plants ch. 36.3-36.4, 38.1,39.1-39.3. occurs in cells near tips of the roots epidermal...
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Plantsch. 36.3-36.4, 38.1,39.1-39.3
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Occurs in cells near tips of the rootsEpidermal cells--permeable to water
Differentiate into root hairs--modified cells that do most of absorbing water/soil solution
Absorption of Water and Minerals
Epidermal cell
http://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=The+Cohesion-Tension+Hypothesis&oe=UTF-8&um=1&ie=UTF-8&hl=en&tbm=isch&source=og&sa=N&tab=wi&ei=fFyDUfPLHqOhiAKe24GACQ&biw=1330&bih=683&sei=flyDUb-qCuaniQKUq4DoDg#um=1&client=safari&rls=en&hl=en&tbm=isch&q=epidermal+cells+of+leaves&revid=1976309581&sa=X&ei=l1yDUYLTA-OtiQKG4oH4CQ&ved=0CGcQgxY&bav=on.2,or.r_qf.&bvm=bv.45960087,d.cGE&fp=
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Water and minerals from soil cannot be transported to the rest of the plant until enters the xylem
Endodermis--innermost layer of cells in root cortex Last checkpoint for selective passage of minerals transports needed minerals from soil into the xylem and
keeps unwanted substances out
Casparian strip--barrier to minerals that reach endodermis via apoplast (free diffusional space outside the plasma membrane)
Transporting Water and Minerals
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Xylem Sap- the water and dissolved minerals in the xylem Gets transported long
distance by bulk flow to the veins that branch throughout each leaf
Transpiration- the loss of water vapor from leaves and other aerial parts of the plant If transpired water is not
replaced by water from the roots, the leaves will wilt, and the plant will die
Bulk Flow Transport in the Xylem
http://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=xylem+sap&oe=UTF-8&um=1&ie=UTF-8&hl=en&tbm=isch&source=og&sa=N&tab=wi&ei=yFmDUeDtG4qhiQKIvYDwBw&biw=1330&bih=683&sei=ylmDUeutJIq5iwL-ooCwCg#imgrc=vY_yafzF4jpQGM%3A%3Bcuvr97dWukOVCM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.bio.miami.edu%252Fdana%252Fpix%252Fxylem_sap_ascent.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.bio.miami.edu%252Fdana%252F226%252F226F09_10.html%3B500%3B549
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At night, root cells continue actively pumping mineral ions into the xylem and the Casparian strip prevents the ions from leaking back into the soil
The accumulation of water lowers the water potential
Root pressure is generated-- a push of xylem sap
Guttation- appearance of water drops that can be seen in the morning on the tips of plants NOT DEW
Pushing Xylem Sap: Root Pressure
Guttation
http://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=xylem+sap&oe=UTF-8&um=1&ie=UTF-8&hl=en&tbm=isch&source=og&sa=N&tab=wi&ei=yFmDUeDtG4qhiQKIvYDwBw&biw=1330&bih=683&sei=ylmDUeutJIq5iwL-ooCwCg#um=1&client=safari&rls=en&hl=en&tbm=isch&sa=1&q=guttation+in+plants&oq=guttation+in+plants&gs_l=img.3..
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The Cohesion-Tension Hypothesis States that transpiration provides the pull for the ascent of
xylem sap The cohesion of water molecules transmits this pull along the
entire length of the xylemNegative pressure potential (causes water to move upward
through the xylem) develops on the surface of mesophyll cell walls
Pulling Xylem Sap
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This transpirational pull relies on: Adhesion--attraction between H2O and other polar
substances Cohesion--attraction between molecules of the same
substance Surface Tension Adhesion/cohesion facilitate the transport of water by
bulk flow
Pulling Xylem Sap
http://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=transpirational+pull&oe=UTF-8&um=1&ie=UTF-8&hl=en&tbm=
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Leaves have high surface-to-volume ratios Positive effect: enhances light absorption Negative effect: increase water loss by way of stomata
Stomata 95% of water lost is through stomata Amount of water loss depends on the number of stomata
and the size of their pores
Under genetic and environmental control Ex. Desert plants have a lower stomatal density than
marsh plants
Rate of Transpiration
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Guard cells take in water from neighboring cells and become more turgid As a result, increases the size of the pore between the guard
cellsWhen guard cells lose water, become flaccid and the pore
closesThis change in turgor pressure relies on the absorption and
loss of K+
Stomatal Opening and Closing
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Xerophytes- plants adopted to dry environments Plants in the desert Stomata stay open and take in more CO2 Don’t dry out because complete life cycle
during the rainy season Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM)-
specialized form of photosynthesis Takes in CO2 at night, stomata closed during
the day
Xerophytes
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Ch. 38.1Angiosperm Reproduction
http://0.static.wix.com/media/8d4b4e2fa8ea1029b0255f379602d8ce.wix_mp_1024
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Flower Structure and Function
Flowers : contain four whorls of modified leaves:
sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels----which attach to a part of a stem called the receptacle.
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Flower Structure and Function
http://www.shaneeubanks.com/images/016_flower.jpg
• Sepals enclose and protect the unopened floral bud.
• Petals are generally more brightly colored and may attract pollinators
• Stamens consist of a filament and an anther, which contains pollen sacs (microsporangia).
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http://www.esu.edu/~milewski/intro_biol_two/lab_3_seed_plts/images/30_07FlowerStructure-L.jpg
A carpel consists of a sticky stigma at the top of a slender style, which leads to an ovary.The ovary encloses one or more ovules A flower may have a single carpel or multiple fused carpels; either many be referred to as a pistil.
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Female Reproductive Organs
oThe pistil is the collective term for the carpel(s). oEach carpel includes an ovary-where the ovules are produced.oOvules are the female reproductive cells- the eggs.oA style-a tube on top of the ovary.oA stigma-which receives the pollen during fertilization.
https://d15mj6e6qmt1na.cloudfront.net/i/2515312/600.jpg
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Male Reproductive Organs
o Stamens are the male reproductive parts of the flower.
o A stamen consists of an anther- which produces pollen- and a filament.
o The pollen consists of male reproductive cells- that fertilize ovules.
http://mystudyexpress.com/12%20th%20science%20cbse/biology/1.%20REproduction/Img%20file/10.png
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Within each microsporangium (pollen sac): diploid cells called microsporocytes undergo
meiosis to form 4 haploid microspores. A microspore divides once by mitosis to produce
a tube cell and a generative cell, which moves into the tube cell.
The spore wall surrounding the cells thickens into the sculptured coat of the pollen grain.
After the pollen grain lands on the receptive stigma, the tube cell begins to form the pollen tube.
The generative cell divides to form two sperm cells.
The pollen tube releases the sperm cells near the female gametophyte.
Development of Male Gametophyte
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http://home.sandiego.edu/~gmorse/2009BIOL221/Study_guide2/ang_male_gam.jpg
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Female Fertilization There are many variations in the development of
the female gametophyte: also called an embryo sac.
Two integuments surround each megasporangium except at the micropyle.
The megasporocyte in the megasporangium of an ovule undergoes meiosis to form four haploid megaspores, only one of which survives.
This megaspore grows and divides by mitosis three times, forming the female gametophyte which typically consists of eight nuclei contained in
seven cells
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Female Fertilization continued
At the micropylar end of the embryo sac an egg cell is lodged between two cells
called synergids, which help attract the pollen tube, three antipodal cells are at the other
end and two nuclei called polar nuclei are in
a large central cell.
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Female Male
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Double Fertilization
In double fertilization, one sperms fertilizes the egg to from the zygote, and the other combines with the polar nuclei ton from a triploid nucleus, which will develop into a food-storing tissue called the endosperm.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gq8NWh98wQs
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Double Fertilization
http://25.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_lllb32Jvu41qktyf1o1_r1_500.png
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Signal transduction, Signal reception, and
Signal response:Chapter 39.1
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Signal Transduction
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• Signals are first detected by receptors • The receptor involved in de-etiolation is a type of phytochrome (a
member of a class of photoreceptors that is located in the cytoplasm rather than on the membrane)
Reception
https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&hl=en&tbm=isch&tbs=simg:CAQSZxplCxCo1NgEGgQICQgLDAsQsIynCBo8CjoIARIU1Ab4BekDoQf2AoQG_1wLkBfAF_1gIaIN49NnbbwBe1oEnziJ-5R52nVctxDM14jMkrdmxkiQlmDAsQjq7-CBoKCggIARIEQMQO3Aw&ei=kXB_UaX1H4mkigKs0YAg&ved=0CCkQwg4&biw=1024&bih=705#imgrc=_YxOZJBMPCUegM%3A%3BvI8UDMMWvvvUbM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fclassconnection.s3.amazonaws.com%252F590%252Fflashcards%252F699456%252Fjpg%252Funtitled.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.studyblue.com%252Fnotes%252Fnote%252Fn%252Fbio-test-3%252Fdeck%252F38238%3B411%3B259
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• Receptors can be sensitive to very weak environmental or chemical signals
• The transduction of these extremely weak signals involves second messengers (small molecules and ions in the cell that amplify the signal and transfer it from the receptor to other proteins that carry out the response)
• Changes in cytosolic Ca2+ levels plays an important role in phytochrome signal transduction
• the concentration of Ca2+ is naturally very low at about 10-7 M, but as a result of phytochrome activation, Ca2+ channels open causing a transient 100-fold increase in cytosolic Ca2+ levels
• In response to light, phytochrome undergoes a change in shape that leads to the activation of guanylyl cyclase (an enzyme that produces the second messenger cyclic GMP)
• Both Ca2+ and cGMP must be produced by a complete de-etiolation response
Transduction
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Response
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• Many second messengers like cGMP and Ca2+ activate protein kinases directly
• Often, one protein kinase will phosphorylate another protein kinase, which then phosphorylates another and so on• These kinase cascades may link initial stimuli to
responses at the level of gene expression
Post-Translational Modification of Preexisting Proteins
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• In phytochrome-induced de-etiolatin, several transcription factors are activated by phosphorylation in response to the appropriate light conditions.
• The activation of these transcription factors depends on their phosphorylation by protein kinases activated by cGMP or Ca2+
Transcriptional Regulation
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• The types of proteins that are either activated by phosphorylation or newly transcribed during the de-etiolatin process are enzymes that function in photosynthesis directly—others are enzymes involved in supplying the chemical precursors necessary for chlorophyll production.
De-Etiolation (“Greening”) Proteins
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PLANTS!!! Ch. 39.2
Plant hormones help:• coordinate growth development• and responses to stimuli• Plant biologist prefer the broader term plant growth
regulator• Describe organic compounds (natural or synthetic)
that modify or control one or more specific physiological processes within plant
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Tropisms
The growth of plant towards/away from a stimulus• Thigmotropisms (touch)• Gravitropisms/geotropsism (gravity)• Phototropisms (light)
• A growth towards a stimulus is a postive tropism• A growth away from a stimulus is a negative
tropism
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Auxin (IAA)• Function:• Stimulates stem elongation• Promotes formation of lateral and
aventitious roots• Regulates development of fruit• Enhacces apical dominance• Functions in photoropism and
gravitropism• Promotes vascular differentiation• Retards leaf abscission http://www.google.com/search?
q=auxins&client=safari&rls=en&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=IfZ9Ue-gBoKQiALDrYGwCQ&ved=0CEIQsAQ&biw=1231&bih=668#imgrc=kcrSXBEbiM_bQM%3A%3BXBqG6dijiwOIUM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fscienceaid.co.uk%252Fbiology%252Fplants%252Fimages%252Fphototropism.png%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fscienceaid.co.uk%252Fbiology%252Fplants%252Fplantgrowth.html%3B442%3B293
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Cytokinins• Functions• Regulate cell division in shoots
and roots• Modify apical dominance and
promote lateral bu growth• Promote movement of
nutrients into sink tissues• Stimulate seed germination• Delay leaf senescence (aging)
and apoptosishttp://www.google.com/search?q=cytokinins+in+plants&client=safari&rls=en&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=kfZ9UZW_Gua2igLxhICACQ&ved=0CEcQsAQ&biw=1231&bih=668#imgrc=IUSehNUt9ZmedM%3A%3B1six318kh9--7M%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.rikenresearch.riken.jp%252Fimages%252Ffigures%252Fhi_3779.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.rikenresearch.riken.jp%252Feng%252Ffrontline%252F5836.html%3B449%3B430
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Gibberellins
• Functions• Stimulate stem elongation, pollen development, pollen
tube growth, fruit growth and seed development and germination• Regulate sex determination and the transition from juvenile
to adult phases
http://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=gibberellins&bav=on.2,or.r_qf.&bvm=bv.45645796,d.cGE&biw=1231&bih=668&um=1&ie=UTF-8&hl=en&tbm=isch&source=og&sa=N&tab=wi&ei=A_d9UYP_KsjmigKgh4HQBg#imgrc=4hmgwhxstHLrxM%3A%3BNCPyQEOkVOvQLM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.biyolojiegitim.yyu.edu.tr%252Fk%252FGib%252Fimages%252FGibberellin_jpg.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fcatherine-wwwmyblog.blogspot.com%252F2011%252F04%252Fintroduction.html%3B457%3B262
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Brassinosteriods• Similar to cholesterol and sex
hormones of animals• Functions• Promote cell expansion and cell
division in shoots• Promote root growth at low
concentrations• Inhibit root growth at high
concentrations• Promote xylem differentiation
and inhibit pholem differentiation
• Promote seed germination and pollen tube elongation
http://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=brassinosteroids&bav=on.2,or.r_qf.&bvm=bv.45645796,d.cGE&biw=1231&bih=668&um=1&ie=UTF-8&hl=en&tbm=isch&source=og&sa=N&tab=wi&ei=iPd9Ua71K-S7iwK6oYD4CQ#imgrc=kyIzrjBD9rNnfM%3A%3BiNHRellRjHGNiM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.ou.edu%252Fcas%252Fbotany-micro%252Ffaculty%252Fpictures%252Fli-1.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.ou.edu%252Fcas%252Fbotany-micro%252Ffaculty%252Fli.html%3B827%3B611
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Abscisic Acid (ABA)
• Functions• Inhibits growth• Promotes stomatal closure during drought stress• Promotes seed dormanc and inhibits early germination• Promotes leaf senescence• Promotes desiccation tolerance
http://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=abscisic+acid&bav=on.2,or.r_qf.&bvm=bv.45645796,d.cGE&biw=1231&bih=668&um=1&ie=UTF-8&hl=en&tbm=isch&source=og&sa=N&tab=wi&ei=Bvh9Uf-eN4S6iwLWiYCgDQ#imgrc=3BvTzS-n7BjNaM%3A%3BjuDpDU0mv3KUuM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fusers.rcn.com%252Fjkimball.ma.ultranet%252FBiologyPages%252FA%252FABA.gif%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fusers.rcn.com%252Fjkimball.ma.ultranet%252FBiologyPages%252FA%252FABA.html%3B197%3B123
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Strigolactones
• Functions• Promote seed germination• Control apical dominance• The attraction of mycorrihizal fungi to the root
http://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=strigolactones&oe=UTF-8&um=1&ie=UTF-8&hl=en&tbm=isch&source=og&sa=N&tab=wi&ei=ivh9UbnFCsSQiALHiICwBA&biw=1231&bih=668&sei=jfh9UYapFc3BiwLPloCICQ#imgrc=bDgeL_te5HRsPM%3A%3BWCEY_yT9hl_jfM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fusers.rcn.com%252Fjkimball.ma.ultranet%252FBiologyPages%252FS%252Fstrigolactone.png%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fusers.rcn.com%252Fjkimball.ma.ultranet%252FBiologyPages%252FS%252FStrigolactones.html%3B265%3B177
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Ethylene• Functions• Promotes ripening of many
types of fruit, leaf abscission and the triple in seedlings (inhibition of stem elongation, promotion of lateral expansion and horizontal growth)
• Enhances the rate of aging • Promotes root and root hair
formation• Promotes flowering in the
pinapple family
http://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=ethylene&oe=UTF-8&um=1&ie=UTF-8&hl=en&tbm=isch&source=og&sa=N&tab=wi&ei=0fh9UZTXMa_siwKjq4GoAw&biw=1231&bih=668&sei=1Ph9UaLOEaSNigKFkICAAg#um=1&client=safari&rls=en&hl=en&tbm=isch&sa=1&q=ethylene+functions&oq=ethylene+functions&gs_l=img.3..0i24j0i10i24.47240.52837.0.52970.24.18.4.0.0.1.230.1797.3j9j1.13.0...0.0...1c.1.11.img.g7xboFiHXho&bav=on.2,or.r_qf.&bvm=bv.45645796,d.cGE&fp=2a5ed73fbbf81680&biw=1231&bih=668&imgrc=BcrDTDJaYI6VUM%3A%3BpO8AiNHuTIg4AM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.qiagen.com%252Fgeneglobe%252Fstatic%252Fimages%252FPathways%252FEthylene%252520Signaling%252520in%252520Arabidopsis.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.qiagen.com%252Fproducts%252Fgenes%252520and%252520pathways%252FPathway%252520Details.aspx%253Fpwid%253D169%3B780%3B934
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Ethylene and the Triple Respone• If growing plant encounters and obstacle
in the soil (like a rock) and induces stress on the tip, the plant will produce ethylene, which will then control the triple response• The triple response enables the shoot to
avoid and obstacle• Ethylene production will decrease when
the plant is clear of the obstacle (unrestricted growth)
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Ethylene and leaf abscission
• Loss of leaves during autum helps prevent desiccation during seasonal peridos of climateic stress• A change in the ratio of ethylene to auxin controls
abscission • Aging leaf produces less auxin, making the cells of
abscission layer more sensitive to ethylene• Cause the cells to produce and enzyme that
digest the cellulose and other compents of the cell wall
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Responses to light are critical for plant success: Chapter 39.3
http://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=photomorphogenesis&oe=UTF-8&um=1&hl=en&biw=1330&bih=683&ie=UTF-8&tbm=isch&source=og&sa=N&tab=wi&ei=SVaDUZGaHciUiAK8yYHoBw#um=1&client=safari&rls=en&hl=en&tbm=isch&sa=1&q=
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Affect of light on plants
The effects of light on plant morphology are called photomorphogenesis
• Plants detect not only the presence of light but also its direction, intensity, and wavelength (color)
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A graph called an action spectrum depicts the relative effectiveness of different wavelengths of radiation in driving a particular process
Image source: Mastering Biology Textbook
Affect of light on plants
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Blue-Light Photoreceptors
• Blue light initiates a variety of responses in plants including:
• phototropism : the light-induced opening of stomata
• And the light-induced slowing of hypocotyl elongation that occurs when a seedling breaks ground
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There are three different types of pigments to detect blue light:
1. Cryptochromes—molecular relatives of DNA repair enzymes, are involved in blue-light induced inhibition of stem elongation (ex. When a seedling first emerges from soil)
2. Phototropin—a protein kinase involved in mediating phototropic curvatures
3. zeaxanthin—the major blue-light photoreceptor involved in blue-light mediated stomatal opening
Blue-Light Photoreceptors
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Phytochromes as Photoreceptors and seed germination
• Phytochromes regulate many plant responses to light• It has two identical subunits, each consisting of a
polypeptide component covalently bonded to a nonpolypeptide chomophore, the light absorbing part of the subunit
Image source: Mastering Biology Textbook
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Phytochromes and Shade Avoidance
Phytochrome system also provides the plant with information about the quality of light
The sensing mechanism enables plants to adapt to changes in light conditions
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Responses to Seasons
seed germination, flowering, and the onset and breaking of bud dormancy are all stages that occur at specific times of the year
The environmental stimulus that plants use most often to detect the time of year is the photoperiod, the relative lengths of night and day
A physiological response to photoperiod, such as flowering, is called photoperiodism
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Photoperiodism
Short-day plants require a light period shorter than a critical length to flower
Long-day plants generally flower in the late spring
Day-neutral plants are unaffected by photoperiod and lower when they reach a certain stage of maturity, regardless of day length
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Night Length
Researchers learned that flowering and other responses to photoperiod are actually controlled by night length, not day length
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Sources
Goldberg, Deborah M.S. Barron's AP Biology. 3rd ed. New York: Baron's Educational Series, 2013. Print.
Reece, Jane B., and Neil A. Campbell. Campbell Biology. 9th ed. Boston: Benjamin Cummings / Pearson Education, 2011. Print.