pineapple seminar taiwan
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World Culture of World Culture of PineapplePineapple
Practices and ProblemsPractices and Problems
Dr. Duane P. BartholomewProfessor, University of Hawaii
Chair, Pineapple Working Group of ISHSVice Chair, Section on Tropical and Subtropical Crops, ISHS
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World Culture of PineappleWorld Culture of Pineapple
Pineapple origins Areas of production
Major producing countries Principle cultivars
Physiology and environment, effects and interactions
Overview of cultural practices Problems
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Pineapple Origins Pineapple Origins
Family Bromeliaceae Ananas comosus varcomosus
Probable origin Northern Brazil,
Colombia, Guyana, Venezuela
Tropical plant Soil adaptation
Low pH High Al and Mn
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Pineapple OriginsPineapple Origins
Ancestors
Amerindian selections
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Areas of ProductionAreas of Production
Where produced Between 30 N and S latitude Produced in at least 40 countries in tropics
Central and South America (Brazil, Costa Rica, Mexico, Ecuador, etc.)
Africa (Nigeria, Kenya, Cote dIvoire, Ghana, South Africa)
Asia (China, Indonesia, India) Australia Island nations (Philippines, Taiwan, Okinawa, Sri
Lanka, Caribbean, Pacific Islands, Mauritius, etc.)
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Areas of Production Areas of Production -- Fresh FruitFresh Fruit
Most countries produce pineapple for in-country fresh consumption
Major producers (country and rank) Brazil (#1 in total production; small export
industry) Costa Rica (#1 in fruit for export) Ecuador (mostly fruit for export) China (local consumption) Taiwan (local consumption and export)
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Areas of Production Areas of Production -- ProcessingProcessing
Common packs Slices, chunks, tidbits, crush,
juice Major producers
Thailand Rank #2 in world Thousands of small farms
Philippines Rank #3 Two large plantations
Indonesia Largest plantation in world Rank #3 in processing
Kenya Singapore Australia and South Africa
(small industries)
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Principle CultivarsPrinciple Cultivars
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Physiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and Environment Environmental factors affecting growth
Water 12 to 36 month crop Drought slows growth
Pineapple survives extreme drought
Irrigation or uniform rainfall sustains growth Solar radiation
Less limiting than temperature Temperature
Multiple important effects
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Physiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and Environment
Photosynthesis (Ps) by pineapple Ps is relatively insensitive to temperature Water stress reduces growth before Ps declines CO2 is fixed by Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) Four phases recognized
I, CO2 fixed at night into malic acid II, CO2 fixed in morning III, stomata closed, C reduction by C3 pathway IV, CO2 fixation by C3 pathway
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Physiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and Environment
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Physiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and Environment
Respiration (R) Maintains existing tissue Provides energy and skeletons for biosynthesis,
growth Increases rapidly with increasing temperature
More sensitive than photosynthesis
Net assimilation rate (NAR, g kg-1 day-1) Ps produces sugars R consumes sugars R mainly sensitive to temperature NAR also sensitive to temperature
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Physiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and Environment
T (C)(Day/Night)
Day CO2mol/m2
(D leaf)
Night CO2mol/m2
(D leaf)
Total CO2mol/m2
(D leaf)
RGRg kg-1 d-1
(Plant)
30/20 57.0 250.1 307.1 7.2
30/25 59.9 130.7 190.6 6.6
35/25 29.1 179.0 208.1 6.9
Data of Zhu et al., 1999
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Physiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and Environment
Adaptation to environment Little written about adaptation of cultivars Nothing published about clones Does adaptation matter?
Pineapple grown from ~30 N to ~30 S Latitude Temperature range
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Physiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and Environment
Average temperature effects on growth South Africa (30 S Lat; cold)
200 g shoot, 14+ months to 4.5 pound plant Hawaii (20 N Lat; moderate)
200 g shoot, 10 months to 4.5 pound plant Thailand, Ghana, Indonesia (5 6 N (S) Lat;
hot, humid) 200 g slip, 7 months to 4.5 pound plant
Large variation in plant quality
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Physiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and Environment
~80% of plant weight is leaves Leaf expansion rate
Slower in cool than in hot environments Leaf dry matter content
Higher in cool than in hot environments. Stem dry matter content
Increases with plant age/size Higher in cool than in hot environments
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Physiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and Environment Sensitivity to forced flowering (ethylene)
Low Smooth Cayenne (SC) Sensitivity increases, with limits, with plant size
High(er) 73-114 (MD-2), Queen, Singapore Spanish
Cultural practices help minimize effects of environment SC difficult to force in hot, humid tropics
Imposing stress (reduced N) increases sensitivity Sensitive cultivars flower precociously in cool
environments Promoting rapid growth reduces sensitivity
High N, optimum irrigation
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Physiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and Environment
81 days growth at day/night T
30/20 30/30
Fruit F wt., g 392 270**
Crown F wt., g 60.2 214.1**
Stem D wt., g 82.3 44.6**
Stem F wt., g 343.3 314.9
Leaf F wt., g 2239.9 2136.7**Significantly different at 0.01 levelMin & Bartholomew, 1995
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Physiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and Environment
Harvest index calculated from plant fresh weight at forcing and fruit weight at harvest. Fig. 6.12, Hepton, 2003
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Physiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and Environment
0.40.50.60.70.80.91.01.1
2 4 6 8 10 12
Stem DM as % plant DM at force
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F
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Effect of stem dry-matter content on harvest index calculated from plant freshweight at forcing and fruit weight at harvest. Hepton et al., 1993.
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Physiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and Environment
Day from forcing of SC to harvest 130 (Ghana) to ~300 (South Africa)
Slip and sucker development (ratooning) Forcing breaks apical dominance Good ratoons
Suckers begin to develop before harvest in cool environments (Hawaii, Queensland, South Africa)
Ratooning difficult Suckers begin to develop after harvest in hot environments
(Thailand, Indonesia) Plants lack reserves; fruit strongest sink for CH2O Sucker development is erratic
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Physiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and Environment
Fruit quality Total soluble solids (Brix) Acidity Flavors
Fruit diseases/disorders No time
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Physiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and Environment
Zhu, Bartholomew and Goldstein, 2005
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Physiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentEffects of CAM on water useEffects of CAM on water use
CAM plants use water very efficiently
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Cultural Practices Cultural Practices -- Land PreparationLand Preparation
Clearing Knock down and desiccate old
pineapple plants Plow, disc, harrow, etc.
Cameco Equipment Co.
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Cultural Practices Cultural Practices -- Land PreparationLand Preparation
Subsoil to break up hard pan
Other tillage Produce friable
planting bed
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Cultural Practices Cultural Practices -- Land PreparationLand Preparation
Bed formation Improves drainage Improve aeration where water table high Marks plant location
Courtesy of Graham Petty
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Cultural Practices Cultural Practices -- Land PreparationLand Preparation
Mulching Mostly used with fumigation
Retains fumigant Controls weeds Raises soil temperature
Important effect in cool environments Improves moisture distribution Determine plant spacing (note marks) Expensive
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Cultural Practices Cultural Practices -- Land PreparationLand Preparation
Broadcast amendments Manure Lime (for Ca and to adjust pH) Phosphorus (rock phosphate or soluble forms)
Fumigation Used for nematode control
Pre-plant fertilization Band N, K and P if not broadcast
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Cultural Practices Cultural Practices -- PlantingPlanting
Vegatativepropagation Seed fragile Tons/ha required
200 g tops 13.2 mT ha-1 @
66,000 plants ha-1
15 mT ha-1 @ 75,000 plants ha-1
Courtesy of Graham Petty
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Cultural Practices Cultural Practices PlantingPlanting
Vegetative propagation Quality deteriorates
quickly with storage
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Cultural Practices Cultural Practices PlantingPlanting
Grading for quality Weight or length Big = faster growth
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Cultural Cultural Practices Practices
PlantingPlanting Uniformity
Treat to control pests and diseases
Plant same types together
Good soil-seed piece contact
Uniformity improves yield Uniform plant size Uniform forcing Uniform fruit maturation
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Cultural Practices Cultural Practices Fertilization & Fertilization & Pest/Disease ControlPest/Disease Control
Post-plant spraying Plant nutrients (foliar)
N, Fe Mg, P, Zn, B
Herbicides Insecticides
Mealy bugs Fungicides
Phytophthora rots Growth regulators
Forcing De-greening
Cameco Equipment Co.
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Tractor or trailer sprayers used on small farms in South Africa, and Australia
Hand spraying done in Ghana
Courtesy of Graham Petty
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Cultural Practices Cultural Practices Water managementWater management
Drip irrigation Water (~1.25 cm /week) Nutrients Pesticides
Traveling gun Thailand, South Africa,
Indonesia
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Cultural Practices Cultural Practices HarvestingHarvesting
Hand harvesting Fruits picked into baskets Hand-carried to field edge Trucked to processing plant
or packing shed
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Cultural Practices Cultural Practices HarvestingHarvesting Harvesting aid Used on smaller farms
Courtesy of Graham Petty
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Cameco Equipment Co.
Cultural Practices Cultural Practices HarvestingHarvesting
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Cultural Practices Cultural Practices Cropping cycleCropping cycle
Plant crop (mother plant crop) 12 to 24 months, depending on climate
Ratooning Shoots (suckers) that develop on mother
plant After flower induction in subtropics After harvest in tropics
~12 months for ratoon development
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Cultural Practices Cultural Practices Plant SpacingPlant Spacing
From planting to canopy closure No effect
From canopy closure to forcing Effect varies with planting density
Narrow spacing, growth rate declines sooner Effect varies with plant size at forcing
Large size at forcing requires more space
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Effects of spacing on plant dry weight.
Plantings 1, 2, and 3 were planted in June, August, and October 1989 and forced in September 1990. Data of Zhang and Bartholomew, 1997
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Effects of spacing on stem dry weight.
Plantings 1, 2, and 3 were planted in June, August, and October 1989 and forced in September 1990. Data of Zhang, 1992
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Spacing and Harvest IndexSpacing and Harvest Index
Harvest index declines as spacing decreases.
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Effects of Spacing on Fruit WeightEffects of Spacing on Fruit Weight
Closer spacing decreases average fruit weight
There is a consistent and predictable decrease in average fruit weight per plant as spacing decreases
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Plants ha-1
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SC 400N
SC 200N
SC Qld
Queen
Spanish
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Effects of Spacing on Fruit YieldEffects of Spacing on Fruit Yield
Closer spacing can increase yield
Minimum plant spacing 9 to 10
0
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10000 30000 50000 70000 90000 110000
Plants ha-1
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SC 200N
SC 400N
SC Qld
Queen
Spanish
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SpacingSpacing
Assumption target fruit weight is 5 pounds or 2.5 kg
As spacing decreases, plant size at forcing must be increased to compensate for decrease in average fruit weight Plant weight required to produce fruit of a given
weight increases as average temperature increases Subtropical Hawaii - 2.5 to 3.0 kg plant at forcing on average
produces a 2.5 kg fruit Tropical Ghana 4.0 to 4.5 kg plant at forcing on average
produces a 2.0 to 2.5 kg fruit (Golden Exotics, Personal communication)
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SpacingSpacing
Fresh fruit production Total yield probably most important
Processing Recovery in cannery most important Fruit size and fruit shape are important Total yield not the most important end result
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Effect of Spacing on SuckersEffect of Spacing on Suckers
Suckers per plant decline as spacing decreases
Data from Australia: Suckers per unit land area (ha, acre) Increase at wide spacing Decrease at narrow spacing Numbers normalize
Sucker development delayed at narrow spacing
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Effect of Spacing on SuckersEffect of Spacing on Suckers
Interaction between spacing and temperature Possibly greater delay in development with
warm temperatures but no data
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Problems Problems -- Pests and ControlPests and Control
NematodesNo. 1 or 2 problem world-wideLong-term cropPest population can build up regardless
of initial populationGreatest effect on ratoon cropsPost-plant nematicides (fenamiphos)
Applied through drip irrigation system Supports ratoon crop
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Problems Problems -- Pests and their controlPests and their control
Weeds Pre-plant herbicides commonly sprayed before
planting (after mulching in Hawaii) Hand weeding done to control spot problems (even in
Hawaii) Insects
Ants (farm and protect mealybugs) Controlled with treated baits
Grubs of chewing insects Controlled with soil-applied insecticides
Symphylids
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Problems Problems -- Diseases and their controlDiseases and their control
Mealybug wilt (No. 1 or 2 problem) World-wide problem on pineapple Devastating if not controlled Wilt associated with viruses and mealybug
vector Best controlled by controlling ants with treated
baits
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Problems Problems -- Diseases and their controlDiseases and their control
Fungal diseases (only those commonly controlled are listed) Phytophthora spp. heart and root rots Butt rot of planting material and fruit rot
caused by Ceratocystis paradoxa controlled by dipping planting material and fruit
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ProblemsProblems
Economics Labor supply
World Culture of PineappleWorld Culture of PineapplePineapple Origins Pineapple OriginsAreas of ProductionAreas of Production - Fresh FruitAreas of Production - ProcessingPrinciple CultivarsPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentEffects of CAM on water useCultural Practices - Land PreparationCultural Practices - Land PreparationCultural Practices - Land PreparationCultural Practices - Land PreparationCultural Practices - Land PreparationCultural Practices - PlantingCultural Practices PlantingCultural Practices PlantingCultural Practices PlantingCultural Practices Fertilization & Pest/Disease ControlCultural Practices Water managementCultural Practices HarvestingCultural Practices HarvestingCultural Practices HarvestingCultural Practices Cropping cycleCultural Practices Plant SpacingSpacing and Harvest IndexEffects of Spacing on Fruit WeightEffects of Spacing on Fruit YieldSpacingSpacingEffect of Spacing on SuckersEffect of Spacing on SuckersProblems - Pests and ControlProblems - Pests and their controlProblems - Diseases and their controlProblems - Diseases and their controlProblems