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Page 1: Peter T. Bobrowsky Hans Rickman978-3-540-32711-0/1.pdfComet/Asteroid Impacts and Human Society An Interdisciplinary Approach. With 85 Figures, 46 in Color Comet/Asteroid Impacts and

Peter T. Bobrowsky

Hans Rickman

Comet/Asteroid Impacts and Human Society

An Interdisciplinary Approach

Page 2: Peter T. Bobrowsky Hans Rickman978-3-540-32711-0/1.pdfComet/Asteroid Impacts and Human Society An Interdisciplinary Approach. With 85 Figures, 46 in Color Comet/Asteroid Impacts and

With 85 Figures, 46 in Color

Comet/Asteroid Impactsand Human Society

Peter T. BobrowskyHans Rickman(Editors)

An Interdisciplinary Approach

Page 3: Peter T. Bobrowsky Hans Rickman978-3-540-32711-0/1.pdfComet/Asteroid Impacts and Human Society An Interdisciplinary Approach. With 85 Figures, 46 in Color Comet/Asteroid Impacts and

Library of Congress Control Number: 2006934201

ISBN-10 3-540-32709-6 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New YorkISBN-13 978-3-540-32709-7 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the materialis concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitations,broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplica-tion of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copy-right Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be ob-tained from Springer. Violations are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law.

Springer is a part of Springer Science+Business Mediaspringeronline.com© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2007

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication doesnot imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the rel-evant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.

Cover design: Erich Kirchner, HeidelbergTypesetting: Klaus Häringer, Stasch · Bayreuth ([email protected])Production: Agata Oelschläger

Printed on acid-free paper 30/2132/AO – 5 4 3 2 1 0

Editors

Dr. Peter T. Bobrowsky

Geological Survey of CanadaLandslides and GeotechnicsESS/GSC-CNCB/GSC-NC/EDSNatural Resources Canada601 Booth StreetK1A 0E8 Ottawa, ONCanadaE-mail: [email protected]

Dr. Hans Rickman

Uppsala Astronomical ObservatoryBox 515SE-751 20 UppsalaSwedenE-mail: [email protected]

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Preface

The International Council for Science (ICSU) recently recognized that the societalimplications (social, cultural, political and economic) of a comet/asteroid impact onEarth warrants an immediate consideration by all countries in the world. Given thepaucity of information on this important issue, ICSU thus contacted the InternationalAstronomical Union (IAU) and the International Union for Geological Sciences (IUGS)to address the topic on behalf of the global science community.

This volume provides a summary of opinions regarding the controversy of fact vs.fiction in dealing with comet and asteroid impacts. Each contribution provides a timelystate-of-the-art and state-of-the-science synthesis regarding the likelihood and impli-cations of past, present and future comet/asteroid impacts and their effect on humansociety. Individual chapters represent a wide range of disciplines, specialties and topicswhich are either directly or indirectly related to impact events. In this way, this bookdiffers considerably from previous comet/asteroid impact books as well as most othernatural hazard volumes that commonly focus on a single discipline of study. Our goalin compiling this volume was to ensure that representatives from ancillary disciplines(anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, atmospheric sciences, political sci-ence, psychology and so on) had the opportunity to contribute to the discussion byastronomers and geologists and therefore broaden the restrictive vision normally ac-corded to topical discussions of natural hazards. Our aim is to widen the appeal of thesubject of natural hazards to include specialists that deal with the subject but lack anappreciation of the related implications surfacing from other disciplines. Moreover,the papers were written with the non-scientist in mind, with the expectation to betterinform and educate decision makers, politicians and the general public at large aboutthe diverse nature of the physical and social consequences which have in the past, andwill in the future, arise from an impact of a comet or asteroid with our planet Earth.

This volume is clustered into three parts comprising 33 chapters. The focus of thisbook provides those individuals interested in multi-hazard interdisciplinary researcha concise appraisal of what is currently known regarding the threat of comet/asteroidimpacts, the likelihood and magnitude of such events in the future, an historic reviewof past impacts based on geological, archaeological and anthropological evidence, anelaboration on the likely physical effects of a significant impact, the ecological andatmospheric effects following an impact, the psycho-sociological implications associ-ated with risk, hazards and disasters as well as the financial, economic and insuranceconsequences of a catastrophic impact on our planet.

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PrefaceVI

Part one covers the ancient (geology), prehistoric (archaeology) and historic (an-thropology) record of comet and asteroid events. This includes papers on popular cultureand the use of tree ring studies in modern research as well as a review of the analogiesof mega catastrophes resulting from volcanic eruptions. Part two contains contribu-tions focused on the status of near-earth object (NEO) surveys, current knowledge ofNEO populations in space, physical properties of NEOs, the quantitative risk of im-pacts and risk reduction scenarios, the physical terrestrial effects of impacts, the atmo-spheric and oceanic (tsunami) effects of impacts, case studies including the Kaalimeteorite and Tunguska events and cryometeors. Part three examines the social sci-ence of near-earth objects, perceptions of risk, dynamic risk assessment, social per-spectives on hazards, social vulnerability, the potential collapse of society, disasterplanning, insurance coverage, economic consequences, communicating impact risk tothe public, impact risk communication management, international policies on NEOsand the future of NEO research.

In April 2004 Hans Rickman of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) andPeter Bobrowsky of the International Union for Geological Sciences (IUGS) met witha few key representatives of the comet/asteroid professional community in Paris underthe auspices of the International Council for Science (ICSU). At that time, the groupwas encouraged by ICSU to consider collaboration in an interdisciplinary effort on thesubject of comet/asteroid impacts and human society. ICSU was very interested insupporting a research proposal relevant to the topic that explicitly included individu-als in broadly allied fields of study that were not normally included in discussions onthis subject. The intent of the proposal was to provide an open platform of discussionand interaction between astronomers, geologists, anthropologists, archaeologists, econo-mists, sociologists, geographers, psychologists, journalists and many others interestedin natural hazards, disaster management, risk assessment and ancillary fields of study,but focussed specifically on the potential psycho-social and physical consequences ofa catastrophic comet or asteroid impact on Earth. Following the initial meeting in Aprilof 2004, IAU and IUGS coordinated a formal proposal submission to ICSU for a ClassII grant. Representatives from allied unions including IUGG (International Union ofGeodesy and Geophysics), IGU (International Geographic Union) and IUPsyS (Inter-national Union of Psychological Science) agreed to contribute to the working efforts ofthe project. Similarly, specialists in other disciplines including anthropology, archaeol-ogy, medicine, and so on, but not official representatives of their respective ICSU unionsalso agreed to contribute to such a project. Shortly thereafter, ICSU approved the grantproposal. An Advisory group consisting of the following individuals was struck: HarryAtkinson (UK NEO Task Force), Clark Chapman (Member at Large), ViacheslavGusiakov (IUGG), Wing-Huen Ip (COSPAR), Michael MacCracken (SCOR) and StefanMichalowski (OECD). Invitations were then sent to noted specialists in varied disci-plines to participate in a week long retreat which included technical presentations, break-out group discussions, interactive debates and a local field trip. The retreat was held inearly December 2004 in La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain with the local support of MarkKidger and the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. The Editors are most grateful toDr. Kidger and the staff and management of the institute for their kind support infacilitating this important meeting.

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VIIPreface

As an outcome of the workshop, a summation of the current state of the art andscience on the subject and a discussion of related key political questions on the hazardlead to the development of a “white paper”. This compilation, aimed as a backgrounddocument for politicians, is to appear as a separate published document. At the sametime, all invited participants were asked to submit a technical manuscript summariz-ing their specialty, in a format that addressed the multi-disciplinary nature of themeeting. This volume represents the end product of this effort and thus addresses theoutputs identified in the original proposal to ICSU.

This volume represents the collective efforts of a great number of individuals. Mostimportantly, the Editors recognize the hard work of the contributing authors to clearlycapture the key issues of their field of expertise and structure this information in abroadly informative nature readable by others outside their field of interest. The Edi-tors also appreciate the support and work of the editorial staff at Springer Verlag whohelped them deal with the difficult process of managing modern techniques in copy-editing. Finally the Editors wish to thank all those individuals who kindly providedtheir time and effort as critical reviewers for the submitted papers; in some cases re-viewing several different papers. The critical reviews were important to us and thebook, as they add a level of technical acceptability even when some of the opinions ofsome of the authors were contentious. Each manuscript was initially reviewed by PeterBobrowsky and/or Hans Rickman and at least two other impartial persons. As a con-sequence of this referee process, several papers originally submitted to this volumewere rejected and are not included in the published volume. The list of reviewers inalphabetical order were: Johannes Andersen, Joe Arvai, Mark Bailey, Elizabeth Barber,Tony Berger, John Birks, Bill Bottke, Edward Bryant, Andrea Carusi, David Carusi, AlbertoCellino, Clark Chapman, Rejean Couture, Curt Covey, John Davis, Robert Dimand, EricElst, David Etkin, Marten Geertsema, John Grattan, Richard Grieve, Peter Horn, DavidHuntley, Monica Jaramillo, Ruthann Knudson, David Kring, Howard Kunreuther, JoseLozano, Brian Marsden, Bruce Masse, Jay Melosh, Patrick Michel, Millan Millan, UrveMiller, David Morrison, Jon Nott, Andrei Ol’khovatov, Effim Pelinovsky, Benny Peiser,Juri Plado, Alex Rabinovich, Barrie Raftery, Marko Robnik, Paul Slovic, Richard Spalding,Doug Stead, Duncan Steel, John Twigg, Juha Uitto, Giovanni Valsecchi, Don Yeomans,Fumi Yoshida, Ben Wisner, and Colin Wood.

We acknowledge the support of our respective institutes (Geological Survey ofCanada and Uppsala Astronomical Observatory), Unions (International Union of Geo-logical Sciences and International Astronomical Union) and families for providing usthe valuable time needed to pursue this important activity.

Peter BobrowskyHans Rickman

November 2006

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Contents

Part I · Anthropology, Archaeology, Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1 The Geologic Record of Destructive Impact Events on Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2 General Character of the Record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2.1 Spatial Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.2.2 Age Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.2.3 Size Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.2.4 Terrestrial Cratering Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.2.5 Periodic Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.3 Recognition of Terrestrial Impact Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.3.1 Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.3.2 Geology of Impact Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71.3.3 Geophysics of Impact Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.4 Impacts in the Stratigraphic Record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.5 Impacts and the Biosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.5.1 Early Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131.5.2 Coupling through the Atmosphere and Hydrosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131.5.3 Local and Mass Extinctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171.5.4 Threat to Humanity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1.6 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2 The Archaeology and Anthropologyof Quaternary Period Cosmic Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252.2 The Quaternary Period Cosmic Impact Record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2.2.1 Documented Impact Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272.2.2 Validated Holocene Crater-Forming Impact Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292.2.3 Airbursts, Tektites, and Impact Glass Melts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322.2.4 A Sample of Current Studies of Potential

Late Quaternary–Holocene Period Terrestrial Impact Sites . . . . . . . . . . . 342.2.5 Oceanic Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

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ContentsX

2.3 Oral Tradition, Myth, and Cosmic Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392.3.1 The Nature and Principles of Myth and Oral Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402.3.2 Using Myth to Identify and Model South American Cosmic Impacts . . . 422.3.3 Modeling the Flood Comet Event –

a Hypothesized Globally Catastrophic Mid-HoloceneAbyssal Oceanic Comet Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

2.4 Epilog and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612.4.1 Candidate Abyssal Impact Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612.4.2 Post-Workshop Final Thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

3 The Sky on the Ground:Celestial Objects and Events in Archaeology and Popular Culture . . . . . . . . . 71

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713.2 The Archaeological Record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

3.2.1 Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723.2.2 Artifacts and Rock Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723.2.3 Oral Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

3.3 Celestial Objects in Popular Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743.3.1 Astrology in Popular Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743.3.2 Art and Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763.3.3 Other Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

3.4 Garnering Public Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833.4.1 Public Awareness and Support through Cinematic Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833.4.2 Public Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

3.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

4 Umm Al Binni Structure, Southern Iraq,As a Postulated Late Holocene Meteorite Impact Crater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894.2 Geological Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904.3 Origin of the Umm Al Binni Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 944.4 New Satellite Imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

5 Tree-Rings Indicate Global Environmental DownturnsThat Could Have Been Caused by Comet Debris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055.2 The Historical Record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085.3 Mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1105.4 What Actually Happened – the Global Consequences? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1125.5 The Dust and Corrupted Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

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XIContents

5.6 The Scientific Prior Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1145.7 The AD540 Symptoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155.8 Linkages to Other Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1185.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

6 The GGE Threat: Facing and Coping with Global Geophysical Events . . . 1236.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1236.2 Volcanic Super-Eruptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1256.3 The Toba Super-Eruption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1276.4 Reassessment of the Super-Eruption Threat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1286.5 Collapsing Ocean-Island Volcanoes and Mega-Tsunami Formation . . . . . . . . 1296.6 Volcano Instability and Structural Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1296.7 Environmental Triggers of Ocean-Island Volcano Collapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1306.8 Tsunami Generation from Ocean-Island Volcano Collapses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1316.9 Contemporary North Atlantic Mega-Tsunami Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1336.10 High-Frequency GGEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1346.11 Addressing the GGE Threat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

Part II · Astronomy and Physical Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

7 The Asteroid Impact Hazard and Interdisciplinary Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1457.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1457.2 Near-Earth Asteroids (NEAs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1477.3 Consequences of NEA Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1507.4 Mitigation: Deflection and/or Disaster Management and Response . . . . . . . . 1547.5 Perceptions of the Impact Hazard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1567.6 Societal Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

7.6.1 The News Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1587.6.2 Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1597.6.3 The Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1597.6.4 Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

7.7 Hazards Research/Disaster Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

8 The Impact Hazard: Advanced NEO Surveys and Societal Responses . . . 1638.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1638.2 The Spaceguard Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1648.3 Sub-Kilometer Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1668.4 Communication and Miscommunication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1688.5 Public Policy Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

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9 Understanding the Near-Earth Object Population:the 2004 Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1759.2 Dynamical Origin of NEOs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

9.2.1 Near-Earth Asteroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1769.2.2 Near-Earth Comets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1789.2.3 Evolution in NEO Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

9.3 Quantitative Modeling of the NEO Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1809.4 The Debiased NEO Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1819.5 Nearly Isotropic Comets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1839.6 NEA Size-Frequency Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

10 Physical Properties of NEOs and Risks of an Impact:Current Knowledge and Future Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18910.1.1 Key Questions before Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18910.1.2 The True Nature of NEOs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

10.2 Densities: from Feather to Lead? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19010.2.1 Determining Mass and Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19010.2.2 Typical Results on Densities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19010.2.3 Open Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

10.3 Structure: from Monoliths to Rubble Piles? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19110.3.1 Determining the Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19110.3.2 Outer Shape and Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19210.3.3 Porosity and Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19210.3.4 Comets Disruption and Fragmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19310.3.5 Open Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

10.4 Surface Properties: from Sand Dunes to Concrete? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19510.4.1 Estimating the Surface Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19610.4.2 Typical Results on Surface Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19610.4.3 Open Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

10.5 Knowledge Expected from Future Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19810.5.1 Remote Observations and Simulations under Development . . . . . . . . 19810.5.2 Future Space Missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

10.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

11 Evaluating the Risk of Impacts and the Efficiency of Risk Reduction . . . . 20311.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20311.2 Near-Earth Objects Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

11.2.1 The Problem of Orbit Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20511.3 Checking for Impact Possibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20611.4 Eliminating Virtual Impactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

11.4.1 Decrease of the Risk Estimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

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11.5 Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20811.5.1 Kinetic Energy Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

11.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

12 Physical Effects of Comet and Asteroid Impacts:beyond the Crater Rim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

12.1 Introduction: the Impact Hazard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21112.2 Local and Regional Devastation by Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

12.2.1 Thermal Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21312.2.2 Seismic Shaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21412.2.3 Ejecta Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21512.2.4 Airblast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21612.2.5 Tsunamis from Oceanic Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

12.3 Global Devastation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21812.3.1 The Thermal Pulse from Ejecta Rain Back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21812.3.2 Dust Loading of the Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21912.3.3 Injection of Climatically Active Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22012.3.4 Indirect Effects of Biological Extinctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

12.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

13 Frequent Ozone Depletion Resulting from Impacts ofAsteroids and Comets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22513.2 Physical Interactions with the Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22513.3 Chemical Perturbations of the Upper Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

13.3.1 Nitric Oxide Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22713.3.2 Lofting of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22913.3.3 Fate of Salt Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23013.3.4 Activation of Halogens from Sea Salt Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23113.3.5 Catalytic Cycles for Ozone Depletion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23213.3.6 Estimates of Asteroid Impact and Ozone Depletion Frequency . . . . 23313.3.7 Model of Coupled Chemistry and Dynamics of

the Upper Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23513.3.8 Model Results for Injections of Nitric Oxide and Water Vapor . . . . . 23613.3.9 Possible Test of the Impact-Induced Ozone Depletion

Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

14 Tsunami As a Destructive Aftermath of Oceanic Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24714.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24714.2 Geographical and Temporal Distribution of Tsunamis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24914.3 Basic Types of Tsunami Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25114.4 Tsunamigenic Potential of Oceanic Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

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14.5 Operational Tsunami Warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25714.6 Detection of Impact Tsunamis by Tide Gauge Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25814.7 Geological Traces of Tsunamis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25914.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

15 The Physical and Social Effects of the Kaali Meteorite Impact –a Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26515.2 The Meteorite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26615.3 Age of the Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26815.4 Effects of the Meteorite Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

16 The Climatic Effects of Asteroid and Comet Impacts:Consequences for an Increasingly Interconnected Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27716.2 The Global Climatic Effects of Large Asteroid or Comet Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . 280

16.2.1 Injection of Asteroidal and Cometary Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28116.2.2 Injection of Dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28116.2.3 Injections from Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28216.2.4 Injection of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28316.2.5 Injection of Sulfur Dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28316.2.6 Injection of Nitrogen Oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

16.3 Potential Weather and Climate-Related Impacts ofSmall to Modest-Sized Asteroids and Comets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28516.3.1 Asteroid and Comet Impacts

That Do Not Involve a Surface Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28516.3.2 Modest-Sized Asteroid and Comet Impacts

That Do Involve a Surface Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28616.4 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

17 Nature of the Tunguska ImpactorBased on Peat Material from the Explosion Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29117.2 Search for the TCB Remnants in the Epicenter Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29117.3 Platinum Group Elements (PGE) Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29217.4 Isotopic Investigations of Light Elements in the Peat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29517.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29717.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

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XVContents

18 The Tunguska Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30318.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30318.2 The Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

18.2.1 Comet or Asteroid? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30318.2.2 “Non-Traditional” Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30518.2.3 Alternative Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

18.3 Known Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30918.3.1 Objective Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30918.3.2 Eyewitnesses Testimonies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

18.4 Parameters Deduced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31618.4.1 Explosion Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31618.4.2 Coordinates of the Epicenter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31718.4.3 Trajectory Parameters, Height of the Explosion and

Energy Emitted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31718.5 Tunguska-Like Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

18.5.1 Recent Models and Impact Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32018.5.2 Global and Local Damages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

18.6 Concluding Remark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

19 Tunguska (1908) and Its Relevance forComet/Asteroid Impact Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

19.1 What Happened North of the Stony Tunguska River inthe Early Morning of 30 June 1908? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

19.2 The Tectonic Interpretation of the Tunguska Catastrophe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33319.3 (Other) Recorded Impact Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33519.4 (Likely) Tectonic Outbursts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33619.5 How to Discriminate between Impacts and Outbursts? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33619.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338

20 Atmospheric Megacryometeor Events Versus Small Meteorite Impacts:Scientific and Human Perspective of a Potential Natural Hazard . . . . . . . . . . 341

20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34120.2 Megacryometeors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

20.2.1 Textural, Hydrochemical and Isotopic Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34420.2.2 Theoretical Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

20.3 Megacryometeors Versus Small Meteorite Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34620.3.1 Comparison of the Rate of Falls during Human Times

(Historical Record) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34720.4 Final Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

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Part III · Socio-Economic and Policy Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

21 Social Science and Near-Earth Objects: an Inventory of Issues . . . . . . . . . . . 35521.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35521.2 Globally Relevant Disasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35521.3 Preparation and Response: General Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35721.4 Preparation and Recovery: Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35921.5 Preparation and Response: the Problem of Trust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36221.6 Preparation and Response: the Problem of Panic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36321.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366

22 Perception of Risk from Asteroid Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36922.1 Early Work: Decision Processes, Rationality, and Adjustment to Natural Hazards 36922.2 Stage 2: Psychometric Studies of Risk Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37122.3 Perceptions Have Impacts: the Social Amplification of Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37322.4 Stage 3: Risk As Feelings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37422.5 Public Perceptions of the Impact Hazard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

22.5.1 Will the Public Be Concerned about the Impact Hazard? . . . . . . . . . . . . 37722.5.2 Exploratory Research on Public Attitudes and Perceptions . . . . . . . . . 379

22.6 Where Next? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381

23 Hazard Risk Assessment of a Near Earth Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38323.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38323.2 Defining Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38423.3 Ontology of NEO Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386

23.3.1 Level 1 NEOs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38623.3.2 Level 2 NEOs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38823.3.3 Level 3 NEOs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38923.3.4 Level 4 NEOs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

23.4 Dynamic Hazard Risk Assessment and Possible Mitigation andPreparedness Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391

23.5 Potential Mitigation, Data Needs, Response, and Prognosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

24 Social Perspectives on Comet/Asteroid Impact (CAI) Hazards:Technocratic Authority and the Geography of Social Vulnerability . . . . . . 399

24.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39924.2 The Perspective of Social Vulnerability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40024.3 Regional and Comparative Aspects of CAI Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402

24.3.1 Regional CAI Risks and the Role of Secondary Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40324.3.2 Comparative Threat Evaluations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40524.3.3 Uncertain Uncertainties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

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24.4 Conceptual Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40824.4.1 Limitations of the Agent-Specific Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41024.4.2 Organizational Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

24.5 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

25 May Land Impacts Induce a Catastrophic Collapse ofCivil Societies? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419

25.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41925.2 Medium–Small Scale Impacts on a European Country: a Case Study . . . . . . 420

25.2.1 Probability of Impact and Objects Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42125.2.2 Level of Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421

25.3 The Civil Society As a Complex System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42425.3.1 Recent Developments in the Science of Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42425.3.2 What Is a Complex System? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42625.3.3 The Phase of Catastrophe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42725.3.4 Main Structures of the Country Social System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

25.4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42925.4.1 Consequences of the 13 MT Impact on the Three Points . . . . . . . . . . . . 42925.4.2 Point 1: Consequences of the 1 000 MT Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42925.4.3 Point 2: Consequences of the 1 000 MT Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43125.4.4 Point 3: Consequences of the 1 000 MT Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431

25.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435

26 The Societal Implications of a Comet/Asteroid Impact on Earth:a Perspective from International Development Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437

26.1 A Mighty Heuristic: Scale, Space and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43726.1.1 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438

26.2 Do CAI-Scale Events Have Any Precedents? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43826.2.1 Adaptation and Resilience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439

26.3 The Perspective of International Development Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44026.3.1 Would “Sustainable Development” Be Enough? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44126.3.2 A Remaining Big Worry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443

26.4 Some Tentative Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446

27 Disaster Planning for Cosmic Impacts: Progress and Weaknesses . . . . . . . . 44927.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44927.2 Probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45227.3 Goal Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45427.4 Risk Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45427.5 Safety by Improved Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45627.6 Disaster Simulation and Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456

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27.7 Warning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45927.8 Disaster Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46127.9 Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46327.10 Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466

28 Insurance Coverage of Meteorite, Asteroid and Comet Impacts –Issues and Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469

28.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46928.2 A Brief History of Insurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46928.3 Insurance and Natural Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47028.4 Do Asteroid Impacts Fit within the Principles of Insurance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470

28.4.1 Scenario 1: Asteroid Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47128.4.2 Scenario 2: Meteoroid Impact (Meteorite) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472

28.5 Insurance Coverage of Asteroid and Meteorite Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47228.6 Assessing the Potential for Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47428.7 Insurers Need to Prepare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47528.8 The Cost of an Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47528.9 Insurers’ Capacity to Pay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47628.10 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477

29 The Economic Consequences of DisastersDue to Asteroid and Comet Impacts, Small and Large . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479

29.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47929.2 Necessary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48129.3 Scenario Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482

29.3.1 Scenario 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48229.3.2 Scenario 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48329.3.3 Scenario 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48529.3.4 Scenario 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48529.3.5 Scenario 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48729.3.6 Scenario 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490

29.4 Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493

30 Communicating Impact Risk to the Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49530.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49530.2 Our Present World: Brief Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49530.3 Principal Characteristics of NEO Impact Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49730.4 Previous Experiences in Disaster Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49930.5 To Communicate or to Educate? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49930.6 A Scheme for Transmission of Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50030.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503

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31 Impact Risk Communication Management (1998–2004):Has It Improved? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505

31.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50531.2 1997 XF11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50531.3 1999 AN10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50831.4 2000 SG344 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50931.5 2002 MN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51031.6 2002 NT7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51031.7 2004 AS1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51131.8 2004 MN4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51531.9 2003 QQ47 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51631.10 Purgatorio Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519

32 Towards Rational International Policies on the NEO Hazard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52132.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52132.2 “The 1997 XF11 Affair” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52132.3 Putting the Astronomers’ House in Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522

32.3.1 The Minor Planet Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52332.4 From Pure Science into the Real World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52432.5 Epilog: the True Mess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526

33 A Road Map for Creating a NEO Research Program inDeveloping Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527

33.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52733.2 The Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52833.3 The Opportunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53033.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533

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Contributors

Johannes Andersen

Nordic Optical Telescope Scientific Association and Astronomical ObservatoryUniversity of Copenhagen, Juliane Maries Vej 302100 Copenhagen, DenmarkE-mail: [email protected]

M. G. L. Baillie

School of Archaeology and Palaeoecology, The Queen’s University of BelfastBelfast, BT7 1NN, Northern Ireland, UKE-mail: [email protected]

John W. Birks

Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Cooperative Institute for Research inEnvironmental Sciences (CIRES), University of Colorado UCB 215Boulder, CO 80309-0215, USA

William F. Bottke, Jr.

Southwest Research Institute, Suite 400, 1050 Walnut StreetBoulder, CO 80302, USAE-mail: [email protected]

Alessandro Carusi

Castelvecchi Publishing House, Rome, ItalyE-mail: [email protected]

Andrea Carusi

Istituto di Astrofisica Spaziale e Fisica Cosmica, INAF, Area Ricerac Tor Vergata, Via Fosso del Cavaliere 10000133 Rome, ItalyE-mail: [email protected]

Clark R. Chapman

Southwest Research Institute, Suite 400, 1050 Walnut StreetBoulder, CO 80302, USAE-mail: [email protected]

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ContributorsXXII

Lee Clarke

Department of Sociology, Rutgers UniversityNew Brunswick, NJ 08903, USAE-mail: [email protected]

Paul J. Crutzen

Max-Planck-Institute for Chemistry, Joh.-Joachim-Becher-Weg 2755128 Mainz, Germanyand Scripps Institution of Oceanography, UC San Diego, 9500 Gilman DriveLa Jolla, CA 92093-0221, USA

Mohammed H. I. Dore

Climate Change Laboratory, Department of Economics, Brock UniversitySt. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, CanadaE-mail: [email protected]

Harold D. Foster

Department of Geography, University of Victoria, PO Box 3050 STN CSCVictoria, BC V8W 3P5, CanadaE-mail: [email protected]

Richard A. F. Grieve

Earth Sciences Sector, Natural Resources CanadaOttawa, Ontario, K1A 0E8, CanadaE-mail: [email protected]

V. K. Gusiakov

Tsunami Laboratory, Institute of Computational Mathematics and Mathematical GeophysicsSiberian Division, Russian Academy of Sciences, prospect Akademika Lavrentjeva, 6Novosibirsk 630090, RussiaE-mail: [email protected]

Andrew Hallak

Institute for Catastrophic Loss Reduction, University of Western Ontario, 20 Richmond StreetEast Toronto M5C 2R9, CanadaE-mail: [email protected]

William T. Hartwell

Desert Research Institute, Division of Earth and Ecosystem Sciences, 755 E. Flamingo Rd.Las Vegas, Nevada 89119, USAE-mail: [email protected]

Atko Heinsalu

Institute of Geology, Tallinn University of Technology, Ehitajate tee 519086 Tallinn, Estonia

Page 20: Peter T. Bobrowsky Hans Rickman978-3-540-32711-0/1.pdfComet/Asteroid Impacts and Human Society An Interdisciplinary Approach. With 85 Figures, 46 in Color Comet/Asteroid Impacts and

XXIIIContributors

Michel Hermelin

Universidad EAFIT, Carrera 49 # 7 Sur - 50Medellin, ColombiaE-mail: [email protected]

Kenneth Hewitt

Cold Regions Research Center and Department of Geography and Environmental StudiesWilfrid Laurier UniversityWaterloo, Ontario N2L 3C5, CanadaE-mail: [email protected]

Quanlin Hou

Centre of Earth System Science, Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Sciences100039 Beijing, China

Wing-Huen Ip

Institutes of Astronomy and Space Science, National Central University32054 Chung-Li, TaiwanE-mail: [email protected]

Evgeniy M. Kolesnikov

Department of Geochemistry, Geological Faculty, Lomonosov Moscow State University119899 Moscow, RussiaE-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Natal’ya V. Kolesnikova

Department of Geochemistry, Geological Faculty, Lomonosov Moscow State University119899 Moscow, RussiaE-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Paul Kovacs

Institute for Catastrophic Loss Reduction, University of Western Ontario20 Richmond StreetEast Toronto M5C 2R9, Canada

David A. Kring

Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, Department of Planetary SciencesUniversity of ArizonaTucson, Arizona, 85721, USA

Wolfgang Kundt

Argelander-Institut for Astronomy, Department of Astrophysics, Bonn UniversityAuf dem Hügel 7153121 Bonn, GermanyE-mail: [email protected]

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ContributorsXXIV

A. Chantal Levasseur-Regourd

Université P. & M. Curie (Paris VI), Aéronomie CNRS-IPSL, B.P. 391371, Verrières, FranceE-mail: [email protected]

Giuseppe Longo

Dipartimento di Fisica, Università di Bologna, Via Irnerio 4640126 Bologna, ItalyE-mail: [email protected]

Michael C. MacCracken

Climate Institute, 1785 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W.Washington DC 20036, USAE-mail: [email protected]

Brian G. Marsden

Harvard-Smithsonian Center for AstrophysicsCambridge, MA 02138, USAE-mail: [email protected]

Jesús Martínez-Frías

Planetary Geology Laboratory, Centro de Astrobiologia (CSIC/INTA)associated to the NASA Astrobiology Institute, Ctra. de Ajalvir km. 428850 Torrejón de Ardoz, Madrid, SpainE-mail: [email protected]

W. Bruce Masse

Cultural Resources TeamENV-EAQ Ecology and Air Quality Group, Mail Stop J978Los Alamos National LaboratoryLos Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USAE-mail: [email protected]

Sharad Master

Impact Cratering Research Group, Economic Geology Research Institute, School of GeosciencesUniversity of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg, South AfricaE-mail: [email protected]

W. J. McGuire

Benfield UCL Hazard Research CentreDepartment of Earth Sciences, University College LondonGower StreetLondon WC1E 6BT, UKE-mail: [email protected]

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XXVContributors

H. Jay Melosh

Lunar and Planetary Lab, 429E Space Sciences Building, University of ArizonaTucson AZ 85721-0092, USAE-mail: [email protected]

Andrea Milani Comparetti

Department of Mathematics, University of Pisavia Buonarroti 256127 Pisa, Italy

David Morrison

14660 FieldstoneSaratoga CA 95070, USAE-mail: [email protected]

Anneli Poska

Institute of Geology, Tallinn University of Technology, Ehitajate tee 519086 Tallinn, Estonia

Luca Pozio

University of Rome III, Department of EconomicsRome, ItalyE-mail: [email protected]

Kaare L. Rasmussen

Department of Chemistry, University of Southern DenmarkCampusvej 555230 Odense, DenmarkE-mail: [email protected]

Raymond G. Roble

High Altitude Observatory, National Center for Atmospheric ResearchPO Box 3000Boulder, CO 80307-3000, USAE-mail: [email protected]

José Antonio Rodríguez-Losada

Departamento de Edafología y Geología, Universidad de La Laguna38206 La Laguna, Tenerife (Islas Canarias), SpainE-mail: [email protected]

Leili Saarse

Institute of Geology, Tallinn University of Technology, Ehitajate tee 519086 Tallinn, Estonia

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ContributorsXXVI

Roy C. Sidle

Slope Conservation Section, Geohazards Division, Disaster Prevention Research InstituteKyoto UniversityGokasho, Uji Kyoto 611-0011, JapanE-mail: [email protected]

Paul Slovic

Decision Research, 1201 Oak Street, Suite 200Eugene, Oregon 97401, USAE-mail: [email protected]

Giovanni B. Valsecchi

INAF-IASF, via Fosso del Cavaliere 10000133 Roma, ItalyE-mail: [email protected]

Jüri Vassiljev

Institute of Geology, Tallinn University of Technology, Ehitajate tee 519086 Tallinn, Estonia

Siim Veski

Institute of Geology, Tallinn University of Technology, Ehitajate tee 519086 Tallinn, EstoniaE-mail: [email protected]

Ben Wisner

Oberlin College, 173 West Lorain StreetOberlin, OH 44074, USAand Crisis States Programme, Development Studies Institute, London School of EconomicsBenfield Greig Hazard Research Centre, Gower Street, University CollegeLondon WC1E 6BT, UKE-mail: [email protected]

T. Woldai

International Institute for Geoinformation Sciences & Earth Observation (ITC)Hengelosestraat 99P.O. Box 67500 AA Enschede, The NetherlandsE-mail: [email protected]

Liewen Xie

Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Sciences100029 Beijing, China