting or deliberate

abstention from voting and decision-making, women’s participation has not been

impressive. The study noted that women remain in the periphery of power and

influence.

In State Legislatures

Women representation in State legislature has been equally dismal. At present the

average percentage of elected women in State Assemblies is 7.23 per cent. The highest

being 14 percent in Rajasthan and the lowest being 2.5 per cent in Goa. States like

Mizoram, Nagaland and Union Territory of Pondicherry have no representation of

women in the Assemblies.

Analysis of trends of women participation in contesting elections to the state

legislatures indicates that there is a gender discrimination that is responsible for poor

representation of women in India.

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Table 3.7: Women Members in Legislative Assemblies and Their Percentage

Sl. No

Name of the state / UT Year

Total No.

of Seats

Women Members Percentage

1 Andhra Pradesh 2009 294 34 11.56

2 Arunachal Pradesh 2009 60 2 3.33

3 Assam 2011 126 14 11.11 4 Bihar 2010 243 34 13.99 5 Chattisgarh 2013 90 10 11.11 6 Delhi 2013 70 3 4.29 7 Goa 2012 40 1 2.50 8 Gujarat 2012 182 16 8.79 9 Haryana 2009 90 9 10.00 10 Himachal Pradesh 2012 68 3 4.41

11 Jammu & Kashmir 2009 87 3 3.45

12 Jharkhand 2009 81 8 9.88 13 Karnataka 2013 224 6 2.68 14 Kerala 2011 140 7 5.00 15 Madya Pradesh 2013 230 30 13.04 16 Maharastra 2009 288 11 3.82 17 Manipur 2012 60 3 5.00 18 Meghalaya 2013 60 4 6.67 19 Mizoram 2013 40 0 0.00 20 Nagaland 2013 60 0 0.00 21 Orissa 2009 147 7 4.76 22 Panjab 2012 117 14 11.97 23 Pondicherry 2011 30 0 0.00 24 Rajasthan 2013 200 28 14.00 25 Sikkim 2009 32 4 12.50 26 Tamil Nadu 2011 234 17 7.26 27 Tripura 2013 60 5 8.33 28 Uttarakhand 2012 70 5 7.14 29 Uttar Pradesh 2012 403 35 8.6 30 West Bengal 2011 294 34 11.56

Total 4120 347 7.23 Source: Website of Election Commission of India

76

Women are coming out in large numbers over ecological degradation price raise

protests, protests against police repression etc. while there is an increased participation

in grass-root political movements; it is not getting translated into a growing share of

women in the formal political structure of the country. Among the several reasons for

such a situation is the growing money power and muscle power required to contest

elections in India. Women have also been treated as subordinate to men in every aspect

of life. Because of her secondary status and low esteem, most of the women were

denied entry in political decision-making.

Political Parties and Women

There is no denying the fact that a political party is an authentic institutional voice in a

democracy in a multi-party democracy; such as India, the role of political parties in

election, in mobilizing public opinion and also in governance process cannot be

overemphasized. Therefore, the backing of a political party for the success of a

candidate in election is also imperative. This trend was evident when women

contestants fielded by political parties won in larger numbers in comparison to

independent candidates.

When Rajiv Gandhi came to power in 1984 he tried to project a pro-woman image for

his party. He fielded a slightly larger number of candidates- 40 out of 492 (8.13%). In

the sympathy wave that followed Indira Gandhi’s assassination the congress party won

by a landslide victory, even the new-comers among women- 37 were elected to the

Eighth Lok Sabha. There were total 44 women ministers during Rajiv’s first tenure as

Prime Minister, the highest ever in Lok Sabha. In India political parties tend to give few

tickets to women for the national elections, details of women nominees of various

political parties are given table.3.8

77

Table 3.8: Participation of Women in National Political Parties of India-2009

As per above Table 3.8 we can see that INC, BJP, and BSP have selected women as the

candidates of the 15th Lok Sabha election. That means these National Parties have

inspired women to participate in politics. Of course, the success rate of winning the

election isn’t similar. Half of the INC’s women candidates have won the Lok Sabha

election, While 1/3 of BJP’s women candidates have won the election. Women

candidates of other Parties have not attained much success in the election.

Many factors are responsible for this state of affairs. History of freedom movement

shows that a large number of women participated in freedom movement. But after that

it went on decreasing. The ideology of the Nehru-Gandhi era has totally disappeared.

Gender roles have become major obstacles in women’s political empowerment.

Traditional division of labour, illiteracy, economic barriers, the type of electoral

system, lack of sufficient training etc have been keeping women away from politics.

Apart from this, elections have become a very costly affair. Women are not able to

generate large amount of money required to fight elections. Centralization of powers

and corruptions have become major obstacles for women to participate in politics.

Party Name

Candidate Percentage Votes Secured by Women

Candidates Contested Won DF Won DF BJB 44 13 17 29.55 38.64 7959676 BSP 28 4 23 14.29 82.14 1548302 CPI 4 0 4 0 100 79301 CPM 6 1 2 16.67 33.33 1678686 INC 43 23 3 53.49 6.98 12804019 NCP 7 2 3 28.57 42.68 1309301 RJD 2 0 2 0 0 349227 TOTAL 134 43 20.37 20.37 38.81 25728512 Source: Election commission of India, General Election, 2009, 15th Lok Sabha.

78

Vibuthi Patel observes that, among the majority of Women’s Rights Groups, politics is

equated with politicking, dirty maneuvering and manipulation and therefore power and

politics remain an anthem to them.37 Political parties are reluctant to field women

candidates. The gender biases of political parties are the major hurdles for women

gaining decision making power. Women find it difficult to establish strong foothold in

politics without party base. Women backed by family and husband are recognized by

the parties. Veteran women politicians are sidelined. No serious efforts are made to

mobilize women as a political group.

Further the political participation has been primarily perceived as belonging to the

private or the private realm. This perception has influenced women’s attitudes towards

politics and political participation and created hesitancy among women to involve

themselves with “what was perceived as politics”. Hence, the conclusion drawn has

been that women are just not interested in politics.38 Max Weber; the German

sociologist spoke of politics as vocation and represented it as a male profession.

Therefore, women’s access to political office is hampered by the belief that a woman

cannot hold a difficult job. Men thus see political women as trespassers in a terrain,

which functionally belongs to them. Women in the political affairs face peculiar

problems that are unknown to their male counterparts. Variety of reasons account for

women’s diminished role in their political arena. They include tradition, physiology,

and lack of vertical mobility, psychology and lack of patronage, particularly senior

women politicians.39

Women’s presence in politics is scarcely above 10 percent. The socioeconomic, cultural

and political environment is to a great extent responsible for women’s marginal

participation in politics. The low range of women’s political participation is due to:

• Low status in society.

• Lesser exposure to education.

79

• Very low economic status.

• The restraining cultural norms and

• The unhealthy political environment. 40

The transition from the roles of housewife and mother to the role of political decision-

maker is not easy and has not been frequently attempted.

Women in India have made major inroads in various male dominated professions. In

the field of business, art, medicine, engineering, law and culture, women are given

opportunity to prove their skills. But they have failed to gain ground in the field of

politics. All these trends indicate that women’s representation in politics requires

special consideration. Today, even best women parliamentarians feel sidelined and

powerless within their parties except a few. Male party leaders have shown little

willingness to include women in party decision making bodies or help to create a

conducive atmosphere for women’s participation in their own organizations. The lack

of women’s participation in political decision making has important consequences. It

deprives women of important rights and responsibilities as citizens and excludes their

perspectives and interests from policy making and decision making. Their voices are

missing from key decisions on national budgets and setting of government priorities.

Their skills and viewpoints often remain unheard, underrepresented or ignored.

Therefore special measures are required. Otherwise our democracy will remain

seriously flawed if it fails to give adequate space for women.41 Political parties and

other organizations should encourage women’s participation in politics and in the

exercise of political responsibilities. The strategy should be to encourage a still greater

number of women in decision – making power. In this background the demand for 33%

reservation for women in legislature becomes important.

80

International Initiatives for Women Empowerment

When the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted on 10 December, 1948,

its Article 1, proclaimed that, "all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and

rights". Article 2 provided for equality of sexes. It states that, "every one is entitled to

all the rights and freedoms without distinction of sex." It is considered as a clarion call

for the cause of women empowerment.42

The U.N. Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination Against

Women which is considered as the Human Rights Bill of Women (CEDAW) came into

being in 1979. This treaty upholds the following rights of women, (1). Their right to

vote in all general elections and referendums and to be elected to general assemblies,

(2) their right to participate in the formulation and implementation of governmental

policies and to hold public offices and, (3) their right to participate in non-governmental

and socio-political organizations.43

Women have made substantial gains over decades, but this has not been adequately

reflected in the representation of women in positions of power. The UN adopted the

Convention on the Political Rights of Women in 1952. The World Plan of Action

adopted in Mexico City in 1975 put forward various suggestions for the recruitment,

nomination and promotion of women in various branches of government, public bodies,

trade unions and pressure groups. The Nairobi declaration stressed... “Women by virtue

of their gender, experience discrimination in terms of denial of equal access to the

power structure that controls society and determines development issues and peace

initiatives” and noted “For true equality to become a reality for women, the sharing of

power on equal terms with men must be a major strategy.” It emphasized the

importance of governmental and non-governmental organizations in educating women

to exercise their civil, political and social rights and stated that in this process of

consciousness raising, efforts would have to be made to fix definite time bound targets

and even resort to a quota system.44 The Nairobi conference decided strategies for the

81

advancement of women up to 2000 A D. The world has consciously marched forward

with various instruments for eliminating discrimination against women since then 45.

Further, the United Nation’s report on women has pointed out that women perform two-

thirds of world’s work, receive only ten percent of the world’s income and own only

one percent of the means of production.46

In Beijing (1995) the largest (fourth) world conference held by UN on women and at

the U.N. conference on Environment and Development in Rio (1992) women’s vital

role in achieving sustainable development was recognized. At the world conference on

Human Rights in Vienna (1993), in which Women’s human rights and their violation

was acknowledged, at the International Conference on Population Development in

Cairo (1994), where women’s empowerment was recognized as a cornerstone of

effective population policies. At the world summit in Copenhagen. (1995) gender

equality was recognized as a pre-condition for the achievement of productive

employment, social integration and poverty eradication. 47

The issue of women’s political empowerment came to the forefront of the global debate

for women’s rights at the time of the Fourth World Conference on Women held at

Beijing in 1995. It declared “women’s equal participation in political life plays a pivotal

role in the general process of the advancement of women. Women’s equal participation

in decision making is a demand for simple justice and necessary condition for women’s

interest to be taken into account”.48 In this conference global community stressed the

importance of women assuming position of power and influence, not only because their

points of view and talents are needed, but also as a matter of their human rights.

Moreover, increased involvement of women in decision making process with respect to

social values, development directions and allocation of resources enables women as

well as men to influence societal agendas and to help to set priorities.49

82

A detailed set of recommendations were issued to all governmental and

nongovernmental communities to enhance women’s political participation and decision

making power.

The fourth World U.N. Conference on Women at Beijing created much more global

awareness about women’s issues. It dealt how vast majority of women of different

countries were being ill treated and also about what the various countries had done and

were doing to bring about equality, development and peace. Gender equality and

empowerment of women were the main themes and goals. Holistic approach to achieve

these aims and goals were discussed vigorously. On this basis the Beijing Declaration

and Plan for Action were drawn. Almost all the government pledged them to dedicate

resources and activities to implement it. They were ready to remove all the obstacles

that come in the way of women’s equality justice and empowerment. It was emphasized

that gender equality and justice could be achieved through multi dimensional

advancement and empowerment of women all over the world. 50

The issue has also repeatedly come up in the non governmental organization meetings

of South Asia Watch (SAW), Asia Pacific Women’s Watch (APWW) as a priority

issue. The Inter Parliamentary Union (IPU) has also been focusing on women’s

political participation. ‘Women’s Political Participation - 21st Century Challenges’ was

also the theme for a meet organized by UNDP in New Delhi from March 24-26, 1999.

The meet engaged women politicians and representatives of civil society from all

regions, in a dialogue to promote the sharing of experience and build alliances. It

concluded that until gender parity is reached in governance, women cannot reach full

equality with men in any sphere.51

The Common Wealth likewise has also been addressing the issue and has taken a

number of initiatives for the purpose of enhancing women’s representation. At their

1995 meeting, Common Wealth Heads of Government endorsed the Plan of Action on

gender and development, which was utilized by the member countries to take action to

83

increase women’s participation in political decision making at all levels. At their 1996

meeting, Common Wealth Ministers of Women’s Affairs recommended that the

member countries achieve a target of no less than 30% for women in political, public

sector by the year 2005. The need to increase women’s participation in political

decision making and peace process in the Common Wealth was also a part of the

agenda of the Common Wealth ministers responsible for women’s affairs, in their sixth

meeting held in New Delhi from April 16-19, 2000.52

Women’s political participation has been the agenda of various international

conferences and symposiums. Various recommendations were made to improve the

participation of women in political decision making. Women’s political empowerment

was at the center stage of all discourses on women’s issues at the international level.

India is in no way an exception from the rest of the countries with respect to the women

representation. Corresponding to this, various initiatives were taken in India.

Initiatives of Indian Government for Women’s Political Empowerment

The Government of India has declared the year 2001 as year for the Empowerment of

Women. In India genuine efforts have been made for promoting gender equality and

women’s empowerment through various departments of Women and Child

Development Human Resource Development Ministry. Several commissions,

particularly the National Commission for Women and its state branches, Central Social

Welfare Board and state branches, National Council of Educational Research and

Training, (NCERT)—National Institute of Public Co-operation and Child Development

(NIPCCD) and other various National and NGO’s dedicated to the cause of women are

also working towards the goal of promoting women’s empowerment.

As a result of all these efforts made at various levels, the situation of women on the

whole has improved with regard to some of the critical indicators of women’s

empowerment, like literacy, education, employment, health, human rights and so on.

84

According to the various surveys, national and international studies, considerable

progress has been made in reducing the gender gap worldwide, though gender

inequalities, inequity and injustice persist in many important areas. It will go to enhance

the participatory character of India’s democracy very significantly. In India lot has been

made in all the critical areas of concern for women’s development and empowerment.

Considerable progress has also been achieved. Women in increasing numbers are

becoming literate, getting various levels of education, skills and professional training

and entering into all kinds of jobs and professions, are working in the lowest to the

highest rank and are making success of these. They are provided with the constitutional

and legal rights and other human rights and even land rights becoming women rights.

The political participation of women as a pre-condition for their empowerment is the

issues gradually gaining visibility and acceptability.

But observing the critical analysis of many reports about how women are being treated

in the family and society in day-to-day life, it is obvious that they are far from being

empowered in reality. When panchayat raj system was introduced very few women

contested or got elected, Balwantrai Metha Committee (1978) recommended that in the

constitution of panchayats, provisions might be made for the co-option of two women

members, “who are interested to work with women and children” Subsequently the

Ashok Metha Committee (1978) had mentioned that two women securing the highest

number of votes among the women candidates in the election could take the seats

reserved for them, a method of co-option by election.53 Though panchayat raj

institutions were established in many states, women’s representation did not exceed

more than two or three.54 It was only in 1976, after the publication of the Report of the

Committee on Status of Women, there was a demand for the representation of women

in panchayat raj bodies through reservation. Karnataka is a pioneer state in this regard.

It was the first state ii the country to introduce the policy of reservation for women in

panchayat raj institutions.55 Yet politics proved to be a very inhospitable terrain for

women and continues to be the male bastion into which the entry of women is severely

restricted.

85

Women continued to remain invisible and marginalized in decision- making bodies. It

was only with the setting up of the Committee on the Status of Women in India (CSWI,

September 1971) that the demand for greater representation of women in political

institutions in India was taken up in a systematic way. The CSWI Report suggested a

more meaningful association of women representatives in the structure of local

administration. The report recommended the establishment of statutory women’s

panchayats at the village level. It recommended the reservation of seats in

municipalities, constitution of permanent committees in municipalities to initiate and

supervise programmes for women’s welfare and development and those political parties

should adopt a definite policy regarding the percentage of women candidates.56

However it was not unanimous in favour of reservation.

The question of reservation of seats was left to the National Perspective - Plan (1988)

for women to take up. In 1988 the Department of Women and Child Development

conducted a study which has been published in the form of a report titled ‘National

Perspective Plan for Women 1988-2000’ which has come out with some significant

recommendations on the role of women in panchayat raj institutions.57 The core group

set up by government of India pointed out that political power and access of position of

decision making and authority are critical three- requisites for women’s equality in the

process of nation building. Later with these feedback and objectives, reservation was

given in local bodies which had provided an opportunity to women to raise their

grievances and other related social and economic problems It recognized that political

participation of women is severely restricted and suggested that 30 percent quota for

women must be introduced at all levels of elective bodies.58 To encourage grass-root

participation in politics, women’s organizations too favored introduction of reservation

in village panchayats.

86

Reservation Bill- 33.33 percent Reservation for Women

Above discussion makes it clear that women remain invisible and marginalized in

decision- making bodies. Data shows that there has been only a marginal increase in the

last few decades in the number of women candidates contesting elections and getting

elected.

The National Perspective Plan for Women, 1988 recommended 30% reservation for

women in local governments and other decision making bodies to encourage

participation of women in grass root politics.59 This debate finally culminated in the

passing of the 73rd and 74th Amendment Act, 1992. This paved way for the entry of

more than one million women into the local governments as members, presidents and

vice-presidents. The 73rd Amendment Act, provided a new constitutional platform

which ensures the representation of 1/3 women in the Panchayati Raj Institutions. This

legislation accelerated the participation of women in the policy making bodies.

The low representation of women in parliament and state assemblies has been the major

concern of various women organizations. Women constituting nearly half of the

population have to abide by the decisions taken by men in power. No serious efforts

have been made by political parties to give more representation for women.

Representation of women in legislatures, thereby entering into power position is

inevitable for political empowerment and equality of women. Given our political

situation, it has become clear that it is difficult for women to enter into legislature

without reservation. Therefore demand for 33% reservation in national and state

legislature has become a major demand of various women’s organizations.

During 1990’s, the issue of women reservation was in the manifesto of various political

parties, which was also a way of wooing women voters. Women reservation bill was

first introduced by Deve Gowda led national front government in September, 1996 as

the 81st amendment bill. Various political parties like Samajavadi Party, Janatha Dal,

87

Lok Shakthi etc opposed the bill severely as it does not provide sub-quota for other

backward classes and minorities. The argument put forth by the opposing group is that

if the bill is accepted as it is, this opportunity will be encashed by the upper caste, urban

elite women and have no effect on the patriarchal structure. In fact there is some truth

in what has been argued here. Various studies have pointed out that those women who

are in the forefronts of politics in India since independence have been mainly elite

urban women. But, so far no serious attempts have been made to analyze this aspect.

Even as C.P.Bhambhri reiterates that the logic that women should participate in the

decision-making process gets diluted if participation is on the basis of their religion or

caste because they are reduced to the level of sectarian leaders and not women

leaders.60 Veena Nayyar, too on the issue contents that the talk of quota with in quota is

a blatant attempt to divide the women. 61 That they forget about OBCs when it came to

the 73rd Amendment because it concerned only governance at the village level and there

was no need for considering a system of proportional representation where by the

legitimate political aspirations of each group can be satisfied without breaking down the

whole system with competing quotas.62 Caste and communal card was used to confuse

the whole issue. What is essential today is the general involvement of women at all

levels of power structure to ensure a true society, without any quota within quota for

political leverage. The politicians, women activists and thinkers are divided on the issue

of women’s reservation bill.

Due to opposition from various political parties, bill was referred to the Parliamentary

Joint Select Committee headed by Geetha Mukharjee. This committee recommended

the passing of the bill but rejected demand for sub quota for other backward classes.

The bill has been introduced thrice but was stalled each time. In 1998, Atal Bihari

Vajpai government presented 84th amendment bill for 33% reservation for women. The

12th Lok Sabha too failed to pass the bill. Women’s Reservation bill is surrounded by

hypocrisy and more of male chauvinism. In the year 1999, December 23rd, the bill was

again presented in the Lok Sabha. But due to lack of consensus amongst different

88

political parties, bill was rejected. UPA government adopted a different strategy. It has

presented the 85th amendment bill in the Rajya Sabha so that it does not lapse with the

dissolution of Lok Sabha. The bill was passed in the Rajya Sabha on the 9th March

2010. The bill’s fate remains uncertain till its final passage by the Lok Sabha. Until this

the women of India will wait to celebrate this as a legislative victory. 63

There is a long way to go for the enactment of the bill. Political parties are using this

issue to woo women voters. No political party is seriously committed to the issue of

reservation for women. No party opposes reservation provided for women in local

governments and they want it to be restricted at that level. A critical mass of women is

a prerequisite for the effective political participation of women. Women’s participation

in political process is to strengthen democratic tradition.

For Indian women, the 73rd Amendment to the Constitution, the panchayat Raj Act

1992 opens up the door to many possibilities. This enabled women at the local village

and district level, to contest on both reserved and unreserved seats. They have been

given a chance to exercise power politics. The commonly held view that, we have to

search for women for contesting elections has been somewhat disproved in practice in

local body elections. Besides reserved seats, women secured seats also from the general

quota. Women are sharing effectively the political decision-making at least at the grass-

roots level. The reservation for women in panchayats, provide a chance to stimulate,

encourage and enhance the rural women to participate in political decision - making

and developmental works.

In recent times women have been awakened to the fact that in order to break gender

barriers and overcome social and political bias, women participation in the political

process is essential. Further laws alone cannot bring social transformation. There must

be a revolution of consciousness in the minds of women about themselves. They must

realize that they have constitutional rights to equality, health care, economic security,

and access to education, employment opportunity, pay equality and political power.

89

Very soon, the 33 percent reservation for women in central and state legislatures also

will provide them an opportunity to escape from ghettoization imposed upon them by

patriarchal norms and practices.

Involvement of women in political arena and in decision-making role is an important

tool for empowerment as well as monitoring standards of political performance.

Women are however virtually invisible in the political spheres - Though we find

instances like Queen Elizabeth, Queen Victoria, Rani Laxmibai, Chand Bibi and more

recently Margeret Thatcher, Srimavo Bhandamaike, Indira Gandhi, Benazir Bhutto and

Sonia Gandhi who took active part in the government of their respective nations, it is to

be noted that most of these women leaders occupied the position by virtue of their

belonging to the either royal families or to elite aristocratic class by way of inheritance.

Under-representation or invisibility of women in decision-making reinforces their

participation leading to an unequal distribution of resources, neglect of their interests,

needs, perspectives and priorities and no say in policy-making. Their voices fall on deaf

ears. To effectuate feminization of politics, a critical mass of women in the decision-

making bodies is yet to emerge

Government of the people, by the people and for the people — Abraham Lincoln’s

concept of democracy is an ideal, which remains unachieved in the world especially in

the context of half the population of any country, the women.

The performance of women with particular reference to elected women representatives

in the areas of Viluppuram District in Tamil Nadu are selected to analyze the factual

background and to examine the extent of women panchayat representatives political

participation and performance at the grass- root level. The representation of women in

panchayat raj system has been discussed in the following chapter.

90

END NOTES:

1. Usha Narayanan, “Women’s Political Empowerment: Imperatives and Challenges”,

Mainstream, April 10, 1999, p.7.

2. Lester W Milbrath, Goel, M.L., Political participation: How and Why Do People

Get Involved in Politics, Rand McNally, Chicago, 1977, p.48.

3. William Henry Chafe, The American: Her Changing Social, Economic and Political

Roles, Oxford University Press, New York, 1972, p.46-47.

4. Imtiaz Ahmed, “Women in Politics”, in Devaki Jain (ed.), Indian Women,

Publications Division, New Delhi, 1975, p.312.

5. Singh, J.P., “Indian Democracy and Empowerment of Women,” The Indian Journal

of Public Administration, Oct-Dec, Vol.XLVI, No.4., 2000, p.619.

6. Rashmi Srivastava, “Empowerment of Women Through Political Participation with

Special Reference to Madhya Pradesh” in Niroj Sinha (ed.) Women in Indian

Politics, Anmol Publications, New Delhi, 2000, p.206.

7. Huntington, S,P,, Nelson, J.M., No Easy Choice: Political Participation in

Developing Countries, Cambridge, 1976, p.4.

8. Almond, G.A. Verba, S., Civic Culture, Princeton, University Press, Princeton,

1972, p.161.

9. Almond, G.A., Powell, G.B., op.cit., p.35-36.

10. Ibid.

11. Huntington, S.P., Nelson, J.M.,

12. Ibid, p.6.

13. Niroj Sinha (ed.), Women in Indian Politics, Empowerment of Women through

Political Participation, Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi, 2000, p.17-18.

14. Hemalata Swarup, “Ethnicity, Gender and class,” International Conference of

Historians of the Laborour Movement, Europaverlag, Vienna, 1993, p.1.

15. Immanuel, Women and Development, Karnavati Publications, Ahmedabad, 1998,

p.22.

91

16. Raj Bala, The Legal and Political status of Women in India, Mohit Publications,

New Delhi, 1999 p.3.

17. Vidyaben Shah, “ Role of Women in Ancient India” in C.K. Jain, Women

Parliamentarians in India, Surjeet Publications, 1993, p.307.

18. A.S. Altekar, The Position of Women in Hindu Civilisation, Motilal Banarsidass,

Delhi, 1962, p.339.

19. Thomas, P., Indian Women Trough the Ages, Asia Publishing House, Bombay,

1964, p.49.

20. Ram Sharan Sharma, Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India,

Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1968, p.78-102.

21. Kala Rani, Role Conflict of Working Women, Chetna Publications, New Delhi,

1976, p.52.

22. Altekar, A.S., op.cit., p.16.

23. Government of India, Towards Equality, Report of the Committee on the Status of

Women in India, New Delhi, 1985, p.43-44.

24. Thomas. P, Indian Women through the Ages, Asia Publishing House, Bombay,

1964, p.285.

25. Mathur, S.S., Anju Mathur, Socio- Psychological Dimensions of Women Education,

Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi, 2001, p.25.

26. Ibid

27. Neera Desai, Maithreyi Krishnaraj, women and Society in India, Vohra and

Company, New Delhi, 1957, p.39.

28. Raj Bala, op.cit., p.7

29. Thomas P., op.cit, p.292-296

30. The Harijan, 22 December, 1921.

31. Hem Lata Swarup, et.al., op.cit., p.367.

32. S.R. Bakshi (ed.), Advanced History of Modern India, vol.4, Anmol Publications,

New Delhi, 1995, p.226.

33. Hem Lata Swarup, et.al., op.cit. p.367.

34. Raj Bala, op.cit., p.217.

92

35. Ibid.

36. Pylee, M.V., An Introduction to the Constitution of India, Vikas Publishing House

Private Ltd., New Delhi, 2007, p.103, 104, 143, 144.

37. Vibuthi Patel, “Getting a Foot Hold in Politics, Women in Political Decision

Making Process,” Social Action, Vol.65., No,.1,Jan-March, 2005, p.40.

38. Abhilasha Kumar, Sabina Kidwai, Crossing the Sacred Line: Women Search for

Political Power, Orient Longman, New Delhi, 1998,p.3.

39. Shantha Bhatt, Women Parliamentarians of India, Shiva Publishers, Udaipur, 1995,

p.190.

40. Niroj Sinha (ed.), Women in Indian Politic, Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi,

2006, p.55.

41. Narayana Jayaprakash, Sheth Dhirubai, Yadav Yogendra, Keshwar Madhu,

“Enhancing Women’s Representation in Legislatures. An Alternative to the

Government Bill for Women’s Reservation”, Manushi, No.116, 2000, p.7.

42. Barbara Smith, “Racism and Women Studies”, in G. Hull et.al., (ed.), But Some of

Us are Brave, The Feminist Press, New York, 1982, p.49.

43. Prbhat Datta, Major Issues in the Development: Lessons in Empowerment from

India, Kanishka Publishers, New Delhi, 1998, p.60.

44. Suriakanthi, A., “Panchayati Raj: Redefinition of Women’s Power”, in Palanithurai.

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45. Niroj Sinha, (ed.) op.cit. p.104.

46. Saxena, K.S., Women’s Political Participation in India, Sublime Publications,

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47. Singh, Surendra, Srivastava, S.P. ‘Background Paper’ of International Conference

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48. Beijing Platform for Action, p.109.

49. http://www.un.org/womenwatch/draw/Public/w2oct97/partlen.htm

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50. Promilla Kapur, Empowering the Indian Women, Publication Division, Govt. of

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52. Biju M.R., “Women Empowerment in India, Changing Socio-Political Equation”, in

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53. Mahipal, “empowering Women through Panchayat Raj Institutions”, Kurukshetra,

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54. Subha, K., Karnataka Panchayat Elections 1995, concept Publishing Company, New

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55. Vidya, K.C., Political Empowerment of Women at the Grassroots, Kanishka

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56. Mahipal, op.cit., p.30.

57. Vidya, K.C., op.cit.

58. Ibid, p.16.

59. “Baseline Report on Women and Political Participation in India”, prepared by

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60. Niroj Sinha (ed.), op.cit., p.423.

61. Ibid.

62. Sushila Kaushik, Women in Panchayati Raj, Haranand Publications, New Delhi,

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63. Krishna Gupta (ed.), Empowerment of Women, Emerging Dimensions, S. Chand

and Company Ltd., 2010, p.103.