Philosophy of the 17th, Philosophy of the 17th, 18th, and 19th Centuries18th, and 19th Centuries

Part IPart I

Late 17th and Early 18th Centuries Late 17th and Early 18th Centuries The Age of EnlightenmentThe Age of Enlightenment

A gradual process of detachment of philosophy A gradual process of detachment of philosophy from theology takes place during this period. from theology takes place during this period. While philosophers still talked about, and even While philosophers still talked about, and even offered arguments for, the existence of a deity, offered arguments for, the existence of a deity, this was done in the service of philosophical this was done in the service of philosophical argument and thought. argument and thought.

The 18th century was an age of optimism, The 18th century was an age of optimism, tempered by the realistic recognition of the sad tempered by the realistic recognition of the sad state of the human condition and the need for state of the human condition and the need for major reforms. The Enlightenment was less a set major reforms. The Enlightenment was less a set of ideas than it was a set of attitudes. At its core of ideas than it was a set of attitudes. At its core was a critical questioning of traditional was a critical questioning of traditional institutions, customs, and morals. institutions, customs, and morals.

Rationalist PhilosophersRationalist Philosophers

The notion of God occupies a less central The notion of God occupies a less central place in the thinking of rationalist place in the thinking of rationalist philosophers than in the minds of Medieval philosophers than in the minds of Medieval philosophers.philosophers.

United by a belief in the rationality of the United by a belief in the rationality of the universe: the universe works in a logical universe: the universe works in a logical way and makes sense, and the power of way and makes sense, and the power of reason can understand it.reason can understand it.

Mathematics as a model for knowledge.Mathematics as a model for knowledge.

René Descartes (1596-1650)René Descartes (1596-1650) Meditations Meditations (1637)(1637) Beliefs about the world are changing at the time Beliefs about the world are changing at the time

of Descartes. Beliefs based on Aristotle begin to of Descartes. Beliefs based on Aristotle begin to give way to the new discoveries of science.give way to the new discoveries of science.

I am thinking, therefore I am.I am thinking, therefore I am. I cannot think my existence is false, because if I I cannot think my existence is false, because if I

think this, then I am thinking and my existence think this, then I am thinking and my existence must be a fact.must be a fact.

Innate ideas give us: knowledge of ourselves, Innate ideas give us: knowledge of ourselves, knowledge of God, knowledge of mathematics. knowledge of God, knowledge of mathematics.

We can arrive at sure knowledge by reason and We can arrive at sure knowledge by reason and need not rely on our senses.need not rely on our senses.

Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677)Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) On the Improvement of the Understanding On the Improvement of the Understanding (1662)(1662) Follows Descartes in an attempt to set forth Follows Descartes in an attempt to set forth

philosophy in a mathematical fashion.philosophy in a mathematical fashion. Substance defined as a reality which does not Substance defined as a reality which does not

require the idea of any other thing in order to be require the idea of any other thing in order to be understood.understood.

Contends that God or Nature is a being of infinite Contends that God or Nature is a being of infinite attributes, or which extension and thought are attributes, or which extension and thought are two. Treats the mental and physical worlds as one two. Treats the mental and physical worlds as one and the same. Universal substance consists of and the same. Universal substance consists of both body and mind. Neutral monism.both body and mind. Neutral monism.

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1648-1716)(1648-1716)

MonadologieMonadologie (1714) (1714) Metaphysical contribution: The world is a Metaphysical contribution: The world is a

composite of material and spiritual things, all of composite of material and spiritual things, all of which are made up of unextended elements which are made up of unextended elements called monads. called monads.

Each monad is independent of the others, yet Each monad is independent of the others, yet each, by the law of pre-established harmony, each, by the law of pre-established harmony, reflects in itself all the modifications or changes reflects in itself all the modifications or changes that occur in every other.that occur in every other.

Symbolic Thought: Believes that much human Symbolic Thought: Believes that much human reasoning can be reduced to calculations. reasoning can be reduced to calculations. Leibniz’s calculus ratiocinator, which resembles Leibniz’s calculus ratiocinator, which resembles symbolic logic, can be viewed as a way of making symbolic logic, can be viewed as a way of making such calculations possible.such calculations possible.

Empirical PhilosophersEmpirical Philosophers

What can we know?What can we know? How well can we know it?How well can we know it? What are the limits to what we can What are the limits to what we can

know?know? Physical sciences as a model for Physical sciences as a model for

knowledge.knowledge.

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)Francis Bacon (1561-1626) Great ReconstructionGreat Reconstruction (1620) (1620) Reliance upon the scientific process of Reliance upon the scientific process of

inductioninduction Rejection of deductive reasoningRejection of deductive reasoning Sometimes considered the originator of Sometimes considered the originator of

modern empiricism.modern empiricism. Unlike the Scholastics (a school of Unlike the Scholastics (a school of

philosophers following Aristotle), Bacon philosophers following Aristotle), Bacon focused on subjective elements of focused on subjective elements of reasoning: the powers or faculties of the reasoning: the powers or faculties of the investigator, including memory, investigator, including memory, imagination, and reason.imagination, and reason.

John Locke (1632-1704)John Locke (1632-1704) An Essay Concerning Human Understanding An Essay Concerning Human Understanding

(1689)(1689) Refutation of innatism (Just because something is Refutation of innatism (Just because something is

universally agreed, it is not necessarily true. Just universally agreed, it is not necessarily true. Just because something is universally known, it is not because something is universally known, it is not necessarily innate.)necessarily innate.)

All knowledge comes through experience. The All knowledge comes through experience. The mind is a blank sheet, written on by what comes mind is a blank sheet, written on by what comes to us through our senses. Matter over mind.to us through our senses. Matter over mind.

Three kinds of knowledge: intuitive (knowledge of Three kinds of knowledge: intuitive (knowledge of the self), demonstrative (knowledge of God), the self), demonstrative (knowledge of God), sensitive (knowledge of the external world). Only sensitive (knowledge of the external world). Only intuitive knowledge is certain.intuitive knowledge is certain.

George Berkeley (1685-1753)George Berkeley (1685-1753)

A Treatise Concerning the Principles of A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human KnowledgeHuman Knowledge (1710) (1710)

Mind over matter.Mind over matter. If things are perceived there must be a If things are perceived there must be a

perceiver. Subject as perceiver.perceiver. Subject as perceiver. As things continue to exist whether I As things continue to exist whether I

perceive them or not, there must be a perceive them or not, there must be a Perceiver.Perceiver.

Everything is an idea in the mind of God.Everything is an idea in the mind of God.

David Hume (1711-1776)David Hume (1711-1776) A Treatise of Human NatureA Treatise of Human Nature (1737) (1737) Reason is nothing more than a habit or custom.Reason is nothing more than a habit or custom. We cannot help believing, but we must not thing We cannot help believing, but we must not thing

our belief is grounded in reason.our belief is grounded in reason. Human understanding divided into: 1) Human understanding divided into: 1)

Impressions: what we receive through our senses, Impressions: what we receive through our senses, 2) Ideas: memories or ‘faint images’ of 2) Ideas: memories or ‘faint images’ of impressions which we combine in thinking and impressions which we combine in thinking and reasoning.reasoning.

Matter over mind.Matter over mind. We can never really know what’s going on We can never really know what’s going on

outside of ourselves.outside of ourselves.

Late 18th and early 19th Centuries Late 18th and early 19th Centuries Romanticism Romanticism

Romanticism is an artistic, literary, and intellectual Romanticism is an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement which originated in the second half of the 18th movement which originated in the second half of the 18th century and gained strength during the Industrial century and gained strength during the Industrial Revolution. It serves as a reaction against the scientific Revolution. It serves as a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature, and is embodied most thoroughly rationalization of nature, and is embodied most thoroughly in the visual arts, music, and literature.in the visual arts, music, and literature.

Strong emotion as a source of aesthetic experienceStrong emotion as a source of aesthetic experience Emphasis on emotions such as trepidation, horror, and awe Emphasis on emotions such as trepidation, horror, and awe

experienced in confronting the sublimeexperienced in confronting the sublime Often posited as opposed to Realism in art and literatureOften posited as opposed to Realism in art and literature Viewed as a key movement in the Counter-Enlightenment, Viewed as a key movement in the Counter-Enlightenment,

a reaction against the Age of Enlightenment.a reaction against the Age of Enlightenment.

Romantic PhilosophersRomantic Philosophers Beneath all the variety represented by the Romantics lies a Beneath all the variety represented by the Romantics lies a

common theme: Passion.common theme: Passion. While empiricists were concerned with sensory data, and While empiricists were concerned with sensory data, and

the rationalists were concerned with reason, the romantics the rationalists were concerned with reason, the romantics looked at consciousness and saw first and foremost its looked at consciousness and saw first and foremost its dynamics, purposefulness, striving, and desire.dynamics, purposefulness, striving, and desire.

Preference for intuition or insightPreference for intuition or insight The importance of the subjective is emphasizedThe importance of the subjective is emphasized Emphasis on life as it is lived, on whole, meaningful Emphasis on life as it is lived, on whole, meaningful

experiencesexperiences A passionate moralityA passionate morality Emphasis on the human, particularly the individual human Emphasis on the human, particularly the individual human

personperson

Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)(1712-1778)

Ideas about the natural goodness of Ideas about the natural goodness of manman

Good life is the simple life of the Good life is the simple life of the peasantpeasant

No natural basis for any inequalities No natural basis for any inequalities other than biological inequalitiesother than biological inequalities

Economic, political, social, and moral Economic, political, social, and moral inequalities due to private propertyinequalities due to private property

Society corrupts Society corrupts

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860)Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860)

The phenomenal world as an illusion of The phenomenal world as an illusion of sorts.sorts.

True reality, Kant’s “thing-in-itself,” is True reality, Kant’s “thing-in-itself,” is referred to as Will.referred to as Will.

Out of will everything derives. Will is the Out of will everything derives. Will is the inner nature of all things.inner nature of all things.

Suffering as a natural condition of life.Suffering as a natural condition of life. Esthetic salvation (seeing beauty in Esthetic salvation (seeing beauty in

something else), ethical salvation something else), ethical salvation (compassion) and religious salvation (compassion) and religious salvation (asceticism) as a response to suffering.(asceticism) as a response to suffering.

Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855)Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855)

Three stages or competing life Three stages or competing life philosophies: 1) the aesthetic person, who philosophies: 1) the aesthetic person, who lives in the moment and lacks lives in the moment and lacks commitment, 2) the ethical person, who is commitment, 2) the ethical person, who is committed to his ideals, and 3) the committed to his ideals, and 3) the religious person, who recognizes the religious person, who recognizes the transcendent nature of true ideals. transcendent nature of true ideals.

Often considered the first existentialist. Often considered the first existentialist. Human existence is an ongoing process of Human existence is an ongoing process of creation, and cannot be encompassed by creation, and cannot be encompassed by any system.any system.