Plains are large, flat areas of land that have only small changes in elevation.

Often have thick, fertile soils

Coastal plains are found near the ocean.

Kansas is on an interior plain called the Great Plains.

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A plateau is a large, flat area of land that is higher than the surrounding land.

Edges rise steeply from land around them.

A mountain is a high, natural place on Earth.

Elevation can vary greatly between mountains.

There are 4 main types:FoldedUpwarpedFault-blockVolcanic

Formed from forces inside Earth that have pushed layers of land together, like a throw rug pushed against a wall.

The Appalachian Mountains are an example.

Blocks of Earth’s crust are pushed up by forces inside Earth.

Examples: Adirondacks in New York, Southern Rockies, and the Black Hills of S. Dakota.

Made of huge, tilted blocks of rock separated from surrounding rock by faults.

Examples: Grand Tetons of Wyoming and Sierra Nevada of California

Form when molten material reaches the surface of Earth through a weak area in the crust.

Molten material can gradually build up into a mountain shape.

Examples: Mount Rainier in Washington, Mount Shasta in California, Mauna Loa in Hawaii

A canyon is a deep valley with very steep sides—often carved from Earth by a river.

Grand Canyon, Arizona is an example of a very large canyon.

A mesa is a land formation with a flat area on top and steep walls - usually occurring in dry areas.

Smaller than a plateau. This one is in Arizona.

Sea Level is the average height, or elevation of where the sea surface meets the land.

A valley is a low place between mountains.

A glacier is a slow-moving river of ice.There are valley glaciers and continental

glaciers. Some glaciers even float in the ocean.

To pinpoint a location on Earth, mapmakers use a series of gridlines—or coordinates.

These coordinates are made up of: Lines of latitude—lines that run around the

Earth, parallel to the equator.Lines of longitude—lines that run from

pole to pole. The lines are divided by degrees.There are 360 degrees in a circle (Earth).Each degree is divided into 60 minutes.Each minute is divided into 60 seconds.

Used to measure distances north and south in degrees

The equator divides the earth into a northern and southern half or hemisphere.

Lines of latitude start at the equator and go north to the north pole (¼ of the way around the earth) to 90 degrees.

Lines also go south of the equator to the south pole (also ¼ of the way around the earth) to 90 degrees.

90°N

0°

90°S

Begins at the prime meridian (0 degrees), which cuts pole-to-pole through Greenwich, England

Points west of Greenwich are measured from 0 to 180 degrees to the other side of Earth going west.

Points east of Greenwich are measured from 0 to 180 degrees to the other side of Earth going east.

There are 360 degrees in a circle, so both halves add up to 360.

0°

The prime meridian does not circle Earth. It goes from pole-to-pole through Greenwich England, but does not go from pole-to-pole on the other side.

The other side of the earth is 180 degrees.The equator DOES circle Earth—all the way around

its “belly.”The lines of latitude measure north and south and

are like rungs of a ladder (lat-itude, lad-der).

The earth is like a big clock. But it’s a 24-hour clock, not a 12-hour clock!

That’s because each day takes 24 HOURS.There are 24 time zones around the world, which

divide the earth into a clock.The International Date Line is where the Earth-clock

starts each new day, and the rest of the world follows.The IDL is really close to the 180 degree line of

longitude.Time zones are not perfectly arranged. People have

adjusted them somewhat to suit themselves. Go figure!

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Earth rotates to the

east.

Maps help you tell where you are and where you are going.

Map projections are made when points and lines on a globe’s surface are transferred onto paper. All flat maps have some type of distortion.

There are 3 types of map projectionsMercator ProjectionRobinson ProjectionConic Projection

Used mainly on shipsAdvantages of using this kind of map:

Shows correct shapes of continents.Disadvantages:

Areas of continents are distorted.Lines of longitude appear parallel (when they

really aren’t). This makes the poles appear larger.

Greenland looks larger than S. America (which it is not).

Shows accurate continent shapes and more land areas

Lines of latitude are parallel (as they should be).

Lines of longitude are curved (as they should be).

Less distortion near poles.

Road maps and weather maps are conic projections.

Used to produce maps of small areasMade by projecting points and lines

from a globe onto a cone.

Show the changes in elevation of Earth’s surface.Used by land developers, hikers, and farmers to see

how they need to work with the rise and fall of the land

Use connected lines to show changes in elevation.The closer the lines, the steeper the slopes.Lines cannot cross one another because one

continuous line is always at the same elevation.

Map Scale—the relationship between the distances on the map and real distances on Earth’s surface

Map Legend—explains what the symbols used on the map mean.

Compass or compass rose—shows the directions on the map. North is usually toward the top.

Legend

Scale

CompassRose

Show cross sections of Earth so we can visualize what is under the surfaceGeologists determine what

is below the

surface by

drilling into

rock and soil

to get core

samples

Google Earth is a good example of a 3-D map.

Satellites circle Earth collecting imagery and other datafor weatherfor climate changefor spyingfor geologic changesfor mapmaking

Stands for Global Positioning SystemUses at least 3 satellites (out of 24) to

triangulate your location.Triangulation involves pinpointing the

exact location of where the 3 satellites’ data (or more) intersect one another.

http://videos.howstuffworks.com/howstuffworks/38-how-gps-works-video.htm

This formation is called a “tor.”

Weathering is a process that breaks down rock into smaller pieces.

Two different types of weathering:MechanicalChemical

Mechanical weathering occurs when rocks are broken apart by physical processes.Something has to hit, grind, or crack rock.Those things can be

Plants and animalsIce WedgingChuck Norris

Plant roots are very strong and can push rocks apart.

Animals dig and burrow, loosening sediments and bringing them to the surface to weather more.

Tiny living organisms also help break down rock.

Ice wedging occurs in climates where water enters cracks and freezes.Water expands when it freezes, pushing rock apart.This process repeats itself, the crack widens, and

the rock eventually breaks apart.

As rocks break apart into smaller pieces, more surfaces are exposed to weathering.

The inside of the rock is now also exposed to weathering, so weathering will occur faster.

Chemical weathering occurs when chemicals break down rock or change the rock into different minerals.

These chemicals can come fromNatural acidsPlant acidsOxygen

Water can chemically react with carbon dioxide and create a weak acid called “carbonic acid”—the same acid found in many soft drinks.

This acid reacts with rock that contains calcite, like limestone, and dissolves it.

Other rocks are also affected.

Caves form when acidic groundwater dissolves underground limestone.Stalactites can form

on cave ceilings from dripping dissolved rock.

Stalagmites can form on the floor when the drips hit

Plant roots and decaying plants give off acids that can dissolve rock.

Plants thrive on the broken down rock (new soil) and take the nutrients into their roots.

Oxidation is the process of oxygen chemically combining with other matter to change it.

Rust is caused by oxidation—oxygen combining with iron.Many rocks contain

iron and will turn

reddish through

oxidation. The

reddish material

is softer and

eventually crumbles

—like rust.

Climate is the pattern of weather in an area over many years.

Warm, wet climates cause weathering to happen more quickly.Chemical reactions happen faster with

water and heat. Cold, dry climates slow weathering down.

Soft rocks break down easier in wet climates.LimestoneMarble

Hard rocks don’t allow water to soak in as much, so they are harder to weather in wet climates.GraniteBasalt

Five things affect soil formation:ClimateTypes of parent rockSlope of landTypes of vegetation in the areaAmount of time rock has been

weathering

Soil is a mixture of weathered rock, decayed organic matter, mineral bits, water, and air.Can take thousands of years to form Decayed organic matter turns into nutrient

rich material called humus.http://www.ucopenaccess.org/courses/

APEnvSci/course%20files/multimedia/lesson17/animations/2c_soil_formation.html

Make-up of different layers of soilHorizon O – top organic

layer—humus.Horizon A—top layer of

soil.Fertile layer with more

humus and less rock and mineral particles than other soil horizons

Horizon B – middle soil layerContains less

humus and is lighter in color than A horizon

Minerals travel from A horizon to B horizon in a process called leaching.

Bottom layerHas very little

organic matter and is not strongly affected by leaching

Contains rock – the parent material of the soil

Soil Formation Animation