Phaedo 55

You are both justified in what you say and I think you mean that I bmust make a defense against this as if I were in court

You certainly must said SimmiasCome then he said let me try to make my defense to you more convinc-

ing than it was to the jury For Simmias and Cebes I should be wrongnot to resent dying if I did not believe that I should go first to other wiseand good gods and then to men who have died and are better than menare here Be assured that as it is I expect to join the company of good cmen This last I would not altogether insist on but if I insist on anythingat all in these matters it is that I shall come to gods who are very goodmasters That is why I am not so resentful because I have good hope thatsome future awaits men after death as we have been told for years amuch better future for the good than for the wicked

Well now Socrates said Simmias do you intend to keep this belief toyourself as you leave us or would you share it with us I certainly think dit would be a blessing for us too and at the same time it would be yourdefense if you convince us of what you say

I will try he said but first let us see what it is that Crito here has Ithink been wanting to say for quite a while

What else Socrates said Crito but what the man who is to give youthe poison has been telling me for some time that I should warn you totalk as little as possible People get heated when they talk he says andone should not be heated when taking the poison as those who do must esometimes drink it two or three times

Socrates replied Take no notice of him only let him be prepared toadminister it twice or if necessary three times

I was rather sure you would say that Crito said but he has been bother-ing me for some time

Let him be he said I want to make my argument before you my judgesas to why I think that a man who has truly spent his life in philosophy isprobably right to be of good cheer in the face of death and to be veryhopeful that after death he will attain the greatest blessings yonder I will 64try to tell you Simmias and Cebes how this may be so I am afraid that otherpeople do not realize that the one aim of those who practice philosophy inthe proper manner is to practice for dying and death Now if this is trueit would be strange indeed if they were eager for this all their lives andthen resent it when what they have wanted and practiced for a long timecomes upon them

Simmias laughed and said By Zeus Socrates you made me laughthough I was in no laughing mood just now I think that the majority on bhearing this will think that it describes the philosophers very well andour people in Thebes would thoroughly agree that philosophers are nearlydead and that the majority of men is well aware that they deserve to be

And they would be telling the truth Simmias except for their beingaware They are not aware of the way true philosophers are nearly dead

Plato excerpts

I Phaedo

56 Phaedo

c nor of the way they deserve to be nor of the sort of death they deserveBut nevjer mind them he said let us talk among ourselves Do we believethat there is such a thing as death

Certainly said SimmiasIs it anything else than the separation of the soul from the body Do

we believe that death is this namely that the body comes to be separatedby itself apart from the soul and the soul comes to be separated by itselfapart from the body Is death anything else than that

No that is what it is he saidConsider then my good sir whether you share my opinion for this will

d lead us to a better knowledge of what we are investigating Do you thinkit is the part of a philosopher to be concerned with such so-called pleasuresas those of food and drink

By no meansWhat about the pleasures of sexNot at allWhat of the other pleasures concerned with the service of the body Do

you think such a man prizes them greatly the acquisition of distinguishedclothes and shoes and the other bodily ornaments Do you think he values

e these or despises them except in so far as one cannot do without themI think the true philosopher despises themDo you not think he said that in general such a mans concern is not

with the body but that as far as he can he turns away from the bodytowards the soul

I do65 So in the first place such things show clearly that the philosopher more

than other men frees the soul from association with the body as muchas possible

ApparentlyA man who finds no pleasure in such things and has no part in them

is thought by the majority not to deserve to live and to be close to deaththe man that is who does not care for the pleasures of the body

What you say is certainly trueThen what about the actual acquiring of knowledge Is the body an

obstacle when one associates with it in the search for knowledge I meanb for example do men find any truth in sight or hearing or are not even

the poets forever telling us that we do not see or hear anything accuratelyand surely if those two physical senses are not clear or precise our othersenses can hardly be accurate as they are all inferior to these Do you notthink so

I certainly do he saidWhen then he asked does the soul grasp the truth For whenever it

attempts to examine anything with the body it is clearly deceived by itc True

Is it not in reasoning if anywhere that any reality becomes clear tothe soul

Phaedo 57

Yes bullAnd indeed the soul reasons best when none of these senses troubles

it neither hearing nor sight nor pain nor pleasure but when it is mostby itself taking leave of the body and as far as possible having no contactor association with it in its search for reality

That is soAnd it is then that the soul of the philosopher most disdains the body d

flees from it and seeks to be by itselfIt appears soWhat about the following Simmias Do we say that there is such a thing

as the Just itself or notWe do say so by ZeusAnd the Beautiful and the GoodOf courseAnd have you ever seen any of these things with your eyesIn no way he saidOr have you ever gTasped them with any of your bodily senses I am

speaking of all things such as Bigness Health Strength and in a wordthe reality of all other things that which each of them essentially is Iswhat is most true in them contemplated through the body or is this the eposition whoever of us prepares himself best and most accurately to graspthat thing itself which he is investigating will come closest to the knowledgeof it

ObviouslyThen he will do this most perfectly who approaches the object with

thought alone without associating any sight with his thought or dragging 66in any sense perception with his reasoning but who using pure thoughtalone tries to track down each reality pure and by itself freeing himselfas far as possible from eyes and ears and in a word from the whole bodybecause the body confuses the soul and does not allow it to acquire truthand wisdom whenever it is associated with it Will not that man reachreality Simmias if anyone does

What you say said Simmias is indeed trueAll these things will necessarily make the true philosophers believe and b

say to each other something like this There is likely to be something suchas a path to guide us out of our confusion because as long as we have abody and our soul is fused with such an evil we shall never adequatelyattain what we desire which weaffirm to be the truth The body keepsus busy in a thousand ways because of its need for nurture Moreover ifcertain diseases befall it they impede our search for the truth It fills us cwith wants desires fears all sorts of illusions and much nonsense so thatas it is said in truth and in fact no thought of any kind ever comes to usfrom the body Only the body and its desires cause war civil discord andbattles for all wars are due to the desire to acquire wealth and it is thebody and the care of it to which we are enslaved which compel us to dacquire wealth and all this makes us too busy to practice philosophy

58 Phaedo

Worst of all if we do get some respite from it and turn to some investigationeverywhere in our investigations the body is present and makes for confu-sion and fear so that it prevents us from seeing the truth

It really has been shown to us that if we are ever to have pure knowl-e edge we must escape from the body and observe things in themselves

with the soul by itself It seems likely that we shall only then when weare dead attain that which we desire and of which we claim to be loversnamely wisdom as our argument shows not while we live for if it isimpossible to attain any pure knowledge with the body then one of twothings is true either we can never attain knowledge or we can do so after

67 death Then and not before the soul is by itself apart from the body Whilewe live we shall be closest to knowledge if we refrain as much as possiblefrom association with the body and do not join with it more than we mustif we are not infected with its nature but purify ourselves from it until thegod himself frees us In this way we shall escape the contamination of thebodys folly we shall be likely to be in the company of people of the samekind and by our own efforts we shall know all that is pure which is

b presumably the truth for it is not permitted to the impure to attain thepure

Such are the things Simmias that all those who love learning in theproper manner must say to one another and believe Or do you not think so

I certainly do SocratesAnd if this is true my friend said Socrates there is good hope that on

arriving where I am going if anywhere I shall acquire what has been ourc chief preoccupation in our past life so that the journey that is now ordered

for me is full of good hope as it is also for any other man who believesthat his mind has been prepared and as it were purified

It certainly is said SimmiasAnd does purification not turn out to be what we mentioned in our

argument some time ago namely to separate the soul as far as possiblefrom the body and accustom it to gather itself and collect itself out of

d every part of the body and to dwell by itself as far as it can both now andin the future freed as it were from the bonds of the body

Certainly he saidAnd that freedom and separation of the soul from the body is called

deathThat is altogether soIt is only those who practice philosophy in the right way we say who

always most want to free the soul and this release and separation of thesoul from the body is the preoccupation of the philosophers

So it appearsTherefore as I said at the beginning it would be ridiculous for a man

to train himself in life to live in a state as close to death as possible ande then to resent it when it comes

Ridiculous of course

Plwedo 59

In fact Simmias he said those who practice philosophy in the rightway are in training for dying and they fear death least of all men Considerit from this point of view if they are altogether estranged from the bodyand desire to have their soul by itself would it not be quite absurd forthem to be afraid and resentful when this happens If they did not gladlyset out for a place where on arrival they may hope to attain that forwhich they had yearned during their lifetime that is wisdom and where 68they would be rid of the presence of that from which they are estranged

Many men at the death of their lovers wives or sons were willing togo to the underworld driven by the hope of seeing there those for whosecompany they longed and being with them Will then a true lover ofwisdom who has a similar hope and knows that he will never find it toany extent except in Hades be resentful of dying and not gladly undertakethe journey thither One must surely think so my friend if he is a truephilosopher for he is firmly convinced that he will not find pure knowledge banywhere except there And if this is so then as I said just now wouldit not be highly unreasonable for such a man to fear death

It certainly would by Zeus he saidThen you have sufficient indication he said that any man whom you

see resenting death was not a lover of wisdom but a lover of the body cand also a lover of wealth or of honors either or both

It is certainly as you sayAnd Simmias he said does not what is called courage belong especially

to men of this dispositionMost certainlyAnd the quality of moderation which even the majority call by that

name that is not to get swept off ones feet by ones passions but to treatthem with disdain and orderliness is this not suited only to those who dmost of all despise the body and live the life of philosophy

Necessarily so he saidIf you are willing to reflect on the courage and moderation of other

people you will find them strangeIn what way SocratesYou know that they all consider death a great evilDefinitely he saidAnd the brave among them face death when they do for fear of

greater evilsThat is soTherefore it is fear and terror that make all men brave except the

philosophers Yet it is illogical to be brave through fear and cowardiceIt certainly is eWhat of the moderate among them Is their experience not similar Is

it license of a kind that makes them moderate We say this is impossibleyet their experience of this unsophisticated moderation turns out to besimilar they fear to be deprived of other pleasures which they desire so

- 60 Phaedo

they keep away from some pleasures because they are overcome by othersNow to be mastered by pleasure is what they call license but what happens

69 to them is that they master certain pleasures because they are masteredby others This is like what we mentioned just now that in some way itis a kind of license that has made them moderate

That seems likelyMy good Simmias I fear this is not the right exchange to attain virtue

to exchange pleasures for pleasures pains for pains and fears for fearsb the greater for the less like coins but that the only valid currency for which

all these things should be exchanged is wisdom With this we have realcourage and moderation and justice and in a word true virtue withwisdom whether pleasures and fears and all such things be present orabsent Exchanged for one another without wisdom such virtue is only anillusory appearance of virtue it is in fact fit for slaves without soundnessor truth whereas in truth moderation and courage and justice are a

c purging away of all such things and wisdom itself is a kind of cleansingor purification It is likely that those who established the mystic rites forus were not inferior persons but were speaking in riddles long ago whenthey said that whoever arrives in the underworld uninitiated and unsancti-fied will wallow in the mire whereas he who arrives there purified andinitiated will dwell with the gods There are indeed as those concerned

d with the mysteries say many who carry the thyrsus but the Bacchants arefew6 These latter are in my opinion no other than those who have prac-ticed philosophy in the right way I have in my life left nothing undonein order to be counted among these as far as possible as I have been eagerto be in every way Whether my eagerness was right and we accomplishedanything we shall I think know for certain in a short time god willingon arriving yonder

This is my defense Simmias and Cebes that I am likely to be right toe leave you and my masters here without resentment or complaint believing

that there as here I shall find good masters and good friends If mydefense is more convincing to you than to the Athenian jury it will be well

When Socrates finished Cebes intervened Socrates he said everything70 else you said is excellent I think but men find it very hard to believe

what you said about the soul They think that after it has left the body itno longer exists anywhere but that it is destroyed and dissolved on theday the man dies as soon as it leaves the body and that on leaving it itis dispersed like breath or smoke has flown away and gone and is nolonger anything anywhere If indeed it gathered itself together and existedby itself and escaped those evils you were recently enumerating there

b would then be much good hope Socrates that what you say is true butto believe this requires a good deal of faith and persuasive argument to

6 That is the true worshippers of Dionysus as opposed to those who only carry theexternal symbols of his worship

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Plato Timaeus 89a-- I have often remarked that there are three kinds of soul located within us having each of them motions and I must now repeat in the fewest words possible that one part if remaining inactive and ceasing from its natural motion must necessarily become very weak but that which is trained and exercised very strong Wherefore we should take care that the movements of the different parts of the soul should be in due proportion And we should consider that God gave the sovereign part of the human soul to be the divinity of each one being that part which as we say dwells at the top of the body inasmuch as we are a plant not of an earthly but of a heavenly growth raises us from earth to our kindred who are in heaven And in this we say truly for the divine power suspended the head and root of us from that place where the generation of the soul first began and thus made the whole body upright When a man is always occupied with the cravings of desire and ambition and is eagerly striving to satisfy them all his thoughts must be mortal and as far as it is possible altogether to become such he must be mortal every whit because he has cherished his mortal part But he who has been earnest in the love of knowledge and of true wisdom and has exercised his intellect more than any other part of him must have thoughts immortal and divine if he attain truth and in so far as human nature is capable of sharing in immortality he must altogether be immortal and since he is ever cherishing the divine power and has the divinity within him in perfect order he will be perfectly happy Now there is only one way of taking care of things and this is to give to each the food and motion which are natural to it And the motions which are naturally akin to the divine principle within us are the thoughts and revolutions of the universe These each man should follow and correct the courses of the head which were corrupted at our birth and by learning the harmonies and revolutions of the universe should assimilate the thinking being to the thought renewing his original nature and having assimilated them should attain to that perfect life which the gods have set before mankind both for the present and the future Thus our original design of discoursing about the universe down to the creation of man is nearly completed A brief mention may be made of the generation of other animals so far as the subject admits of brevity in this manner our argument will best attain a due proportion On the subject of animals then the following remarks may be offered Of the men who came into the world those who were cowards or led unrighteous lives may with reason be supposed to have changed into the nature of women in the second generation And this was the reason why at that time the gods created in us the desire of sexual intercourse contriving in man one animated substance and in woman another which they formed respectively in the following manner The outlet for drink by which liquids pass through the lung under the kidneys and into the bladder which receives then by the pressure of the air emits them was so fashioned by them as to penetrate also into the body of the marrow which passes from the head along the neck and through the back and which in the preceding discourse we have named the seed And the seed having life and becoming endowed with respiration produces in that part in which it respires a lively desire of emission and thus creates in us the love of procreation Wherefore also in men the organ of generation becoming rebellious and masterful like an animal disobedient to reason and maddened with the sting of lust seeks to gain absolute sway and the same is the case with the so-called womb or matrix of women the animal within them is desirous of procreating children and when remaining unfruitful long beyond its proper time gets discontented and angry and wandering in every direction through the body closes up the passages of the breath and by obstructing respiration drives them to extremity causing all varieties of disease until at length the desire and love of the man and the woman bringing them together and as it were plucking the fruit from the tree sow in the womb as in a field animals unseen by reason of their smallness and without

III Timaeus

form these again are separated and matured within they are then finally brought out into the light and thus the generation of animals is completed Thus were created women and the female sex in general But the race of birds was created out of innocent light-minded men who although their minds were directed toward heaven imagined in their simplicity that the clearest demonstration of the things above was to be obtained by sight these were remodelled and transformed into birds and they grew feathers instead of hair The race of wild pedestrian animals again came from those who had no philosophy in any of their thoughts and never considered at all about the nature of the heavens because they had ceased to use the courses of the head but followed the guidance of those parts of the soul which are in the breast In consequence of these habits of theirs they had their front-legs and their heads resting upon the earth to which they were drawn by natural affinity and the crowns of their heads were elongated and of all sorts of shapes into which the courses of the soul were crushed by reason of disuse And this was the reason why they were created quadrupeds and polypods God gave the more senseless of them the more support that they might be more attracted to the earth And the most foolish of them who trail their bodies entirely upon the ground and have no longer any need of feet he made without feet to crawl upon the earth The fourth class were the inhabitants of the water these were made out of the most entirely senseless and ignorant of all whom the transformers did not think any longer worthy of pure respiration because they possessed a soul which was made impure by all sorts of transgression and instead of the subtle and pure medium of air they gave them the deep and muddy sea to be their element of respiration and hence arose the race of fishes and oysters and other aquatic animals which have received the most remote habitations as a punishment of their outlandish ignorance These are the laws by which animals pass into one another now as ever changing as they lose or gain wisdom and folly We may now say that our discourse about the nature of the universe has an end The world has received animals mortal and immortal and is fulfilled with them and has become a visible animal containing the visible acirceurordquo the sensible God who is the image of the intellectual the greatest best fairest most perfect acirceurordquo the one only begotten heaven

56 Phaedo

c nor of the way they deserve to be nor of the sort of death they deserveBut nevjer mind them he said let us talk among ourselves Do we believethat there is such a thing as death

Certainly said SimmiasIs it anything else than the separation of the soul from the body Do

we believe that death is this namely that the body comes to be separatedby itself apart from the soul and the soul comes to be separated by itselfapart from the body Is death anything else than that

No that is what it is he saidConsider then my good sir whether you share my opinion for this will

d lead us to a better knowledge of what we are investigating Do you thinkit is the part of a philosopher to be concerned with such so-called pleasuresas those of food and drink

By no meansWhat about the pleasures of sexNot at allWhat of the other pleasures concerned with the service of the body Do

you think such a man prizes them greatly the acquisition of distinguishedclothes and shoes and the other bodily ornaments Do you think he values

e these or despises them except in so far as one cannot do without themI think the true philosopher despises themDo you not think he said that in general such a mans concern is not

with the body but that as far as he can he turns away from the bodytowards the soul

I do65 So in the first place such things show clearly that the philosopher more

than other men frees the soul from association with the body as muchas possible

ApparentlyA man who finds no pleasure in such things and has no part in them

is thought by the majority not to deserve to live and to be close to deaththe man that is who does not care for the pleasures of the body

What you say is certainly trueThen what about the actual acquiring of knowledge Is the body an

obstacle when one associates with it in the search for knowledge I meanb for example do men find any truth in sight or hearing or are not even

the poets forever telling us that we do not see or hear anything accuratelyand surely if those two physical senses are not clear or precise our othersenses can hardly be accurate as they are all inferior to these Do you notthink so

I certainly do he saidWhen then he asked does the soul grasp the truth For whenever it

attempts to examine anything with the body it is clearly deceived by itc True

Is it not in reasoning if anywhere that any reality becomes clear tothe soul

Phaedo 57

Yes bullAnd indeed the soul reasons best when none of these senses troubles

it neither hearing nor sight nor pain nor pleasure but when it is mostby itself taking leave of the body and as far as possible having no contactor association with it in its search for reality

That is soAnd it is then that the soul of the philosopher most disdains the body d

flees from it and seeks to be by itselfIt appears soWhat about the following Simmias Do we say that there is such a thing

as the Just itself or notWe do say so by ZeusAnd the Beautiful and the GoodOf courseAnd have you ever seen any of these things with your eyesIn no way he saidOr have you ever gTasped them with any of your bodily senses I am

speaking of all things such as Bigness Health Strength and in a wordthe reality of all other things that which each of them essentially is Iswhat is most true in them contemplated through the body or is this the eposition whoever of us prepares himself best and most accurately to graspthat thing itself which he is investigating will come closest to the knowledgeof it

ObviouslyThen he will do this most perfectly who approaches the object with

thought alone without associating any sight with his thought or dragging 66in any sense perception with his reasoning but who using pure thoughtalone tries to track down each reality pure and by itself freeing himselfas far as possible from eyes and ears and in a word from the whole bodybecause the body confuses the soul and does not allow it to acquire truthand wisdom whenever it is associated with it Will not that man reachreality Simmias if anyone does

What you say said Simmias is indeed trueAll these things will necessarily make the true philosophers believe and b

say to each other something like this There is likely to be something suchas a path to guide us out of our confusion because as long as we have abody and our soul is fused with such an evil we shall never adequatelyattain what we desire which weaffirm to be the truth The body keepsus busy in a thousand ways because of its need for nurture Moreover ifcertain diseases befall it they impede our search for the truth It fills us cwith wants desires fears all sorts of illusions and much nonsense so thatas it is said in truth and in fact no thought of any kind ever comes to usfrom the body Only the body and its desires cause war civil discord andbattles for all wars are due to the desire to acquire wealth and it is thebody and the care of it to which we are enslaved which compel us to dacquire wealth and all this makes us too busy to practice philosophy

58 Phaedo

Worst of all if we do get some respite from it and turn to some investigationeverywhere in our investigations the body is present and makes for confu-sion and fear so that it prevents us from seeing the truth

It really has been shown to us that if we are ever to have pure knowl-e edge we must escape from the body and observe things in themselves

with the soul by itself It seems likely that we shall only then when weare dead attain that which we desire and of which we claim to be loversnamely wisdom as our argument shows not while we live for if it isimpossible to attain any pure knowledge with the body then one of twothings is true either we can never attain knowledge or we can do so after

67 death Then and not before the soul is by itself apart from the body Whilewe live we shall be closest to knowledge if we refrain as much as possiblefrom association with the body and do not join with it more than we mustif we are not infected with its nature but purify ourselves from it until thegod himself frees us In this way we shall escape the contamination of thebodys folly we shall be likely to be in the company of people of the samekind and by our own efforts we shall know all that is pure which is

b presumably the truth for it is not permitted to the impure to attain thepure

Such are the things Simmias that all those who love learning in theproper manner must say to one another and believe Or do you not think so

I certainly do SocratesAnd if this is true my friend said Socrates there is good hope that on

arriving where I am going if anywhere I shall acquire what has been ourc chief preoccupation in our past life so that the journey that is now ordered

for me is full of good hope as it is also for any other man who believesthat his mind has been prepared and as it were purified

It certainly is said SimmiasAnd does purification not turn out to be what we mentioned in our

argument some time ago namely to separate the soul as far as possiblefrom the body and accustom it to gather itself and collect itself out of

d every part of the body and to dwell by itself as far as it can both now andin the future freed as it were from the bonds of the body

Certainly he saidAnd that freedom and separation of the soul from the body is called

deathThat is altogether soIt is only those who practice philosophy in the right way we say who

always most want to free the soul and this release and separation of thesoul from the body is the preoccupation of the philosophers

So it appearsTherefore as I said at the beginning it would be ridiculous for a man

to train himself in life to live in a state as close to death as possible ande then to resent it when it comes

Ridiculous of course

Plwedo 59

In fact Simmias he said those who practice philosophy in the rightway are in training for dying and they fear death least of all men Considerit from this point of view if they are altogether estranged from the bodyand desire to have their soul by itself would it not be quite absurd forthem to be afraid and resentful when this happens If they did not gladlyset out for a place where on arrival they may hope to attain that forwhich they had yearned during their lifetime that is wisdom and where 68they would be rid of the presence of that from which they are estranged

Many men at the death of their lovers wives or sons were willing togo to the underworld driven by the hope of seeing there those for whosecompany they longed and being with them Will then a true lover ofwisdom who has a similar hope and knows that he will never find it toany extent except in Hades be resentful of dying and not gladly undertakethe journey thither One must surely think so my friend if he is a truephilosopher for he is firmly convinced that he will not find pure knowledge banywhere except there And if this is so then as I said just now wouldit not be highly unreasonable for such a man to fear death

It certainly would by Zeus he saidThen you have sufficient indication he said that any man whom you

see resenting death was not a lover of wisdom but a lover of the body cand also a lover of wealth or of honors either or both

It is certainly as you sayAnd Simmias he said does not what is called courage belong especially

to men of this dispositionMost certainlyAnd the quality of moderation which even the majority call by that

name that is not to get swept off ones feet by ones passions but to treatthem with disdain and orderliness is this not suited only to those who dmost of all despise the body and live the life of philosophy

Necessarily so he saidIf you are willing to reflect on the courage and moderation of other

people you will find them strangeIn what way SocratesYou know that they all consider death a great evilDefinitely he saidAnd the brave among them face death when they do for fear of

greater evilsThat is soTherefore it is fear and terror that make all men brave except the

philosophers Yet it is illogical to be brave through fear and cowardiceIt certainly is eWhat of the moderate among them Is their experience not similar Is

it license of a kind that makes them moderate We say this is impossibleyet their experience of this unsophisticated moderation turns out to besimilar they fear to be deprived of other pleasures which they desire so

- 60 Phaedo

they keep away from some pleasures because they are overcome by othersNow to be mastered by pleasure is what they call license but what happens

69 to them is that they master certain pleasures because they are masteredby others This is like what we mentioned just now that in some way itis a kind of license that has made them moderate

That seems likelyMy good Simmias I fear this is not the right exchange to attain virtue

to exchange pleasures for pleasures pains for pains and fears for fearsb the greater for the less like coins but that the only valid currency for which

all these things should be exchanged is wisdom With this we have realcourage and moderation and justice and in a word true virtue withwisdom whether pleasures and fears and all such things be present orabsent Exchanged for one another without wisdom such virtue is only anillusory appearance of virtue it is in fact fit for slaves without soundnessor truth whereas in truth moderation and courage and justice are a

c purging away of all such things and wisdom itself is a kind of cleansingor purification It is likely that those who established the mystic rites forus were not inferior persons but were speaking in riddles long ago whenthey said that whoever arrives in the underworld uninitiated and unsancti-fied will wallow in the mire whereas he who arrives there purified andinitiated will dwell with the gods There are indeed as those concerned

d with the mysteries say many who carry the thyrsus but the Bacchants arefew6 These latter are in my opinion no other than those who have prac-ticed philosophy in the right way I have in my life left nothing undonein order to be counted among these as far as possible as I have been eagerto be in every way Whether my eagerness was right and we accomplishedanything we shall I think know for certain in a short time god willingon arriving yonder

This is my defense Simmias and Cebes that I am likely to be right toe leave you and my masters here without resentment or complaint believing

that there as here I shall find good masters and good friends If mydefense is more convincing to you than to the Athenian jury it will be well

When Socrates finished Cebes intervened Socrates he said everything70 else you said is excellent I think but men find it very hard to believe

what you said about the soul They think that after it has left the body itno longer exists anywhere but that it is destroyed and dissolved on theday the man dies as soon as it leaves the body and that on leaving it itis dispersed like breath or smoke has flown away and gone and is nolonger anything anywhere If indeed it gathered itself together and existedby itself and escaped those evils you were recently enumerating there

b would then be much good hope Socrates that what you say is true butto believe this requires a good deal of faith and persuasive argument to

6 That is the true worshippers of Dionysus as opposed to those who only carry theexternal symbols of his worship

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Plato Timaeus 89a-- I have often remarked that there are three kinds of soul located within us having each of them motions and I must now repeat in the fewest words possible that one part if remaining inactive and ceasing from its natural motion must necessarily become very weak but that which is trained and exercised very strong Wherefore we should take care that the movements of the different parts of the soul should be in due proportion And we should consider that God gave the sovereign part of the human soul to be the divinity of each one being that part which as we say dwells at the top of the body inasmuch as we are a plant not of an earthly but of a heavenly growth raises us from earth to our kindred who are in heaven And in this we say truly for the divine power suspended the head and root of us from that place where the generation of the soul first began and thus made the whole body upright When a man is always occupied with the cravings of desire and ambition and is eagerly striving to satisfy them all his thoughts must be mortal and as far as it is possible altogether to become such he must be mortal every whit because he has cherished his mortal part But he who has been earnest in the love of knowledge and of true wisdom and has exercised his intellect more than any other part of him must have thoughts immortal and divine if he attain truth and in so far as human nature is capable of sharing in immortality he must altogether be immortal and since he is ever cherishing the divine power and has the divinity within him in perfect order he will be perfectly happy Now there is only one way of taking care of things and this is to give to each the food and motion which are natural to it And the motions which are naturally akin to the divine principle within us are the thoughts and revolutions of the universe These each man should follow and correct the courses of the head which were corrupted at our birth and by learning the harmonies and revolutions of the universe should assimilate the thinking being to the thought renewing his original nature and having assimilated them should attain to that perfect life which the gods have set before mankind both for the present and the future Thus our original design of discoursing about the universe down to the creation of man is nearly completed A brief mention may be made of the generation of other animals so far as the subject admits of brevity in this manner our argument will best attain a due proportion On the subject of animals then the following remarks may be offered Of the men who came into the world those who were cowards or led unrighteous lives may with reason be supposed to have changed into the nature of women in the second generation And this was the reason why at that time the gods created in us the desire of sexual intercourse contriving in man one animated substance and in woman another which they formed respectively in the following manner The outlet for drink by which liquids pass through the lung under the kidneys and into the bladder which receives then by the pressure of the air emits them was so fashioned by them as to penetrate also into the body of the marrow which passes from the head along the neck and through the back and which in the preceding discourse we have named the seed And the seed having life and becoming endowed with respiration produces in that part in which it respires a lively desire of emission and thus creates in us the love of procreation Wherefore also in men the organ of generation becoming rebellious and masterful like an animal disobedient to reason and maddened with the sting of lust seeks to gain absolute sway and the same is the case with the so-called womb or matrix of women the animal within them is desirous of procreating children and when remaining unfruitful long beyond its proper time gets discontented and angry and wandering in every direction through the body closes up the passages of the breath and by obstructing respiration drives them to extremity causing all varieties of disease until at length the desire and love of the man and the woman bringing them together and as it were plucking the fruit from the tree sow in the womb as in a field animals unseen by reason of their smallness and without

III Timaeus

form these again are separated and matured within they are then finally brought out into the light and thus the generation of animals is completed Thus were created women and the female sex in general But the race of birds was created out of innocent light-minded men who although their minds were directed toward heaven imagined in their simplicity that the clearest demonstration of the things above was to be obtained by sight these were remodelled and transformed into birds and they grew feathers instead of hair The race of wild pedestrian animals again came from those who had no philosophy in any of their thoughts and never considered at all about the nature of the heavens because they had ceased to use the courses of the head but followed the guidance of those parts of the soul which are in the breast In consequence of these habits of theirs they had their front-legs and their heads resting upon the earth to which they were drawn by natural affinity and the crowns of their heads were elongated and of all sorts of shapes into which the courses of the soul were crushed by reason of disuse And this was the reason why they were created quadrupeds and polypods God gave the more senseless of them the more support that they might be more attracted to the earth And the most foolish of them who trail their bodies entirely upon the ground and have no longer any need of feet he made without feet to crawl upon the earth The fourth class were the inhabitants of the water these were made out of the most entirely senseless and ignorant of all whom the transformers did not think any longer worthy of pure respiration because they possessed a soul which was made impure by all sorts of transgression and instead of the subtle and pure medium of air they gave them the deep and muddy sea to be their element of respiration and hence arose the race of fishes and oysters and other aquatic animals which have received the most remote habitations as a punishment of their outlandish ignorance These are the laws by which animals pass into one another now as ever changing as they lose or gain wisdom and folly We may now say that our discourse about the nature of the universe has an end The world has received animals mortal and immortal and is fulfilled with them and has become a visible animal containing the visible acirceurordquo the sensible God who is the image of the intellectual the greatest best fairest most perfect acirceurordquo the one only begotten heaven

Phaedo 57

Yes bullAnd indeed the soul reasons best when none of these senses troubles

it neither hearing nor sight nor pain nor pleasure but when it is mostby itself taking leave of the body and as far as possible having no contactor association with it in its search for reality

That is soAnd it is then that the soul of the philosopher most disdains the body d

flees from it and seeks to be by itselfIt appears soWhat about the following Simmias Do we say that there is such a thing

as the Just itself or notWe do say so by ZeusAnd the Beautiful and the GoodOf courseAnd have you ever seen any of these things with your eyesIn no way he saidOr have you ever gTasped them with any of your bodily senses I am

speaking of all things such as Bigness Health Strength and in a wordthe reality of all other things that which each of them essentially is Iswhat is most true in them contemplated through the body or is this the eposition whoever of us prepares himself best and most accurately to graspthat thing itself which he is investigating will come closest to the knowledgeof it

ObviouslyThen he will do this most perfectly who approaches the object with

thought alone without associating any sight with his thought or dragging 66in any sense perception with his reasoning but who using pure thoughtalone tries to track down each reality pure and by itself freeing himselfas far as possible from eyes and ears and in a word from the whole bodybecause the body confuses the soul and does not allow it to acquire truthand wisdom whenever it is associated with it Will not that man reachreality Simmias if anyone does

What you say said Simmias is indeed trueAll these things will necessarily make the true philosophers believe and b

say to each other something like this There is likely to be something suchas a path to guide us out of our confusion because as long as we have abody and our soul is fused with such an evil we shall never adequatelyattain what we desire which weaffirm to be the truth The body keepsus busy in a thousand ways because of its need for nurture Moreover ifcertain diseases befall it they impede our search for the truth It fills us cwith wants desires fears all sorts of illusions and much nonsense so thatas it is said in truth and in fact no thought of any kind ever comes to usfrom the body Only the body and its desires cause war civil discord andbattles for all wars are due to the desire to acquire wealth and it is thebody and the care of it to which we are enslaved which compel us to dacquire wealth and all this makes us too busy to practice philosophy

58 Phaedo

Worst of all if we do get some respite from it and turn to some investigationeverywhere in our investigations the body is present and makes for confu-sion and fear so that it prevents us from seeing the truth

It really has been shown to us that if we are ever to have pure knowl-e edge we must escape from the body and observe things in themselves

with the soul by itself It seems likely that we shall only then when weare dead attain that which we desire and of which we claim to be loversnamely wisdom as our argument shows not while we live for if it isimpossible to attain any pure knowledge with the body then one of twothings is true either we can never attain knowledge or we can do so after

67 death Then and not before the soul is by itself apart from the body Whilewe live we shall be closest to knowledge if we refrain as much as possiblefrom association with the body and do not join with it more than we mustif we are not infected with its nature but purify ourselves from it until thegod himself frees us In this way we shall escape the contamination of thebodys folly we shall be likely to be in the company of people of the samekind and by our own efforts we shall know all that is pure which is

b presumably the truth for it is not permitted to the impure to attain thepure

Such are the things Simmias that all those who love learning in theproper manner must say to one another and believe Or do you not think so

I certainly do SocratesAnd if this is true my friend said Socrates there is good hope that on

arriving where I am going if anywhere I shall acquire what has been ourc chief preoccupation in our past life so that the journey that is now ordered

for me is full of good hope as it is also for any other man who believesthat his mind has been prepared and as it were purified

It certainly is said SimmiasAnd does purification not turn out to be what we mentioned in our

argument some time ago namely to separate the soul as far as possiblefrom the body and accustom it to gather itself and collect itself out of

d every part of the body and to dwell by itself as far as it can both now andin the future freed as it were from the bonds of the body

Certainly he saidAnd that freedom and separation of the soul from the body is called

deathThat is altogether soIt is only those who practice philosophy in the right way we say who

always most want to free the soul and this release and separation of thesoul from the body is the preoccupation of the philosophers

So it appearsTherefore as I said at the beginning it would be ridiculous for a man

to train himself in life to live in a state as close to death as possible ande then to resent it when it comes

Ridiculous of course

Plwedo 59

In fact Simmias he said those who practice philosophy in the rightway are in training for dying and they fear death least of all men Considerit from this point of view if they are altogether estranged from the bodyand desire to have their soul by itself would it not be quite absurd forthem to be afraid and resentful when this happens If they did not gladlyset out for a place where on arrival they may hope to attain that forwhich they had yearned during their lifetime that is wisdom and where 68they would be rid of the presence of that from which they are estranged

Many men at the death of their lovers wives or sons were willing togo to the underworld driven by the hope of seeing there those for whosecompany they longed and being with them Will then a true lover ofwisdom who has a similar hope and knows that he will never find it toany extent except in Hades be resentful of dying and not gladly undertakethe journey thither One must surely think so my friend if he is a truephilosopher for he is firmly convinced that he will not find pure knowledge banywhere except there And if this is so then as I said just now wouldit not be highly unreasonable for such a man to fear death

It certainly would by Zeus he saidThen you have sufficient indication he said that any man whom you

see resenting death was not a lover of wisdom but a lover of the body cand also a lover of wealth or of honors either or both

It is certainly as you sayAnd Simmias he said does not what is called courage belong especially

to men of this dispositionMost certainlyAnd the quality of moderation which even the majority call by that

name that is not to get swept off ones feet by ones passions but to treatthem with disdain and orderliness is this not suited only to those who dmost of all despise the body and live the life of philosophy

Necessarily so he saidIf you are willing to reflect on the courage and moderation of other

people you will find them strangeIn what way SocratesYou know that they all consider death a great evilDefinitely he saidAnd the brave among them face death when they do for fear of

greater evilsThat is soTherefore it is fear and terror that make all men brave except the

philosophers Yet it is illogical to be brave through fear and cowardiceIt certainly is eWhat of the moderate among them Is their experience not similar Is

it license of a kind that makes them moderate We say this is impossibleyet their experience of this unsophisticated moderation turns out to besimilar they fear to be deprived of other pleasures which they desire so

- 60 Phaedo

they keep away from some pleasures because they are overcome by othersNow to be mastered by pleasure is what they call license but what happens

69 to them is that they master certain pleasures because they are masteredby others This is like what we mentioned just now that in some way itis a kind of license that has made them moderate

That seems likelyMy good Simmias I fear this is not the right exchange to attain virtue

to exchange pleasures for pleasures pains for pains and fears for fearsb the greater for the less like coins but that the only valid currency for which

all these things should be exchanged is wisdom With this we have realcourage and moderation and justice and in a word true virtue withwisdom whether pleasures and fears and all such things be present orabsent Exchanged for one another without wisdom such virtue is only anillusory appearance of virtue it is in fact fit for slaves without soundnessor truth whereas in truth moderation and courage and justice are a

c purging away of all such things and wisdom itself is a kind of cleansingor purification It is likely that those who established the mystic rites forus were not inferior persons but were speaking in riddles long ago whenthey said that whoever arrives in the underworld uninitiated and unsancti-fied will wallow in the mire whereas he who arrives there purified andinitiated will dwell with the gods There are indeed as those concerned

d with the mysteries say many who carry the thyrsus but the Bacchants arefew6 These latter are in my opinion no other than those who have prac-ticed philosophy in the right way I have in my life left nothing undonein order to be counted among these as far as possible as I have been eagerto be in every way Whether my eagerness was right and we accomplishedanything we shall I think know for certain in a short time god willingon arriving yonder

This is my defense Simmias and Cebes that I am likely to be right toe leave you and my masters here without resentment or complaint believing

that there as here I shall find good masters and good friends If mydefense is more convincing to you than to the Athenian jury it will be well

When Socrates finished Cebes intervened Socrates he said everything70 else you said is excellent I think but men find it very hard to believe

what you said about the soul They think that after it has left the body itno longer exists anywhere but that it is destroyed and dissolved on theday the man dies as soon as it leaves the body and that on leaving it itis dispersed like breath or smoke has flown away and gone and is nolonger anything anywhere If indeed it gathered itself together and existedby itself and escaped those evils you were recently enumerating there

b would then be much good hope Socrates that what you say is true butto believe this requires a good deal of faith and persuasive argument to

6 That is the true worshippers of Dionysus as opposed to those who only carry theexternal symbols of his worship

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II Phaedrus

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Plato Timaeus 89a-- I have often remarked that there are three kinds of soul located within us having each of them motions and I must now repeat in the fewest words possible that one part if remaining inactive and ceasing from its natural motion must necessarily become very weak but that which is trained and exercised very strong Wherefore we should take care that the movements of the different parts of the soul should be in due proportion And we should consider that God gave the sovereign part of the human soul to be the divinity of each one being that part which as we say dwells at the top of the body inasmuch as we are a plant not of an earthly but of a heavenly growth raises us from earth to our kindred who are in heaven And in this we say truly for the divine power suspended the head and root of us from that place where the generation of the soul first began and thus made the whole body upright When a man is always occupied with the cravings of desire and ambition and is eagerly striving to satisfy them all his thoughts must be mortal and as far as it is possible altogether to become such he must be mortal every whit because he has cherished his mortal part But he who has been earnest in the love of knowledge and of true wisdom and has exercised his intellect more than any other part of him must have thoughts immortal and divine if he attain truth and in so far as human nature is capable of sharing in immortality he must altogether be immortal and since he is ever cherishing the divine power and has the divinity within him in perfect order he will be perfectly happy Now there is only one way of taking care of things and this is to give to each the food and motion which are natural to it And the motions which are naturally akin to the divine principle within us are the thoughts and revolutions of the universe These each man should follow and correct the courses of the head which were corrupted at our birth and by learning the harmonies and revolutions of the universe should assimilate the thinking being to the thought renewing his original nature and having assimilated them should attain to that perfect life which the gods have set before mankind both for the present and the future Thus our original design of discoursing about the universe down to the creation of man is nearly completed A brief mention may be made of the generation of other animals so far as the subject admits of brevity in this manner our argument will best attain a due proportion On the subject of animals then the following remarks may be offered Of the men who came into the world those who were cowards or led unrighteous lives may with reason be supposed to have changed into the nature of women in the second generation And this was the reason why at that time the gods created in us the desire of sexual intercourse contriving in man one animated substance and in woman another which they formed respectively in the following manner The outlet for drink by which liquids pass through the lung under the kidneys and into the bladder which receives then by the pressure of the air emits them was so fashioned by them as to penetrate also into the body of the marrow which passes from the head along the neck and through the back and which in the preceding discourse we have named the seed And the seed having life and becoming endowed with respiration produces in that part in which it respires a lively desire of emission and thus creates in us the love of procreation Wherefore also in men the organ of generation becoming rebellious and masterful like an animal disobedient to reason and maddened with the sting of lust seeks to gain absolute sway and the same is the case with the so-called womb or matrix of women the animal within them is desirous of procreating children and when remaining unfruitful long beyond its proper time gets discontented and angry and wandering in every direction through the body closes up the passages of the breath and by obstructing respiration drives them to extremity causing all varieties of disease until at length the desire and love of the man and the woman bringing them together and as it were plucking the fruit from the tree sow in the womb as in a field animals unseen by reason of their smallness and without

III Timaeus

form these again are separated and matured within they are then finally brought out into the light and thus the generation of animals is completed Thus were created women and the female sex in general But the race of birds was created out of innocent light-minded men who although their minds were directed toward heaven imagined in their simplicity that the clearest demonstration of the things above was to be obtained by sight these were remodelled and transformed into birds and they grew feathers instead of hair The race of wild pedestrian animals again came from those who had no philosophy in any of their thoughts and never considered at all about the nature of the heavens because they had ceased to use the courses of the head but followed the guidance of those parts of the soul which are in the breast In consequence of these habits of theirs they had their front-legs and their heads resting upon the earth to which they were drawn by natural affinity and the crowns of their heads were elongated and of all sorts of shapes into which the courses of the soul were crushed by reason of disuse And this was the reason why they were created quadrupeds and polypods God gave the more senseless of them the more support that they might be more attracted to the earth And the most foolish of them who trail their bodies entirely upon the ground and have no longer any need of feet he made without feet to crawl upon the earth The fourth class were the inhabitants of the water these were made out of the most entirely senseless and ignorant of all whom the transformers did not think any longer worthy of pure respiration because they possessed a soul which was made impure by all sorts of transgression and instead of the subtle and pure medium of air they gave them the deep and muddy sea to be their element of respiration and hence arose the race of fishes and oysters and other aquatic animals which have received the most remote habitations as a punishment of their outlandish ignorance These are the laws by which animals pass into one another now as ever changing as they lose or gain wisdom and folly We may now say that our discourse about the nature of the universe has an end The world has received animals mortal and immortal and is fulfilled with them and has become a visible animal containing the visible acirceurordquo the sensible God who is the image of the intellectual the greatest best fairest most perfect acirceurordquo the one only begotten heaven

58 Phaedo

Worst of all if we do get some respite from it and turn to some investigationeverywhere in our investigations the body is present and makes for confu-sion and fear so that it prevents us from seeing the truth

It really has been shown to us that if we are ever to have pure knowl-e edge we must escape from the body and observe things in themselves

with the soul by itself It seems likely that we shall only then when weare dead attain that which we desire and of which we claim to be loversnamely wisdom as our argument shows not while we live for if it isimpossible to attain any pure knowledge with the body then one of twothings is true either we can never attain knowledge or we can do so after

67 death Then and not before the soul is by itself apart from the body Whilewe live we shall be closest to knowledge if we refrain as much as possiblefrom association with the body and do not join with it more than we mustif we are not infected with its nature but purify ourselves from it until thegod himself frees us In this way we shall escape the contamination of thebodys folly we shall be likely to be in the company of people of the samekind and by our own efforts we shall know all that is pure which is

b presumably the truth for it is not permitted to the impure to attain thepure

Such are the things Simmias that all those who love learning in theproper manner must say to one another and believe Or do you not think so

I certainly do SocratesAnd if this is true my friend said Socrates there is good hope that on

arriving where I am going if anywhere I shall acquire what has been ourc chief preoccupation in our past life so that the journey that is now ordered

for me is full of good hope as it is also for any other man who believesthat his mind has been prepared and as it were purified

It certainly is said SimmiasAnd does purification not turn out to be what we mentioned in our

argument some time ago namely to separate the soul as far as possiblefrom the body and accustom it to gather itself and collect itself out of

d every part of the body and to dwell by itself as far as it can both now andin the future freed as it were from the bonds of the body

Certainly he saidAnd that freedom and separation of the soul from the body is called

deathThat is altogether soIt is only those who practice philosophy in the right way we say who

always most want to free the soul and this release and separation of thesoul from the body is the preoccupation of the philosophers

So it appearsTherefore as I said at the beginning it would be ridiculous for a man

to train himself in life to live in a state as close to death as possible ande then to resent it when it comes

Ridiculous of course

Plwedo 59

In fact Simmias he said those who practice philosophy in the rightway are in training for dying and they fear death least of all men Considerit from this point of view if they are altogether estranged from the bodyand desire to have their soul by itself would it not be quite absurd forthem to be afraid and resentful when this happens If they did not gladlyset out for a place where on arrival they may hope to attain that forwhich they had yearned during their lifetime that is wisdom and where 68they would be rid of the presence of that from which they are estranged

Many men at the death of their lovers wives or sons were willing togo to the underworld driven by the hope of seeing there those for whosecompany they longed and being with them Will then a true lover ofwisdom who has a similar hope and knows that he will never find it toany extent except in Hades be resentful of dying and not gladly undertakethe journey thither One must surely think so my friend if he is a truephilosopher for he is firmly convinced that he will not find pure knowledge banywhere except there And if this is so then as I said just now wouldit not be highly unreasonable for such a man to fear death

It certainly would by Zeus he saidThen you have sufficient indication he said that any man whom you

see resenting death was not a lover of wisdom but a lover of the body cand also a lover of wealth or of honors either or both

It is certainly as you sayAnd Simmias he said does not what is called courage belong especially

to men of this dispositionMost certainlyAnd the quality of moderation which even the majority call by that

name that is not to get swept off ones feet by ones passions but to treatthem with disdain and orderliness is this not suited only to those who dmost of all despise the body and live the life of philosophy

Necessarily so he saidIf you are willing to reflect on the courage and moderation of other

people you will find them strangeIn what way SocratesYou know that they all consider death a great evilDefinitely he saidAnd the brave among them face death when they do for fear of

greater evilsThat is soTherefore it is fear and terror that make all men brave except the

philosophers Yet it is illogical to be brave through fear and cowardiceIt certainly is eWhat of the moderate among them Is their experience not similar Is

it license of a kind that makes them moderate We say this is impossibleyet their experience of this unsophisticated moderation turns out to besimilar they fear to be deprived of other pleasures which they desire so

- 60 Phaedo

they keep away from some pleasures because they are overcome by othersNow to be mastered by pleasure is what they call license but what happens

69 to them is that they master certain pleasures because they are masteredby others This is like what we mentioned just now that in some way itis a kind of license that has made them moderate

That seems likelyMy good Simmias I fear this is not the right exchange to attain virtue

to exchange pleasures for pleasures pains for pains and fears for fearsb the greater for the less like coins but that the only valid currency for which

all these things should be exchanged is wisdom With this we have realcourage and moderation and justice and in a word true virtue withwisdom whether pleasures and fears and all such things be present orabsent Exchanged for one another without wisdom such virtue is only anillusory appearance of virtue it is in fact fit for slaves without soundnessor truth whereas in truth moderation and courage and justice are a

c purging away of all such things and wisdom itself is a kind of cleansingor purification It is likely that those who established the mystic rites forus were not inferior persons but were speaking in riddles long ago whenthey said that whoever arrives in the underworld uninitiated and unsancti-fied will wallow in the mire whereas he who arrives there purified andinitiated will dwell with the gods There are indeed as those concerned

d with the mysteries say many who carry the thyrsus but the Bacchants arefew6 These latter are in my opinion no other than those who have prac-ticed philosophy in the right way I have in my life left nothing undonein order to be counted among these as far as possible as I have been eagerto be in every way Whether my eagerness was right and we accomplishedanything we shall I think know for certain in a short time god willingon arriving yonder

This is my defense Simmias and Cebes that I am likely to be right toe leave you and my masters here without resentment or complaint believing

that there as here I shall find good masters and good friends If mydefense is more convincing to you than to the Athenian jury it will be well

When Socrates finished Cebes intervened Socrates he said everything70 else you said is excellent I think but men find it very hard to believe

what you said about the soul They think that after it has left the body itno longer exists anywhere but that it is destroyed and dissolved on theday the man dies as soon as it leaves the body and that on leaving it itis dispersed like breath or smoke has flown away and gone and is nolonger anything anywhere If indeed it gathered itself together and existedby itself and escaped those evils you were recently enumerating there

b would then be much good hope Socrates that what you say is true butto believe this requires a good deal of faith and persuasive argument to

6 That is the true worshippers of Dionysus as opposed to those who only carry theexternal symbols of his worship

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Plato Timaeus 89a-- I have often remarked that there are three kinds of soul located within us having each of them motions and I must now repeat in the fewest words possible that one part if remaining inactive and ceasing from its natural motion must necessarily become very weak but that which is trained and exercised very strong Wherefore we should take care that the movements of the different parts of the soul should be in due proportion And we should consider that God gave the sovereign part of the human soul to be the divinity of each one being that part which as we say dwells at the top of the body inasmuch as we are a plant not of an earthly but of a heavenly growth raises us from earth to our kindred who are in heaven And in this we say truly for the divine power suspended the head and root of us from that place where the generation of the soul first began and thus made the whole body upright When a man is always occupied with the cravings of desire and ambition and is eagerly striving to satisfy them all his thoughts must be mortal and as far as it is possible altogether to become such he must be mortal every whit because he has cherished his mortal part But he who has been earnest in the love of knowledge and of true wisdom and has exercised his intellect more than any other part of him must have thoughts immortal and divine if he attain truth and in so far as human nature is capable of sharing in immortality he must altogether be immortal and since he is ever cherishing the divine power and has the divinity within him in perfect order he will be perfectly happy Now there is only one way of taking care of things and this is to give to each the food and motion which are natural to it And the motions which are naturally akin to the divine principle within us are the thoughts and revolutions of the universe These each man should follow and correct the courses of the head which were corrupted at our birth and by learning the harmonies and revolutions of the universe should assimilate the thinking being to the thought renewing his original nature and having assimilated them should attain to that perfect life which the gods have set before mankind both for the present and the future Thus our original design of discoursing about the universe down to the creation of man is nearly completed A brief mention may be made of the generation of other animals so far as the subject admits of brevity in this manner our argument will best attain a due proportion On the subject of animals then the following remarks may be offered Of the men who came into the world those who were cowards or led unrighteous lives may with reason be supposed to have changed into the nature of women in the second generation And this was the reason why at that time the gods created in us the desire of sexual intercourse contriving in man one animated substance and in woman another which they formed respectively in the following manner The outlet for drink by which liquids pass through the lung under the kidneys and into the bladder which receives then by the pressure of the air emits them was so fashioned by them as to penetrate also into the body of the marrow which passes from the head along the neck and through the back and which in the preceding discourse we have named the seed And the seed having life and becoming endowed with respiration produces in that part in which it respires a lively desire of emission and thus creates in us the love of procreation Wherefore also in men the organ of generation becoming rebellious and masterful like an animal disobedient to reason and maddened with the sting of lust seeks to gain absolute sway and the same is the case with the so-called womb or matrix of women the animal within them is desirous of procreating children and when remaining unfruitful long beyond its proper time gets discontented and angry and wandering in every direction through the body closes up the passages of the breath and by obstructing respiration drives them to extremity causing all varieties of disease until at length the desire and love of the man and the woman bringing them together and as it were plucking the fruit from the tree sow in the womb as in a field animals unseen by reason of their smallness and without

III Timaeus

form these again are separated and matured within they are then finally brought out into the light and thus the generation of animals is completed Thus were created women and the female sex in general But the race of birds was created out of innocent light-minded men who although their minds were directed toward heaven imagined in their simplicity that the clearest demonstration of the things above was to be obtained by sight these were remodelled and transformed into birds and they grew feathers instead of hair The race of wild pedestrian animals again came from those who had no philosophy in any of their thoughts and never considered at all about the nature of the heavens because they had ceased to use the courses of the head but followed the guidance of those parts of the soul which are in the breast In consequence of these habits of theirs they had their front-legs and their heads resting upon the earth to which they were drawn by natural affinity and the crowns of their heads were elongated and of all sorts of shapes into which the courses of the soul were crushed by reason of disuse And this was the reason why they were created quadrupeds and polypods God gave the more senseless of them the more support that they might be more attracted to the earth And the most foolish of them who trail their bodies entirely upon the ground and have no longer any need of feet he made without feet to crawl upon the earth The fourth class were the inhabitants of the water these were made out of the most entirely senseless and ignorant of all whom the transformers did not think any longer worthy of pure respiration because they possessed a soul which was made impure by all sorts of transgression and instead of the subtle and pure medium of air they gave them the deep and muddy sea to be their element of respiration and hence arose the race of fishes and oysters and other aquatic animals which have received the most remote habitations as a punishment of their outlandish ignorance These are the laws by which animals pass into one another now as ever changing as they lose or gain wisdom and folly We may now say that our discourse about the nature of the universe has an end The world has received animals mortal and immortal and is fulfilled with them and has become a visible animal containing the visible acirceurordquo the sensible God who is the image of the intellectual the greatest best fairest most perfect acirceurordquo the one only begotten heaven

Plwedo 59

In fact Simmias he said those who practice philosophy in the rightway are in training for dying and they fear death least of all men Considerit from this point of view if they are altogether estranged from the bodyand desire to have their soul by itself would it not be quite absurd forthem to be afraid and resentful when this happens If they did not gladlyset out for a place where on arrival they may hope to attain that forwhich they had yearned during their lifetime that is wisdom and where 68they would be rid of the presence of that from which they are estranged

Many men at the death of their lovers wives or sons were willing togo to the underworld driven by the hope of seeing there those for whosecompany they longed and being with them Will then a true lover ofwisdom who has a similar hope and knows that he will never find it toany extent except in Hades be resentful of dying and not gladly undertakethe journey thither One must surely think so my friend if he is a truephilosopher for he is firmly convinced that he will not find pure knowledge banywhere except there And if this is so then as I said just now wouldit not be highly unreasonable for such a man to fear death

It certainly would by Zeus he saidThen you have sufficient indication he said that any man whom you

see resenting death was not a lover of wisdom but a lover of the body cand also a lover of wealth or of honors either or both

It is certainly as you sayAnd Simmias he said does not what is called courage belong especially

to men of this dispositionMost certainlyAnd the quality of moderation which even the majority call by that

name that is not to get swept off ones feet by ones passions but to treatthem with disdain and orderliness is this not suited only to those who dmost of all despise the body and live the life of philosophy

Necessarily so he saidIf you are willing to reflect on the courage and moderation of other

people you will find them strangeIn what way SocratesYou know that they all consider death a great evilDefinitely he saidAnd the brave among them face death when they do for fear of

greater evilsThat is soTherefore it is fear and terror that make all men brave except the

philosophers Yet it is illogical to be brave through fear and cowardiceIt certainly is eWhat of the moderate among them Is their experience not similar Is

it license of a kind that makes them moderate We say this is impossibleyet their experience of this unsophisticated moderation turns out to besimilar they fear to be deprived of other pleasures which they desire so

- 60 Phaedo

they keep away from some pleasures because they are overcome by othersNow to be mastered by pleasure is what they call license but what happens

69 to them is that they master certain pleasures because they are masteredby others This is like what we mentioned just now that in some way itis a kind of license that has made them moderate

That seems likelyMy good Simmias I fear this is not the right exchange to attain virtue

to exchange pleasures for pleasures pains for pains and fears for fearsb the greater for the less like coins but that the only valid currency for which

all these things should be exchanged is wisdom With this we have realcourage and moderation and justice and in a word true virtue withwisdom whether pleasures and fears and all such things be present orabsent Exchanged for one another without wisdom such virtue is only anillusory appearance of virtue it is in fact fit for slaves without soundnessor truth whereas in truth moderation and courage and justice are a

c purging away of all such things and wisdom itself is a kind of cleansingor purification It is likely that those who established the mystic rites forus were not inferior persons but were speaking in riddles long ago whenthey said that whoever arrives in the underworld uninitiated and unsancti-fied will wallow in the mire whereas he who arrives there purified andinitiated will dwell with the gods There are indeed as those concerned

d with the mysteries say many who carry the thyrsus but the Bacchants arefew6 These latter are in my opinion no other than those who have prac-ticed philosophy in the right way I have in my life left nothing undonein order to be counted among these as far as possible as I have been eagerto be in every way Whether my eagerness was right and we accomplishedanything we shall I think know for certain in a short time god willingon arriving yonder

This is my defense Simmias and Cebes that I am likely to be right toe leave you and my masters here without resentment or complaint believing

that there as here I shall find good masters and good friends If mydefense is more convincing to you than to the Athenian jury it will be well

When Socrates finished Cebes intervened Socrates he said everything70 else you said is excellent I think but men find it very hard to believe

what you said about the soul They think that after it has left the body itno longer exists anywhere but that it is destroyed and dissolved on theday the man dies as soon as it leaves the body and that on leaving it itis dispersed like breath or smoke has flown away and gone and is nolonger anything anywhere If indeed it gathered itself together and existedby itself and escaped those evils you were recently enumerating there

b would then be much good hope Socrates that what you say is true butto believe this requires a good deal of faith and persuasive argument to

6 That is the true worshippers of Dionysus as opposed to those who only carry theexternal symbols of his worship

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Plato Timaeus 89a-- I have often remarked that there are three kinds of soul located within us having each of them motions and I must now repeat in the fewest words possible that one part if remaining inactive and ceasing from its natural motion must necessarily become very weak but that which is trained and exercised very strong Wherefore we should take care that the movements of the different parts of the soul should be in due proportion And we should consider that God gave the sovereign part of the human soul to be the divinity of each one being that part which as we say dwells at the top of the body inasmuch as we are a plant not of an earthly but of a heavenly growth raises us from earth to our kindred who are in heaven And in this we say truly for the divine power suspended the head and root of us from that place where the generation of the soul first began and thus made the whole body upright When a man is always occupied with the cravings of desire and ambition and is eagerly striving to satisfy them all his thoughts must be mortal and as far as it is possible altogether to become such he must be mortal every whit because he has cherished his mortal part But he who has been earnest in the love of knowledge and of true wisdom and has exercised his intellect more than any other part of him must have thoughts immortal and divine if he attain truth and in so far as human nature is capable of sharing in immortality he must altogether be immortal and since he is ever cherishing the divine power and has the divinity within him in perfect order he will be perfectly happy Now there is only one way of taking care of things and this is to give to each the food and motion which are natural to it And the motions which are naturally akin to the divine principle within us are the thoughts and revolutions of the universe These each man should follow and correct the courses of the head which were corrupted at our birth and by learning the harmonies and revolutions of the universe should assimilate the thinking being to the thought renewing his original nature and having assimilated them should attain to that perfect life which the gods have set before mankind both for the present and the future Thus our original design of discoursing about the universe down to the creation of man is nearly completed A brief mention may be made of the generation of other animals so far as the subject admits of brevity in this manner our argument will best attain a due proportion On the subject of animals then the following remarks may be offered Of the men who came into the world those who were cowards or led unrighteous lives may with reason be supposed to have changed into the nature of women in the second generation And this was the reason why at that time the gods created in us the desire of sexual intercourse contriving in man one animated substance and in woman another which they formed respectively in the following manner The outlet for drink by which liquids pass through the lung under the kidneys and into the bladder which receives then by the pressure of the air emits them was so fashioned by them as to penetrate also into the body of the marrow which passes from the head along the neck and through the back and which in the preceding discourse we have named the seed And the seed having life and becoming endowed with respiration produces in that part in which it respires a lively desire of emission and thus creates in us the love of procreation Wherefore also in men the organ of generation becoming rebellious and masterful like an animal disobedient to reason and maddened with the sting of lust seeks to gain absolute sway and the same is the case with the so-called womb or matrix of women the animal within them is desirous of procreating children and when remaining unfruitful long beyond its proper time gets discontented and angry and wandering in every direction through the body closes up the passages of the breath and by obstructing respiration drives them to extremity causing all varieties of disease until at length the desire and love of the man and the woman bringing them together and as it were plucking the fruit from the tree sow in the womb as in a field animals unseen by reason of their smallness and without

III Timaeus

form these again are separated and matured within they are then finally brought out into the light and thus the generation of animals is completed Thus were created women and the female sex in general But the race of birds was created out of innocent light-minded men who although their minds were directed toward heaven imagined in their simplicity that the clearest demonstration of the things above was to be obtained by sight these were remodelled and transformed into birds and they grew feathers instead of hair The race of wild pedestrian animals again came from those who had no philosophy in any of their thoughts and never considered at all about the nature of the heavens because they had ceased to use the courses of the head but followed the guidance of those parts of the soul which are in the breast In consequence of these habits of theirs they had their front-legs and their heads resting upon the earth to which they were drawn by natural affinity and the crowns of their heads were elongated and of all sorts of shapes into which the courses of the soul were crushed by reason of disuse And this was the reason why they were created quadrupeds and polypods God gave the more senseless of them the more support that they might be more attracted to the earth And the most foolish of them who trail their bodies entirely upon the ground and have no longer any need of feet he made without feet to crawl upon the earth The fourth class were the inhabitants of the water these were made out of the most entirely senseless and ignorant of all whom the transformers did not think any longer worthy of pure respiration because they possessed a soul which was made impure by all sorts of transgression and instead of the subtle and pure medium of air they gave them the deep and muddy sea to be their element of respiration and hence arose the race of fishes and oysters and other aquatic animals which have received the most remote habitations as a punishment of their outlandish ignorance These are the laws by which animals pass into one another now as ever changing as they lose or gain wisdom and folly We may now say that our discourse about the nature of the universe has an end The world has received animals mortal and immortal and is fulfilled with them and has become a visible animal containing the visible acirceurordquo the sensible God who is the image of the intellectual the greatest best fairest most perfect acirceurordquo the one only begotten heaven

- 60 Phaedo

they keep away from some pleasures because they are overcome by othersNow to be mastered by pleasure is what they call license but what happens

69 to them is that they master certain pleasures because they are masteredby others This is like what we mentioned just now that in some way itis a kind of license that has made them moderate

That seems likelyMy good Simmias I fear this is not the right exchange to attain virtue

to exchange pleasures for pleasures pains for pains and fears for fearsb the greater for the less like coins but that the only valid currency for which

all these things should be exchanged is wisdom With this we have realcourage and moderation and justice and in a word true virtue withwisdom whether pleasures and fears and all such things be present orabsent Exchanged for one another without wisdom such virtue is only anillusory appearance of virtue it is in fact fit for slaves without soundnessor truth whereas in truth moderation and courage and justice are a

c purging away of all such things and wisdom itself is a kind of cleansingor purification It is likely that those who established the mystic rites forus were not inferior persons but were speaking in riddles long ago whenthey said that whoever arrives in the underworld uninitiated and unsancti-fied will wallow in the mire whereas he who arrives there purified andinitiated will dwell with the gods There are indeed as those concerned

d with the mysteries say many who carry the thyrsus but the Bacchants arefew6 These latter are in my opinion no other than those who have prac-ticed philosophy in the right way I have in my life left nothing undonein order to be counted among these as far as possible as I have been eagerto be in every way Whether my eagerness was right and we accomplishedanything we shall I think know for certain in a short time god willingon arriving yonder

This is my defense Simmias and Cebes that I am likely to be right toe leave you and my masters here without resentment or complaint believing

that there as here I shall find good masters and good friends If mydefense is more convincing to you than to the Athenian jury it will be well

When Socrates finished Cebes intervened Socrates he said everything70 else you said is excellent I think but men find it very hard to believe

what you said about the soul They think that after it has left the body itno longer exists anywhere but that it is destroyed and dissolved on theday the man dies as soon as it leaves the body and that on leaving it itis dispersed like breath or smoke has flown away and gone and is nolonger anything anywhere If indeed it gathered itself together and existedby itself and escaped those evils you were recently enumerating there

b would then be much good hope Socrates that what you say is true butto believe this requires a good deal of faith and persuasive argument to

6 That is the true worshippers of Dionysus as opposed to those who only carry theexternal symbols of his worship

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II Phaedrus

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Plato Timaeus 89a-- I have often remarked that there are three kinds of soul located within us having each of them motions and I must now repeat in the fewest words possible that one part if remaining inactive and ceasing from its natural motion must necessarily become very weak but that which is trained and exercised very strong Wherefore we should take care that the movements of the different parts of the soul should be in due proportion And we should consider that God gave the sovereign part of the human soul to be the divinity of each one being that part which as we say dwells at the top of the body inasmuch as we are a plant not of an earthly but of a heavenly growth raises us from earth to our kindred who are in heaven And in this we say truly for the divine power suspended the head and root of us from that place where the generation of the soul first began and thus made the whole body upright When a man is always occupied with the cravings of desire and ambition and is eagerly striving to satisfy them all his thoughts must be mortal and as far as it is possible altogether to become such he must be mortal every whit because he has cherished his mortal part But he who has been earnest in the love of knowledge and of true wisdom and has exercised his intellect more than any other part of him must have thoughts immortal and divine if he attain truth and in so far as human nature is capable of sharing in immortality he must altogether be immortal and since he is ever cherishing the divine power and has the divinity within him in perfect order he will be perfectly happy Now there is only one way of taking care of things and this is to give to each the food and motion which are natural to it And the motions which are naturally akin to the divine principle within us are the thoughts and revolutions of the universe These each man should follow and correct the courses of the head which were corrupted at our birth and by learning the harmonies and revolutions of the universe should assimilate the thinking being to the thought renewing his original nature and having assimilated them should attain to that perfect life which the gods have set before mankind both for the present and the future Thus our original design of discoursing about the universe down to the creation of man is nearly completed A brief mention may be made of the generation of other animals so far as the subject admits of brevity in this manner our argument will best attain a due proportion On the subject of animals then the following remarks may be offered Of the men who came into the world those who were cowards or led unrighteous lives may with reason be supposed to have changed into the nature of women in the second generation And this was the reason why at that time the gods created in us the desire of sexual intercourse contriving in man one animated substance and in woman another which they formed respectively in the following manner The outlet for drink by which liquids pass through the lung under the kidneys and into the bladder which receives then by the pressure of the air emits them was so fashioned by them as to penetrate also into the body of the marrow which passes from the head along the neck and through the back and which in the preceding discourse we have named the seed And the seed having life and becoming endowed with respiration produces in that part in which it respires a lively desire of emission and thus creates in us the love of procreation Wherefore also in men the organ of generation becoming rebellious and masterful like an animal disobedient to reason and maddened with the sting of lust seeks to gain absolute sway and the same is the case with the so-called womb or matrix of women the animal within them is desirous of procreating children and when remaining unfruitful long beyond its proper time gets discontented and angry and wandering in every direction through the body closes up the passages of the breath and by obstructing respiration drives them to extremity causing all varieties of disease until at length the desire and love of the man and the woman bringing them together and as it were plucking the fruit from the tree sow in the womb as in a field animals unseen by reason of their smallness and without

III Timaeus

form these again are separated and matured within they are then finally brought out into the light and thus the generation of animals is completed Thus were created women and the female sex in general But the race of birds was created out of innocent light-minded men who although their minds were directed toward heaven imagined in their simplicity that the clearest demonstration of the things above was to be obtained by sight these were remodelled and transformed into birds and they grew feathers instead of hair The race of wild pedestrian animals again came from those who had no philosophy in any of their thoughts and never considered at all about the nature of the heavens because they had ceased to use the courses of the head but followed the guidance of those parts of the soul which are in the breast In consequence of these habits of theirs they had their front-legs and their heads resting upon the earth to which they were drawn by natural affinity and the crowns of their heads were elongated and of all sorts of shapes into which the courses of the soul were crushed by reason of disuse And this was the reason why they were created quadrupeds and polypods God gave the more senseless of them the more support that they might be more attracted to the earth And the most foolish of them who trail their bodies entirely upon the ground and have no longer any need of feet he made without feet to crawl upon the earth The fourth class were the inhabitants of the water these were made out of the most entirely senseless and ignorant of all whom the transformers did not think any longer worthy of pure respiration because they possessed a soul which was made impure by all sorts of transgression and instead of the subtle and pure medium of air they gave them the deep and muddy sea to be their element of respiration and hence arose the race of fishes and oysters and other aquatic animals which have received the most remote habitations as a punishment of their outlandish ignorance These are the laws by which animals pass into one another now as ever changing as they lose or gain wisdom and folly We may now say that our discourse about the nature of the universe has an end The world has received animals mortal and immortal and is fulfilled with them and has become a visible animal containing the visible acirceurordquo the sensible God who is the image of the intellectual the greatest best fairest most perfect acirceurordquo the one only begotten heaven

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II Phaedrus

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Plato Timaeus 89a-- I have often remarked that there are three kinds of soul located within us having each of them motions and I must now repeat in the fewest words possible that one part if remaining inactive and ceasing from its natural motion must necessarily become very weak but that which is trained and exercised very strong Wherefore we should take care that the movements of the different parts of the soul should be in due proportion And we should consider that God gave the sovereign part of the human soul to be the divinity of each one being that part which as we say dwells at the top of the body inasmuch as we are a plant not of an earthly but of a heavenly growth raises us from earth to our kindred who are in heaven And in this we say truly for the divine power suspended the head and root of us from that place where the generation of the soul first began and thus made the whole body upright When a man is always occupied with the cravings of desire and ambition and is eagerly striving to satisfy them all his thoughts must be mortal and as far as it is possible altogether to become such he must be mortal every whit because he has cherished his mortal part But he who has been earnest in the love of knowledge and of true wisdom and has exercised his intellect more than any other part of him must have thoughts immortal and divine if he attain truth and in so far as human nature is capable of sharing in immortality he must altogether be immortal and since he is ever cherishing the divine power and has the divinity within him in perfect order he will be perfectly happy Now there is only one way of taking care of things and this is to give to each the food and motion which are natural to it And the motions which are naturally akin to the divine principle within us are the thoughts and revolutions of the universe These each man should follow and correct the courses of the head which were corrupted at our birth and by learning the harmonies and revolutions of the universe should assimilate the thinking being to the thought renewing his original nature and having assimilated them should attain to that perfect life which the gods have set before mankind both for the present and the future Thus our original design of discoursing about the universe down to the creation of man is nearly completed A brief mention may be made of the generation of other animals so far as the subject admits of brevity in this manner our argument will best attain a due proportion On the subject of animals then the following remarks may be offered Of the men who came into the world those who were cowards or led unrighteous lives may with reason be supposed to have changed into the nature of women in the second generation And this was the reason why at that time the gods created in us the desire of sexual intercourse contriving in man one animated substance and in woman another which they formed respectively in the following manner The outlet for drink by which liquids pass through the lung under the kidneys and into the bladder which receives then by the pressure of the air emits them was so fashioned by them as to penetrate also into the body of the marrow which passes from the head along the neck and through the back and which in the preceding discourse we have named the seed And the seed having life and becoming endowed with respiration produces in that part in which it respires a lively desire of emission and thus creates in us the love of procreation Wherefore also in men the organ of generation becoming rebellious and masterful like an animal disobedient to reason and maddened with the sting of lust seeks to gain absolute sway and the same is the case with the so-called womb or matrix of women the animal within them is desirous of procreating children and when remaining unfruitful long beyond its proper time gets discontented and angry and wandering in every direction through the body closes up the passages of the breath and by obstructing respiration drives them to extremity causing all varieties of disease until at length the desire and love of the man and the woman bringing them together and as it were plucking the fruit from the tree sow in the womb as in a field animals unseen by reason of their smallness and without

III Timaeus

form these again are separated and matured within they are then finally brought out into the light and thus the generation of animals is completed Thus were created women and the female sex in general But the race of birds was created out of innocent light-minded men who although their minds were directed toward heaven imagined in their simplicity that the clearest demonstration of the things above was to be obtained by sight these were remodelled and transformed into birds and they grew feathers instead of hair The race of wild pedestrian animals again came from those who had no philosophy in any of their thoughts and never considered at all about the nature of the heavens because they had ceased to use the courses of the head but followed the guidance of those parts of the soul which are in the breast In consequence of these habits of theirs they had their front-legs and their heads resting upon the earth to which they were drawn by natural affinity and the crowns of their heads were elongated and of all sorts of shapes into which the courses of the soul were crushed by reason of disuse And this was the reason why they were created quadrupeds and polypods God gave the more senseless of them the more support that they might be more attracted to the earth And the most foolish of them who trail their bodies entirely upon the ground and have no longer any need of feet he made without feet to crawl upon the earth The fourth class were the inhabitants of the water these were made out of the most entirely senseless and ignorant of all whom the transformers did not think any longer worthy of pure respiration because they possessed a soul which was made impure by all sorts of transgression and instead of the subtle and pure medium of air they gave them the deep and muddy sea to be their element of respiration and hence arose the race of fishes and oysters and other aquatic animals which have received the most remote habitations as a punishment of their outlandish ignorance These are the laws by which animals pass into one another now as ever changing as they lose or gain wisdom and folly We may now say that our discourse about the nature of the universe has an end The world has received animals mortal and immortal and is fulfilled with them and has become a visible animal containing the visible acirceurordquo the sensible God who is the image of the intellectual the greatest best fairest most perfect acirceurordquo the one only begotten heaven

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Plato Timaeus 89a-- I have often remarked that there are three kinds of soul located within us having each of them motions and I must now repeat in the fewest words possible that one part if remaining inactive and ceasing from its natural motion must necessarily become very weak but that which is trained and exercised very strong Wherefore we should take care that the movements of the different parts of the soul should be in due proportion And we should consider that God gave the sovereign part of the human soul to be the divinity of each one being that part which as we say dwells at the top of the body inasmuch as we are a plant not of an earthly but of a heavenly growth raises us from earth to our kindred who are in heaven And in this we say truly for the divine power suspended the head and root of us from that place where the generation of the soul first began and thus made the whole body upright When a man is always occupied with the cravings of desire and ambition and is eagerly striving to satisfy them all his thoughts must be mortal and as far as it is possible altogether to become such he must be mortal every whit because he has cherished his mortal part But he who has been earnest in the love of knowledge and of true wisdom and has exercised his intellect more than any other part of him must have thoughts immortal and divine if he attain truth and in so far as human nature is capable of sharing in immortality he must altogether be immortal and since he is ever cherishing the divine power and has the divinity within him in perfect order he will be perfectly happy Now there is only one way of taking care of things and this is to give to each the food and motion which are natural to it And the motions which are naturally akin to the divine principle within us are the thoughts and revolutions of the universe These each man should follow and correct the courses of the head which were corrupted at our birth and by learning the harmonies and revolutions of the universe should assimilate the thinking being to the thought renewing his original nature and having assimilated them should attain to that perfect life which the gods have set before mankind both for the present and the future Thus our original design of discoursing about the universe down to the creation of man is nearly completed A brief mention may be made of the generation of other animals so far as the subject admits of brevity in this manner our argument will best attain a due proportion On the subject of animals then the following remarks may be offered Of the men who came into the world those who were cowards or led unrighteous lives may with reason be supposed to have changed into the nature of women in the second generation And this was the reason why at that time the gods created in us the desire of sexual intercourse contriving in man one animated substance and in woman another which they formed respectively in the following manner The outlet for drink by which liquids pass through the lung under the kidneys and into the bladder which receives then by the pressure of the air emits them was so fashioned by them as to penetrate also into the body of the marrow which passes from the head along the neck and through the back and which in the preceding discourse we have named the seed And the seed having life and becoming endowed with respiration produces in that part in which it respires a lively desire of emission and thus creates in us the love of procreation Wherefore also in men the organ of generation becoming rebellious and masterful like an animal disobedient to reason and maddened with the sting of lust seeks to gain absolute sway and the same is the case with the so-called womb or matrix of women the animal within them is desirous of procreating children and when remaining unfruitful long beyond its proper time gets discontented and angry and wandering in every direction through the body closes up the passages of the breath and by obstructing respiration drives them to extremity causing all varieties of disease until at length the desire and love of the man and the woman bringing them together and as it were plucking the fruit from the tree sow in the womb as in a field animals unseen by reason of their smallness and without

III Timaeus

form these again are separated and matured within they are then finally brought out into the light and thus the generation of animals is completed Thus were created women and the female sex in general But the race of birds was created out of innocent light-minded men who although their minds were directed toward heaven imagined in their simplicity that the clearest demonstration of the things above was to be obtained by sight these were remodelled and transformed into birds and they grew feathers instead of hair The race of wild pedestrian animals again came from those who had no philosophy in any of their thoughts and never considered at all about the nature of the heavens because they had ceased to use the courses of the head but followed the guidance of those parts of the soul which are in the breast In consequence of these habits of theirs they had their front-legs and their heads resting upon the earth to which they were drawn by natural affinity and the crowns of their heads were elongated and of all sorts of shapes into which the courses of the soul were crushed by reason of disuse And this was the reason why they were created quadrupeds and polypods God gave the more senseless of them the more support that they might be more attracted to the earth And the most foolish of them who trail their bodies entirely upon the ground and have no longer any need of feet he made without feet to crawl upon the earth The fourth class were the inhabitants of the water these were made out of the most entirely senseless and ignorant of all whom the transformers did not think any longer worthy of pure respiration because they possessed a soul which was made impure by all sorts of transgression and instead of the subtle and pure medium of air they gave them the deep and muddy sea to be their element of respiration and hence arose the race of fishes and oysters and other aquatic animals which have received the most remote habitations as a punishment of their outlandish ignorance These are the laws by which animals pass into one another now as ever changing as they lose or gain wisdom and folly We may now say that our discourse about the nature of the universe has an end The world has received animals mortal and immortal and is fulfilled with them and has become a visible animal containing the visible acirceurordquo the sensible God who is the image of the intellectual the greatest best fairest most perfect acirceurordquo the one only begotten heaven

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Plato Timaeus 89a-- I have often remarked that there are three kinds of soul located within us having each of them motions and I must now repeat in the fewest words possible that one part if remaining inactive and ceasing from its natural motion must necessarily become very weak but that which is trained and exercised very strong Wherefore we should take care that the movements of the different parts of the soul should be in due proportion And we should consider that God gave the sovereign part of the human soul to be the divinity of each one being that part which as we say dwells at the top of the body inasmuch as we are a plant not of an earthly but of a heavenly growth raises us from earth to our kindred who are in heaven And in this we say truly for the divine power suspended the head and root of us from that place where the generation of the soul first began and thus made the whole body upright When a man is always occupied with the cravings of desire and ambition and is eagerly striving to satisfy them all his thoughts must be mortal and as far as it is possible altogether to become such he must be mortal every whit because he has cherished his mortal part But he who has been earnest in the love of knowledge and of true wisdom and has exercised his intellect more than any other part of him must have thoughts immortal and divine if he attain truth and in so far as human nature is capable of sharing in immortality he must altogether be immortal and since he is ever cherishing the divine power and has the divinity within him in perfect order he will be perfectly happy Now there is only one way of taking care of things and this is to give to each the food and motion which are natural to it And the motions which are naturally akin to the divine principle within us are the thoughts and revolutions of the universe These each man should follow and correct the courses of the head which were corrupted at our birth and by learning the harmonies and revolutions of the universe should assimilate the thinking being to the thought renewing his original nature and having assimilated them should attain to that perfect life which the gods have set before mankind both for the present and the future Thus our original design of discoursing about the universe down to the creation of man is nearly completed A brief mention may be made of the generation of other animals so far as the subject admits of brevity in this manner our argument will best attain a due proportion On the subject of animals then the following remarks may be offered Of the men who came into the world those who were cowards or led unrighteous lives may with reason be supposed to have changed into the nature of women in the second generation And this was the reason why at that time the gods created in us the desire of sexual intercourse contriving in man one animated substance and in woman another which they formed respectively in the following manner The outlet for drink by which liquids pass through the lung under the kidneys and into the bladder which receives then by the pressure of the air emits them was so fashioned by them as to penetrate also into the body of the marrow which passes from the head along the neck and through the back and which in the preceding discourse we have named the seed And the seed having life and becoming endowed with respiration produces in that part in which it respires a lively desire of emission and thus creates in us the love of procreation Wherefore also in men the organ of generation becoming rebellious and masterful like an animal disobedient to reason and maddened with the sting of lust seeks to gain absolute sway and the same is the case with the so-called womb or matrix of women the animal within them is desirous of procreating children and when remaining unfruitful long beyond its proper time gets discontented and angry and wandering in every direction through the body closes up the passages of the breath and by obstructing respiration drives them to extremity causing all varieties of disease until at length the desire and love of the man and the woman bringing them together and as it were plucking the fruit from the tree sow in the womb as in a field animals unseen by reason of their smallness and without

III Timaeus

form these again are separated and matured within they are then finally brought out into the light and thus the generation of animals is completed Thus were created women and the female sex in general But the race of birds was created out of innocent light-minded men who although their minds were directed toward heaven imagined in their simplicity that the clearest demonstration of the things above was to be obtained by sight these were remodelled and transformed into birds and they grew feathers instead of hair The race of wild pedestrian animals again came from those who had no philosophy in any of their thoughts and never considered at all about the nature of the heavens because they had ceased to use the courses of the head but followed the guidance of those parts of the soul which are in the breast In consequence of these habits of theirs they had their front-legs and their heads resting upon the earth to which they were drawn by natural affinity and the crowns of their heads were elongated and of all sorts of shapes into which the courses of the soul were crushed by reason of disuse And this was the reason why they were created quadrupeds and polypods God gave the more senseless of them the more support that they might be more attracted to the earth And the most foolish of them who trail their bodies entirely upon the ground and have no longer any need of feet he made without feet to crawl upon the earth The fourth class were the inhabitants of the water these were made out of the most entirely senseless and ignorant of all whom the transformers did not think any longer worthy of pure respiration because they possessed a soul which was made impure by all sorts of transgression and instead of the subtle and pure medium of air they gave them the deep and muddy sea to be their element of respiration and hence arose the race of fishes and oysters and other aquatic animals which have received the most remote habitations as a punishment of their outlandish ignorance These are the laws by which animals pass into one another now as ever changing as they lose or gain wisdom and folly We may now say that our discourse about the nature of the universe has an end The world has received animals mortal and immortal and is fulfilled with them and has become a visible animal containing the visible acirceurordquo the sensible God who is the image of the intellectual the greatest best fairest most perfect acirceurordquo the one only begotten heaven

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Ѫ Ѫ 13Ѫ -Ѫ Ѫ ѪGƦIѪIJ=Ѫ13ѪGѪѧѪнѪ13Ѫ ŇѪ13)+ѪѪpѪ)UcircѪ13ѪѪ+Ѫ13ѪiacuteAgrave Ĕ ɒ Ѫ13G+Ѫ13Ѫ +13ѪѪͲ`13GѪѪ ѪѪ Ѫ ļѪ ѪL+)Ѫ Ѫ+Ѫ )+IѪ yacuteѪѪѪ13Ѫ 13GѪ13Ѫ 9Ƥ+Ѫ Ѫ Ѫ+Ѫ IѪ |Ѫ Ѫ Ѫ jѪ ȲѪ Ѫ13Ѫ Ѫ ѪĉѪ 13Ѫ jѪ Ѫ Ѫ 13Ѫ ѪGѪ FĔ+Ѫ Ѫ )Ѫ Ѫ Ѫ 13Ѫ

f`ƙ 6~w6~fFJWbmbfG7im~ltȺƙ

Plato Timaeus 89a-- I have often remarked that there are three kinds of soul located within us having each of them motions and I must now repeat in the fewest words possible that one part if remaining inactive and ceasing from its natural motion must necessarily become very weak but that which is trained and exercised very strong Wherefore we should take care that the movements of the different parts of the soul should be in due proportion And we should consider that God gave the sovereign part of the human soul to be the divinity of each one being that part which as we say dwells at the top of the body inasmuch as we are a plant not of an earthly but of a heavenly growth raises us from earth to our kindred who are in heaven And in this we say truly for the divine power suspended the head and root of us from that place where the generation of the soul first began and thus made the whole body upright When a man is always occupied with the cravings of desire and ambition and is eagerly striving to satisfy them all his thoughts must be mortal and as far as it is possible altogether to become such he must be mortal every whit because he has cherished his mortal part But he who has been earnest in the love of knowledge and of true wisdom and has exercised his intellect more than any other part of him must have thoughts immortal and divine if he attain truth and in so far as human nature is capable of sharing in immortality he must altogether be immortal and since he is ever cherishing the divine power and has the divinity within him in perfect order he will be perfectly happy Now there is only one way of taking care of things and this is to give to each the food and motion which are natural to it And the motions which are naturally akin to the divine principle within us are the thoughts and revolutions of the universe These each man should follow and correct the courses of the head which were corrupted at our birth and by learning the harmonies and revolutions of the universe should assimilate the thinking being to the thought renewing his original nature and having assimilated them should attain to that perfect life which the gods have set before mankind both for the present and the future Thus our original design of discoursing about the universe down to the creation of man is nearly completed A brief mention may be made of the generation of other animals so far as the subject admits of brevity in this manner our argument will best attain a due proportion On the subject of animals then the following remarks may be offered Of the men who came into the world those who were cowards or led unrighteous lives may with reason be supposed to have changed into the nature of women in the second generation And this was the reason why at that time the gods created in us the desire of sexual intercourse contriving in man one animated substance and in woman another which they formed respectively in the following manner The outlet for drink by which liquids pass through the lung under the kidneys and into the bladder which receives then by the pressure of the air emits them was so fashioned by them as to penetrate also into the body of the marrow which passes from the head along the neck and through the back and which in the preceding discourse we have named the seed And the seed having life and becoming endowed with respiration produces in that part in which it respires a lively desire of emission and thus creates in us the love of procreation Wherefore also in men the organ of generation becoming rebellious and masterful like an animal disobedient to reason and maddened with the sting of lust seeks to gain absolute sway and the same is the case with the so-called womb or matrix of women the animal within them is desirous of procreating children and when remaining unfruitful long beyond its proper time gets discontented and angry and wandering in every direction through the body closes up the passages of the breath and by obstructing respiration drives them to extremity causing all varieties of disease until at length the desire and love of the man and the woman bringing them together and as it were plucking the fruit from the tree sow in the womb as in a field animals unseen by reason of their smallness and without

III Timaeus

form these again are separated and matured within they are then finally brought out into the light and thus the generation of animals is completed Thus were created women and the female sex in general But the race of birds was created out of innocent light-minded men who although their minds were directed toward heaven imagined in their simplicity that the clearest demonstration of the things above was to be obtained by sight these were remodelled and transformed into birds and they grew feathers instead of hair The race of wild pedestrian animals again came from those who had no philosophy in any of their thoughts and never considered at all about the nature of the heavens because they had ceased to use the courses of the head but followed the guidance of those parts of the soul which are in the breast In consequence of these habits of theirs they had their front-legs and their heads resting upon the earth to which they were drawn by natural affinity and the crowns of their heads were elongated and of all sorts of shapes into which the courses of the soul were crushed by reason of disuse And this was the reason why they were created quadrupeds and polypods God gave the more senseless of them the more support that they might be more attracted to the earth And the most foolish of them who trail their bodies entirely upon the ground and have no longer any need of feet he made without feet to crawl upon the earth The fourth class were the inhabitants of the water these were made out of the most entirely senseless and ignorant of all whom the transformers did not think any longer worthy of pure respiration because they possessed a soul which was made impure by all sorts of transgression and instead of the subtle and pure medium of air they gave them the deep and muddy sea to be their element of respiration and hence arose the race of fishes and oysters and other aquatic animals which have received the most remote habitations as a punishment of their outlandish ignorance These are the laws by which animals pass into one another now as ever changing as they lose or gain wisdom and folly We may now say that our discourse about the nature of the universe has an end The world has received animals mortal and immortal and is fulfilled with them and has become a visible animal containing the visible acirceurordquo the sensible God who is the image of the intellectual the greatest best fairest most perfect acirceurordquo the one only begotten heaven

+) kwƔ

Х Х Х Х 13ХХ+Хƃ Х Х 2ХХ Х ХХ IХ 2Х +2Х +l+13=Х +Х Х2Х2Х +Х Х Х ccedil+13Х ХХI13Х+ХХ2ХХ +Х+Х Х2ХХ+ďХХХ+ХХ Ⱥ2aacuteХ Х 2Х TХ ˊХ Х Х 2Х Х 2Х 22+Х Х Х13+13Х Х IIХ Х 13Х I+=Х 5Х 13Х IХ 13Х Х Ο+Х +ХotildeХʶ2Х 2EgraveХ Х Х Х 13Х2ХХ +Х +=ХХХ IХ ХХ13ХХ ХǜХ 2Х Х +IХ Х Х Х+Х+otildeХ ХХ IХ Х2ХХХ2Х13ХХХХ=Х+13ХХХ+ХaacuteХ2Х 13Х +Х 2ХХ52IХ 2=Х 213+Х Х (A2+ХХ 213+Х 2Х +Х Х 2Х +ĮdegɱɸХ VХ 213Х +ХХ213I13+ХХХ+Х2ХIХХХ+ХХ2I+Х+Х=ХХ +Х+22ХХ +ХХХ13Х 2IХ Х+ХХ+ХХ ХХ+Х2Х 2Х +degХ

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ǰŭ+13Х Х IŅ132Х Х Х +Х Х 2Х ƥ2Х +Х Х2ȱХХ+2ХХ Х2Хl13ǐХХХĸХ+2˿ʠХ ХХ2ХХ2Х ХХХ ХХ2ХХХХkХ+Х+13=ХХ2++IХ ХХI+Х Х132Х2divideХ ťХХХ2+Х

YacuteȺ ograveŀŁǤƔLŹȺȝƄȺLJMĭƓǛMȺĮȺ3otildeccedilƙ

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ƙ IѪ ѪѪy13$Ѫ13ntildeѪ13Ѫ Ѫ)ϡpcѪ Ѫ LѪ ļѪѪG13ѪѪ13Ѫ ѪѪIѪFѪG$Ѫ13Ѫ 13ѪѪ iacuteAgraveѪ iacuteAgraveѪ +Ѫ13pѪѪ Ѫ13ѪGѪ ĿѪ Ѫ Ѫ ѪѪ Ѫ 13Ѫ ѪѪ Ѫ 13Ѫ Ѫ Ѫ|13$ѪĿѪѪѪѪ Icirc13ѪѪG13Ѫ13Ѫ˧ѪѪ)13Ѫ Ѫ+13times+Ѫ13ѪѪ13ѪcѪѪѪѪ13Ѫ13ѪѪѪѪѪ13ѪѪ13Ѫ ƖsǍƖOumlordmѪ LȗƢȸcѪ κƢ+Ѫ OumlѪ 13ňѪ13)AEligѪ 13ƦcѪ 13ΊѪ )Ѫ ȖƉbrvbarѪ Ѫ

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-F 13ѪńĨƔѪѪ Ѫ13+ѪƖѪ13Ѫ+IѪGѪ Ѫ13Ѫ ňѪ 13OumlѪ nbrvbarѪ nѪGŁaѪ+ȖъѪѪѪ13ē+Ѫ13Ѫ13Ѫ )+ѪcѪG13ͰѪѪ13ѪѪ13ѪΖ13ѪѪѪ Ѫ $+Ѫ Ѫ Ѫ 13Ѫ Ѫ Ѫ 13Ѫ 13Ѫ Ѫ +Ѫ Ѫ Ѫ)+RѪ Egrave13)aLjѪ Ѫ 13Ѫ 13ЬѪ )Ѫ 13Ѫ Ѫ Ѫ 13GȸѪ Ѫ Ѫ9+ѪGѪ+cѪ a13GͱѪ13ѪordmȂѪ ƨȉѪccedil+ѪǸaѪ ѪѪ 13ѪG13Ѫ Ѫ=ėѪ Ѫ Ѫ Ѫ Gn+Ѫ 13GjAEligѪ Ѫ 13Ѫ )Ѫ FĔѪ brvbarѪ Ѫ13Ѫ13Ѫ Ѫ13ѪѪѪ+ѪѪ ѪѪ 13ѪѪ 13ѪѪtѪ]ѪUacute+Ѫ13+cѪѪcѪѪƚѪoacuteѪ13Ѫ +ūgѪѪѪoacuteѪ

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f`ƙ 6~w6~fFJWbmbfG7im~ltȺƙ

Plato Timaeus 89a-- I have often remarked that there are three kinds of soul located within us having each of them motions and I must now repeat in the fewest words possible that one part if remaining inactive and ceasing from its natural motion must necessarily become very weak but that which is trained and exercised very strong Wherefore we should take care that the movements of the different parts of the soul should be in due proportion And we should consider that God gave the sovereign part of the human soul to be the divinity of each one being that part which as we say dwells at the top of the body inasmuch as we are a plant not of an earthly but of a heavenly growth raises us from earth to our kindred who are in heaven And in this we say truly for the divine power suspended the head and root of us from that place where the generation of the soul first began and thus made the whole body upright When a man is always occupied with the cravings of desire and ambition and is eagerly striving to satisfy them all his thoughts must be mortal and as far as it is possible altogether to become such he must be mortal every whit because he has cherished his mortal part But he who has been earnest in the love of knowledge and of true wisdom and has exercised his intellect more than any other part of him must have thoughts immortal and divine if he attain truth and in so far as human nature is capable of sharing in immortality he must altogether be immortal and since he is ever cherishing the divine power and has the divinity within him in perfect order he will be perfectly happy Now there is only one way of taking care of things and this is to give to each the food and motion which are natural to it And the motions which are naturally akin to the divine principle within us are the thoughts and revolutions of the universe These each man should follow and correct the courses of the head which were corrupted at our birth and by learning the harmonies and revolutions of the universe should assimilate the thinking being to the thought renewing his original nature and having assimilated them should attain to that perfect life which the gods have set before mankind both for the present and the future Thus our original design of discoursing about the universe down to the creation of man is nearly completed A brief mention may be made of the generation of other animals so far as the subject admits of brevity in this manner our argument will best attain a due proportion On the subject of animals then the following remarks may be offered Of the men who came into the world those who were cowards or led unrighteous lives may with reason be supposed to have changed into the nature of women in the second generation And this was the reason why at that time the gods created in us the desire of sexual intercourse contriving in man one animated substance and in woman another which they formed respectively in the following manner The outlet for drink by which liquids pass through the lung under the kidneys and into the bladder which receives then by the pressure of the air emits them was so fashioned by them as to penetrate also into the body of the marrow which passes from the head along the neck and through the back and which in the preceding discourse we have named the seed And the seed having life and becoming endowed with respiration produces in that part in which it respires a lively desire of emission and thus creates in us the love of procreation Wherefore also in men the organ of generation becoming rebellious and masterful like an animal disobedient to reason and maddened with the sting of lust seeks to gain absolute sway and the same is the case with the so-called womb or matrix of women the animal within them is desirous of procreating children and when remaining unfruitful long beyond its proper time gets discontented and angry and wandering in every direction through the body closes up the passages of the breath and by obstructing respiration drives them to extremity causing all varieties of disease until at length the desire and love of the man and the woman bringing them together and as it were plucking the fruit from the tree sow in the womb as in a field animals unseen by reason of their smallness and without

III Timaeus

form these again are separated and matured within they are then finally brought out into the light and thus the generation of animals is completed Thus were created women and the female sex in general But the race of birds was created out of innocent light-minded men who although their minds were directed toward heaven imagined in their simplicity that the clearest demonstration of the things above was to be obtained by sight these were remodelled and transformed into birds and they grew feathers instead of hair The race of wild pedestrian animals again came from those who had no philosophy in any of their thoughts and never considered at all about the nature of the heavens because they had ceased to use the courses of the head but followed the guidance of those parts of the soul which are in the breast In consequence of these habits of theirs they had their front-legs and their heads resting upon the earth to which they were drawn by natural affinity and the crowns of their heads were elongated and of all sorts of shapes into which the courses of the soul were crushed by reason of disuse And this was the reason why they were created quadrupeds and polypods God gave the more senseless of them the more support that they might be more attracted to the earth And the most foolish of them who trail their bodies entirely upon the ground and have no longer any need of feet he made without feet to crawl upon the earth The fourth class were the inhabitants of the water these were made out of the most entirely senseless and ignorant of all whom the transformers did not think any longer worthy of pure respiration because they possessed a soul which was made impure by all sorts of transgression and instead of the subtle and pure medium of air they gave them the deep and muddy sea to be their element of respiration and hence arose the race of fishes and oysters and other aquatic animals which have received the most remote habitations as a punishment of their outlandish ignorance These are the laws by which animals pass into one another now as ever changing as they lose or gain wisdom and folly We may now say that our discourse about the nature of the universe has an end The world has received animals mortal and immortal and is fulfilled with them and has become a visible animal containing the visible acirceurordquo the sensible God who is the image of the intellectual the greatest best fairest most perfect acirceurordquo the one only begotten heaven

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Plato Timaeus 89a-- I have often remarked that there are three kinds of soul located within us having each of them motions and I must now repeat in the fewest words possible that one part if remaining inactive and ceasing from its natural motion must necessarily become very weak but that which is trained and exercised very strong Wherefore we should take care that the movements of the different parts of the soul should be in due proportion And we should consider that God gave the sovereign part of the human soul to be the divinity of each one being that part which as we say dwells at the top of the body inasmuch as we are a plant not of an earthly but of a heavenly growth raises us from earth to our kindred who are in heaven And in this we say truly for the divine power suspended the head and root of us from that place where the generation of the soul first began and thus made the whole body upright When a man is always occupied with the cravings of desire and ambition and is eagerly striving to satisfy them all his thoughts must be mortal and as far as it is possible altogether to become such he must be mortal every whit because he has cherished his mortal part But he who has been earnest in the love of knowledge and of true wisdom and has exercised his intellect more than any other part of him must have thoughts immortal and divine if he attain truth and in so far as human nature is capable of sharing in immortality he must altogether be immortal and since he is ever cherishing the divine power and has the divinity within him in perfect order he will be perfectly happy Now there is only one way of taking care of things and this is to give to each the food and motion which are natural to it And the motions which are naturally akin to the divine principle within us are the thoughts and revolutions of the universe These each man should follow and correct the courses of the head which were corrupted at our birth and by learning the harmonies and revolutions of the universe should assimilate the thinking being to the thought renewing his original nature and having assimilated them should attain to that perfect life which the gods have set before mankind both for the present and the future Thus our original design of discoursing about the universe down to the creation of man is nearly completed A brief mention may be made of the generation of other animals so far as the subject admits of brevity in this manner our argument will best attain a due proportion On the subject of animals then the following remarks may be offered Of the men who came into the world those who were cowards or led unrighteous lives may with reason be supposed to have changed into the nature of women in the second generation And this was the reason why at that time the gods created in us the desire of sexual intercourse contriving in man one animated substance and in woman another which they formed respectively in the following manner The outlet for drink by which liquids pass through the lung under the kidneys and into the bladder which receives then by the pressure of the air emits them was so fashioned by them as to penetrate also into the body of the marrow which passes from the head along the neck and through the back and which in the preceding discourse we have named the seed And the seed having life and becoming endowed with respiration produces in that part in which it respires a lively desire of emission and thus creates in us the love of procreation Wherefore also in men the organ of generation becoming rebellious and masterful like an animal disobedient to reason and maddened with the sting of lust seeks to gain absolute sway and the same is the case with the so-called womb or matrix of women the animal within them is desirous of procreating children and when remaining unfruitful long beyond its proper time gets discontented and angry and wandering in every direction through the body closes up the passages of the breath and by obstructing respiration drives them to extremity causing all varieties of disease until at length the desire and love of the man and the woman bringing them together and as it were plucking the fruit from the tree sow in the womb as in a field animals unseen by reason of their smallness and without

III Timaeus

form these again are separated and matured within they are then finally brought out into the light and thus the generation of animals is completed Thus were created women and the female sex in general But the race of birds was created out of innocent light-minded men who although their minds were directed toward heaven imagined in their simplicity that the clearest demonstration of the things above was to be obtained by sight these were remodelled and transformed into birds and they grew feathers instead of hair The race of wild pedestrian animals again came from those who had no philosophy in any of their thoughts and never considered at all about the nature of the heavens because they had ceased to use the courses of the head but followed the guidance of those parts of the soul which are in the breast In consequence of these habits of theirs they had their front-legs and their heads resting upon the earth to which they were drawn by natural affinity and the crowns of their heads were elongated and of all sorts of shapes into which the courses of the soul were crushed by reason of disuse And this was the reason why they were created quadrupeds and polypods God gave the more senseless of them the more support that they might be more attracted to the earth And the most foolish of them who trail their bodies entirely upon the ground and have no longer any need of feet he made without feet to crawl upon the earth The fourth class were the inhabitants of the water these were made out of the most entirely senseless and ignorant of all whom the transformers did not think any longer worthy of pure respiration because they possessed a soul which was made impure by all sorts of transgression and instead of the subtle and pure medium of air they gave them the deep and muddy sea to be their element of respiration and hence arose the race of fishes and oysters and other aquatic animals which have received the most remote habitations as a punishment of their outlandish ignorance These are the laws by which animals pass into one another now as ever changing as they lose or gain wisdom and folly We may now say that our discourse about the nature of the universe has an end The world has received animals mortal and immortal and is fulfilled with them and has become a visible animal containing the visible acirceurordquo the sensible God who is the image of the intellectual the greatest best fairest most perfect acirceurordquo the one only begotten heaven

Plato Timaeus 89a-- I have often remarked that there are three kinds of soul located within us having each of them motions and I must now repeat in the fewest words possible that one part if remaining inactive and ceasing from its natural motion must necessarily become very weak but that which is trained and exercised very strong Wherefore we should take care that the movements of the different parts of the soul should be in due proportion And we should consider that God gave the sovereign part of the human soul to be the divinity of each one being that part which as we say dwells at the top of the body inasmuch as we are a plant not of an earthly but of a heavenly growth raises us from earth to our kindred who are in heaven And in this we say truly for the divine power suspended the head and root of us from that place where the generation of the soul first began and thus made the whole body upright When a man is always occupied with the cravings of desire and ambition and is eagerly striving to satisfy them all his thoughts must be mortal and as far as it is possible altogether to become such he must be mortal every whit because he has cherished his mortal part But he who has been earnest in the love of knowledge and of true wisdom and has exercised his intellect more than any other part of him must have thoughts immortal and divine if he attain truth and in so far as human nature is capable of sharing in immortality he must altogether be immortal and since he is ever cherishing the divine power and has the divinity within him in perfect order he will be perfectly happy Now there is only one way of taking care of things and this is to give to each the food and motion which are natural to it And the motions which are naturally akin to the divine principle within us are the thoughts and revolutions of the universe These each man should follow and correct the courses of the head which were corrupted at our birth and by learning the harmonies and revolutions of the universe should assimilate the thinking being to the thought renewing his original nature and having assimilated them should attain to that perfect life which the gods have set before mankind both for the present and the future Thus our original design of discoursing about the universe down to the creation of man is nearly completed A brief mention may be made of the generation of other animals so far as the subject admits of brevity in this manner our argument will best attain a due proportion On the subject of animals then the following remarks may be offered Of the men who came into the world those who were cowards or led unrighteous lives may with reason be supposed to have changed into the nature of women in the second generation And this was the reason why at that time the gods created in us the desire of sexual intercourse contriving in man one animated substance and in woman another which they formed respectively in the following manner The outlet for drink by which liquids pass through the lung under the kidneys and into the bladder which receives then by the pressure of the air emits them was so fashioned by them as to penetrate also into the body of the marrow which passes from the head along the neck and through the back and which in the preceding discourse we have named the seed And the seed having life and becoming endowed with respiration produces in that part in which it respires a lively desire of emission and thus creates in us the love of procreation Wherefore also in men the organ of generation becoming rebellious and masterful like an animal disobedient to reason and maddened with the sting of lust seeks to gain absolute sway and the same is the case with the so-called womb or matrix of women the animal within them is desirous of procreating children and when remaining unfruitful long beyond its proper time gets discontented and angry and wandering in every direction through the body closes up the passages of the breath and by obstructing respiration drives them to extremity causing all varieties of disease until at length the desire and love of the man and the woman bringing them together and as it were plucking the fruit from the tree sow in the womb as in a field animals unseen by reason of their smallness and without

III Timaeus

form these again are separated and matured within they are then finally brought out into the light and thus the generation of animals is completed Thus were created women and the female sex in general But the race of birds was created out of innocent light-minded men who although their minds were directed toward heaven imagined in their simplicity that the clearest demonstration of the things above was to be obtained by sight these were remodelled and transformed into birds and they grew feathers instead of hair The race of wild pedestrian animals again came from those who had no philosophy in any of their thoughts and never considered at all about the nature of the heavens because they had ceased to use the courses of the head but followed the guidance of those parts of the soul which are in the breast In consequence of these habits of theirs they had their front-legs and their heads resting upon the earth to which they were drawn by natural affinity and the crowns of their heads were elongated and of all sorts of shapes into which the courses of the soul were crushed by reason of disuse And this was the reason why they were created quadrupeds and polypods God gave the more senseless of them the more support that they might be more attracted to the earth And the most foolish of them who trail their bodies entirely upon the ground and have no longer any need of feet he made without feet to crawl upon the earth The fourth class were the inhabitants of the water these were made out of the most entirely senseless and ignorant of all whom the transformers did not think any longer worthy of pure respiration because they possessed a soul which was made impure by all sorts of transgression and instead of the subtle and pure medium of air they gave them the deep and muddy sea to be their element of respiration and hence arose the race of fishes and oysters and other aquatic animals which have received the most remote habitations as a punishment of their outlandish ignorance These are the laws by which animals pass into one another now as ever changing as they lose or gain wisdom and folly We may now say that our discourse about the nature of the universe has an end The world has received animals mortal and immortal and is fulfilled with them and has become a visible animal containing the visible acirceurordquo the sensible God who is the image of the intellectual the greatest best fairest most perfect acirceurordquo the one only begotten heaven

form these again are separated and matured within they are then finally brought out into the light and thus the generation of animals is completed Thus were created women and the female sex in general But the race of birds was created out of innocent light-minded men who although their minds were directed toward heaven imagined in their simplicity that the clearest demonstration of the things above was to be obtained by sight these were remodelled and transformed into birds and they grew feathers instead of hair The race of wild pedestrian animals again came from those who had no philosophy in any of their thoughts and never considered at all about the nature of the heavens because they had ceased to use the courses of the head but followed the guidance of those parts of the soul which are in the breast In consequence of these habits of theirs they had their front-legs and their heads resting upon the earth to which they were drawn by natural affinity and the crowns of their heads were elongated and of all sorts of shapes into which the courses of the soul were crushed by reason of disuse And this was the reason why they were created quadrupeds and polypods God gave the more senseless of them the more support that they might be more attracted to the earth And the most foolish of them who trail their bodies entirely upon the ground and have no longer any need of feet he made without feet to crawl upon the earth The fourth class were the inhabitants of the water these were made out of the most entirely senseless and ignorant of all whom the transformers did not think any longer worthy of pure respiration because they possessed a soul which was made impure by all sorts of transgression and instead of the subtle and pure medium of air they gave them the deep and muddy sea to be their element of respiration and hence arose the race of fishes and oysters and other aquatic animals which have received the most remote habitations as a punishment of their outlandish ignorance These are the laws by which animals pass into one another now as ever changing as they lose or gain wisdom and folly We may now say that our discourse about the nature of the universe has an end The world has received animals mortal and immortal and is fulfilled with them and has become a visible animal containing the visible acirceurordquo the sensible God who is the image of the intellectual the greatest best fairest most perfect acirceurordquo the one only begotten heaven