pests, diseases and weeds - agriseta · management system with basic control measures as per...

Pests, Diseases and Weeds

Level 4

Title: Apply effective and responsible integrated pest, disease and weed

control

Applied Title:

Field: Agriculture and Nature Conservation

Sub-Field: Primary Agriculture

SETA (SGB): AgriSETA

Skills Area: Pests, Diseases & Weeds

Context: Citrus Production

US No: 116301 Level: 4 Credits: 3 Notional Hours: 30

Copyright ©

P.O. Box 461, Hillcrest, 3650

(031) 208-8960

Author: Cabeton Training & Development Based on the Production Guidelines of: Supported by:

Citrus Growers

Associatio

Learner Guide Skills Area: Pests, Disease and Weeds Level: 4 Unit Standards: 116301

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CitrusGrowers Associati

Table of Contents

Table of Contents Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 8 Learning Assumed to Be in Place ............................................................................................................ 8 Prescribed Material ................................................................................................................................ 8 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 9 2. Integrating Different Methods of Pest Control ................................................................................... 9 3. The Importance of Monitoring ....................................................................................................... 10 4. The Ratio between Pests and Predators ......................................................................................... 10 5. Replacing Pheromones, Clearing Traps and Assessing Information ................................................... 11 6. The Importance of Recordkeeping ................................................................................................. 11 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 13 2. Identifying Beneficial Organisms ................................................................................................... 13 3. Monitoring Beneficial Organisms .................................................................................................... 14 4. Beneficial Organism Counts .......................................................................................................... 14 5. Recognising Damage on Citrus and Assigning the Cause ................................................................. 14 6. Using Research Resources ............................................................................................................ 19 7. Identification Techniques .............................................................................................................. 19 7.1. Macroscopic ............................................................................................................................. 19 7.2. Microscopic .............................................................................................................................. 19 7.3. Chemical ................................................................................................................................. 19 8. Identifying Disease and Damage Symptoms ................................................................................... 19 9. The Frequency of Performing Scouting .......................................................................................... 19 10. Weather Patterns and its Impact on Pests and Diseases .............................................................. 20 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 22 1.1. Acceptable pest levels .............................................................................................................. 22 1.2. Preventive cultural practices ...................................................................................................... 22 1.3. Monitoring ............................................................................................................................... 22 1.4. Mechanical controls .................................................................................................................. 22 1.5. Biological controls .................................................................................................................... 22 1.6. Chemical controls ..................................................................................................................... 22 2. Control Measures ......................................................................................................................... 22 2.1. Biological control ...................................................................................................................... 23 2.1.1. Classical biological control (CBC) ............................................................................................ 23 2.1.2. Conservation ........................................................................................................................ 23 2.1.3. Augmentation ...................................................................................................................... 24 2.2. Cultural Control ........................................................................................................................ 24 2.2.1. Crop Rotation ....................................................................................................................... 24 2.2.2. Intercropping ....................................................................................................................... 24 2.2.3. Managed Application ............................................................................................................. 25 2.2.4. Sanitation ............................................................................................................................ 25 2.3. Chemical Control ...................................................................................................................... 25 3. Mating Disruption ........................................................................................................................ 26 3.1. Peripheral and Central Nervous System Effects ........................................................................... 26 3.2. False Trails .............................................................................................................................. 26 3.3. Masking................................................................................................................................... 26 3.4. Advantages of Mating Disruption ............................................................................................... 27 3.5. Disadvantages of Mating Disruption: .......................................................................................... 27 4. Sterile Insect Technique ............................................................................................................... 27 5. Environmental Considerations ....................................................................................................... 27 6. Resistance and Mode of Rotation .................................................................................................. 28 • Acceptable pest levels .................................................................................................................. 28 • Preventive cultural practices ......................................................................................................... 28


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• Monitoring................................................................................................................................... 28 • Mechanical controls ...................................................................................................................... 28 • Biological controls ........................................................................................................................ 29 • Chemical controls ........................................................................................................................ 29 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 30 2. Collecting and Using Monitoring Data ............................................................................................ 30 2.1. Pests and Predator Data ........................................................................................................... 30 2.2. Diseases .................................................................................................................................. 30 2.3. Weeds ..................................................................................................................................... 30 2.4. Incidence Reports .................................................................................................................... 30 3. Incorporating the Data into a Management Plan ............................................................................. 31 3.1. The Decision Making Process ..................................................................................................... 31 3.2. Selecting the Control Option ...................................................................................................... 31 3.3. Implementing the Control Option ............................................................................................... 31 3.4. Following the Application Instruction .......................................................................................... 31 3.5. Deciding on the Appropriate Application Method ......................................................................... 31 4. Other Considerations .................................................................................................................... 31 4.1. Weather .................................................................................................................................. 32 4.2. Growth Stage ........................................................................................................................... 32 4.3. Type of Product ....................................................................................................................... 32 5. Selecting and Implementing Safety Measures ................................................................................. 32 5.1. Legal Requirements .................................................................................................................. 32 5.2. Social Responsibilities ............................................................................................................... 32 6. Evaluating the Water Needed ........................................................................................................ 32 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 34 2. Determining the Efficacy of the Product Applied ............................................................................. 34 2.1. Post Application Monitoring Frequency ....................................................................................... 34 2.2. Sampling Methods .................................................................................................................... 34 2.3. Field Records ........................................................................................................................... 35 2.4. Control Action Criteria ............................................................................................................... 35 2.5. Monitoring Guidelines ............................................................................................................... 35 3. Follow-up Regimes ....................................................................................................................... 35 4. Side Effects or Damage caused by Product Applications .................................................................. 35 5. Cleaning and servicing equipment ................................................................................................. 36 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 38 2. Avoid Poisoning of Non-Targeted and Beneficial Organisms ............................................................. 38 2.1. Avoid Contamination of Natural Resources such as Soil and Water ............................................... 38 2.2. Avoid drift onto non-targeted organisms and areas ..................................................................... 38 3. Disposing of empty containers ...................................................................................................... 38 4. Managing Rinse Water ................................................................................................................. 39 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 41 2. Chemical Storage Requirements .................................................................................................... 41 2.1. Ventilation ............................................................................................................................... 42 2.2. Lighting ................................................................................................................................... 42 2.3. The Importance of Correct Storage ............................................................................................ 42 2.4. Safety signs ............................................................................................................................. 42 2.5. Equipment ............................................................................................................................... 42 2.5.1. Safety equipment ................................................................................................................. 42 2.5.2. Protective Gear ..................................................................................................................... 43 2.5.3. Protective Equipment ............................................................................................................ 44 2.5.4. Other Equipment .................................................................................................................. 45 3. Chemical Categories and Separating Categories in the Store ............................................................ 45 3.1. Stacking and Packing of Agro-Chemicals .................................................................................... 47 3.2. Packing and Stacking According to Label Information .................................................................. 47 3.3. Storage of Corrosives ............................................................................................................... 48 3.3.1. Store Corrosives in Areas which are: ...................................................................................... 48 3.3.2. Storing Containers of Corrosives ............................................................................................ 48 4. Emergency and Safety Plans ......................................................................................................... 48 4.1. Procedures in Case of Poisoning ................................................................................................ 48


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4.2. Procedures for Spills and Leakages ............................................................................................ 49 4.3. Clean up Procedures ................................................................................................................. 50 4.4. Incident Reports ...................................................................................................................... 50 5. Access control and security of the store ......................................................................................... 50


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Directions This learning material has been developed to assist the learner wishing to complete this unit standard. The guide contains all necessary learning to ensure that the learner will attain the competencies required by the unit standard. The learner guide is accompanied by a Learner Assessment Guide. Please ensure that you have access to this guide as well. The learner guide was designed to be used by a learner during the presentation of a skills program based on the unit standard, and to be kept afterwards by the learner for reference purposes. The learner assessment guide was designed to be completed during and after the presentation of the skills program, and forms part of the assessment process. Although this learner guide contains all the information required for attaining competency in this unit standard, references to additional resources, both printed and electronic, are provided for further study by the learner. Information in boxes is indicated by tags that show:


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Revision of Level 3 Monitor the common pests prevalent in the specific agricultural enterprise. Collect insects not familiar and that had been identified.

Scouting, or monitoring pest populations, is part of an integrated pest management (IPM) system. According to the principles of IPM, one should scout for specific pests periodically and monitor the increase in population by gathering specific types of data and samples.

Good agricultural practices are basic environmental and operational conditions that are necessary for the production of safe, wholesome fruit.

Repeated scouting in the same orchard by the same scout, and detailed recordkeeping assist in identifying new damage and determining the cause of the damage.

The most effective way to identify pests is simply to walk around and actively scout or look for pests in the orchard.

Scouting involves systematically moving through orchards looking for pests, measuring populations, and then using this information to make pest control decisions.

During pest and disease monitoring, it is important to scout for known predators. If the predator count is sufficiently high, chemical action might not be necessary.

Choosing the right time and to scout and the method of scouting is often determined by analysing past scouting and monitoring records.

If a significant number of these pests are observed, or the damage that they cause is of significant concern, then it would be wise to trap some of the insects and have them professionally identified.

Data from monitoring tools such as traps and pest sighting scout sheets or logs, are used in the decision making process, and also to evaluate the success of pest management strategies used.

Demonstrate a basic knowledge of trapping, monitoring and recording the incidence of pests, diseases and weeds.

Trapping can assist the pest scout in gathering more accurate information. Different traps can be set to trap different pests or types of insects

Traps are assessed by checking the insects that was trapped. IPM and GAP regulations determine when traps should be checked.

While scouting and assessing traps the scout are also responsible to monitor the orchard for occurrences of diseases and weeds.

Records are kept of all monitoring and scouting practices. The data collected from scouting and trap monitoring records will determine how pests controlled. The data collected from scouting and trap monitoring records will determine how pests controlled.

Monitor the symptoms of disease associated with the agricultural enterprise.

Diseases often destroy the plant or cause so much damage to the plant that it has to be replaced. When plants are replaced, it normally entails great economic expense and loss of production as new trees require time to grow before they produce fruit.

Good disease management requires an in depth knowledge of how different factors interact in the development of the disease; particularly, knowledge of environmental conditions that stress the plant, making it more susceptible to disease.

By following simple guidelines the occurance of the most common pests in the citrus orchard can be negated, but even the best prevention programme can never totally ensure that diseases will not occur so effective scouting and monitoring is vital.

Monitor and report the incidence of weeds in the agricultural enterprise Chapter 4

There are three categories of weeds that should be monitored in Citrus orchards, namely broadleaf, grasses, and sedges.


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It is important to consider Good Agricultural Practices when planning the monitoring principles related to weeds.

As with any agricultural action plan the effectiveness of the plan can only be determined by recordkeeping and the constant monitoring of the process.

To implement an effective weed control plan the farm or production area must firstly be divided into alien plant infestations control areas.

When planning seasonal monitoring and weed control operation a plan of operations for the current year’s work in high priority control areas must be drawn up. The plan must be flexible and allow adjustment as progress is made.

Weed monitoring works on a similar principle to pest and disease monitoring and requires the scout to frequently walk through orchards and record the weeds found as well as the stage at which the weeds are found.

Recordkeeping are required to determine the effectiveness of the weed control and monitoring plan. For successful non-invasive weed monitoring, a good knowledge of the plants that are considered

unwanted growth and their growth cycles for the geographical area where the orchard is situated is essential.

Landowners are under a legal obligation to control invading alien plants occurring on their properties. This obligation exists as a result of the various laws.


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Introduction

Introduction A learner achieving this unit standard will understand the basic principles of an integrated pest management system with basic control measures as per agricultural enterprise. Furthermore, the learner will be able to recognise and differentiate between economical damageable pests and diseases and make use and interpret sources for application or product management. Learners will gain an understanding of sustainable agricultural practices as applied in the animal-, plant and mixed farming sub fields. This unit standard focuses on the application of pest identification in primary agriculture. They will be able to participate in, undertake and plan farming practices with knowledge of their environment. This unit standard will instil a culture of maintenance and care for both the environment as well as towards farming infrastructure and operations.

Learning Assumed to Be in Place It is assumed that the learner has successfully completed the unit standards listed below:

NQF Level Unit Standard Number Unit Standard Description

1 (ABET 4) Literacy and Numeracy

2 116124 Apply crop protection and animal health products effectively and responsibly.

2 116125 Apply crop protection and animal health products effectively and responsibly

3 116265 Monitor pests, diseases and weeds on crops

Prescribed Material The following material is prescribed for this unit standard: Identification Manual for Citrus Pests and Their Natural Enemies published by Citrus Research International Contact Details: (013) 759-8000 or www.cri.co.za

http://www.cri.co.za/


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Chapter 1 After completing this chapter, the learner will be able to: Demonstrate a basic understanding of the principles of integrated pest management. 1. Introduction Integrated Fruit Production, IFP, or Integrated Pest Management Systems, IPM, entails the integration of Good Agricultural Practices in such a way that economic returns are maximised, while considering the sustainability of the actions and the environmental impact of the any pest, disease and weed control actions taken. IPM is applicable to all types of agriculture. Reliance on knowledge, experience, observation, and integration of multiple techniques makes IPM a perfect fit for organic farming, the synthetic chemical option is simply not considered, and other farming enterprises. For large-scale, chemical-based farms, IPM can reduce human and environmental exposure to hazardous chemicals, and potentially lower overall costs. 2. Integrating Different Methods of Pest Control An IFP encompasses all production aspects, from identifying the appropriate cultivars for a specific area, to soil preparation and soil utilisation and the utilisation of certified pest- and disease-free plant material which is true to type.

“True to type” means that the plant material has not been genetically modified and has not gone through any natural genetic mutations during the propagation stage. For example, if a Valencia tree has been chosen, then it will produce “true to type” Valencia Oranges, with the typical associated characteristics of Valencia oranges.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an important component of IFP and entails the complementary integration of various pest control measures into a system which strives to balance maximisation of returns, long term sustainability and minimisation of environmental impact. Pest control takes place for various reasons:

• To minimise or eliminate the damage to crops responsible for reducing crop quality or quantity. • To prevent the outbreak of diseases while fruit is being transported, that can reduce crop quality and

can possibly affect the shelf-life of the fruit. • To eliminate exposure of export countries to phytosanitary pests and avoid declined consignments of

fruit due to phytosanitary pests. • To limit the spread of pests and diseases between orchards, farms and areas.

Pest control options fall into the following categories:

• Chemical control • Biological control • Cultural control


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Pest control considerations are more than just reacting against a pest or disease. The factors to consider also include:

• The cost in terms of labour and equipment. • The viability of reacting against a pest or disease at a specific population size. • The legality of applying a specific control option. • How the environment and natural resources are influenced by a control option. • How the pest or disease will react to a specific control option in terms of resistance. • Follow up procedures for a specific control option for example follow up sprays or alternating

chemicals over a specified application period. The goal of IPM is to manage pests and the environment so as to balance costs, benefits, public health, and environmental quality. IPM systems use all available technical information on the pest and its interactions with the environment. Due to the fact that IPM programs apply a holistic approach to pest management decision-making, they take advantage of all appropriate pest management options, including, but not limited to pesticides. An IPM can thus be described as:

• A system using multiple methods. • A decision-making process. • A risk reduction system. • Information intensive. • Cost-effective. • Site specific.

3. The Importance of Monitoring Monitoring pests, diseases and weeds is the most important aspect of an Integrated Production Management strategy since the monitoring activities will alert the grower early on, rather than later when infestation might be more difficult to manage. Monitoring and scouting activities normally revolve around:

• Pests, diseases and weeds present. • Population growth of pests, diseases and weeds. • Natural enemies and beneficial organisms present. • Efficacy of control methods.

If monitoring takes place on a regular, planned basis and it incorporates detailed recordkeeping, decisions can be made early on in terms of taking action against a specific pest, disease or weed. Monitoring actions also reflect on the effect that a specific control option has had and will assist in making further decisions in terms of control options. 4. The Ratio between Pests and Predators Integrated pest management incorporates a harmonious combination of all the pest control approaches into a coherent, economically attractive, sustainable and environmentally sensitive strategy. The basis on which an IPM system must be built is an appreciation for the ability of a particular level of bio-control activity to provide economic control of a pest in a highly complex ecological relationship. The predator-prey or parasitoid-host relationship is extensively affected by extraneous factors such as climate, cultivar, and tree age, time of the year and the effects of pesticide use. This requires, in addition to a great deal of expertise and experience, the implementation of an effective monitoring system and the use of traps and intervention thresholds. The nature of the general pest complex is such that there are no citrus producing areas in which orchards can consistently yield crops of export quality in the total absence of treatment with registered pesticides. In most cases, the more that can be done to achieve biological control of the key pests, the more openings that will be created for the biological control of other pests. This will need to be achieved while maintaining the control of pests which are less amenable to biological control, with the aid of registered products. It may sometimes make financial sense to tolerate some economic damage from a particular pest rather than resort to chemical intervention which disrupts the bio control complex of other pests resulting in the need to resort

Learner Guide Skills Area: Pests, Disease and Weeds Level: 4 Unit Standards: 116301 to further pesticide use. Natural enemies are usually more susceptible to pesticides than the pests, either because the pesticides kill them off or because there is no prey left for the natural enemies to feed on. Some general guidelines in terms of pesticide application are:

• Utilise treatment thresholds where possible. • Treat the most susceptible life stage of the pest. • Use the lowest registered dosage of a pesticide to increase the survival rate of natural enemies. • Use pesticides with short periods of residual action where possible. • Where multiple pesticide applications are necessary, rotate the pesticide groups to prevent resistance

build-up. 5. Replacing Pheromones, Clearing Traps and Assessing Information Monitoring of pests and diseases is a useless exercise if it is not properly planned, followed up and recorded. It is thus important that all strategies used in the monitoring plan work effectively. This includes:

• Monitoring and scouting at set intervals in specific locations in a specified way. • Recording and reporting findings of each monitoring action. • Frequently replacing or refreshing pheromone traps – if the pheromones break down over time and

decrease in concentration and will thus not attract the targeted insects any more after a time period. • Frequently clearing or replacing all traps and recording the number and specifications of the

organisms trapped over a specific time period – it would be impossible to make an accurate decision if a trap has not been cleared since the last monitoring action or if it isn’t known how long the trapping actions have been taking place.

Once all steps have been taken and the records completed the information on the records must be assessed and evaluated. Failure to assess the records can mean that all monitoring and scouting actions are preformed needlessly. Once data has been collected it must be structured and captured in such a manner that any increase in pest number will be immediately noted and that problem areas are highlighted.

6. The Importance of Recordkeeping Each citrus farm has its own recording system. The aims of the recording systems related to pest, disease and weed control should be:

• To keep track of monitoring dates. • To keep track of orchards monitored on the specific dates. • To keep track of the monitoring points within specific orchards on the specific dates. • To record which staff member is involved in monitoring and scouting actions to ensure that the best

staff members are used in terms of productivity and skill. • To plan a strategy for recording population sizes of pests and beneficial organisms as well as their

life-stages in order to react according to threshold recommendations and at the correct life-stage. • To record all actions taken within specific orchards. • To record follow-up monitoring actions after taking actions within specific orchards to determine the

efficacy of the actions taken. Without a well structured and maintained recordkeeping programme, decision regarding pests controlled will be uninformed, and the effectiveness of measures taken will not be determined. Records must be kept and evaluated to ensure the ongoing effectiveness of the IPM as well as to highlight areas where the system can be improved.

CitrusGrowers

11 Associati


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Chapter 1

Reliance on knowledge, experience, observation, and integration of multiple techniques makes IPM a perfect fit for any farming enterprise.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an important component of IFP and entails the complementary integration of various pest control measures into a system which strives to balance maximisation of returns, long term sustainability and minimisation of environmental impact.

Monitoring pests, diseases and weeds is the most important aspect of an Integrated Production Management strategy since the monitoring activities will alert the grower early on, rather than later when infestation might be more difficult to manage.

Monitoring of pests and diseases is a useless exercise if it is not properly planned, followed up and recorded. It is thus important that all strategies used in the monitoring plan work effectively.

Without a well structured and maintained recordkeeping programme, decision regarding pests controlled will be uninformed, and the effectiveness of measures taken will not be determined.

Complete activity * in the Learner Workbook.


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Chapter 2 After completing this chapter, the learner will be able to: Identify and differentiate between economically damageable pests, sporadic pests, diseases and symptoms using guides or resource material. 1. Introduction The IPM regime can be quite simple, or sophisticated enough to be a farming system in its own right. The main focus is usually insect pests, but IPM encompasses diseases, weeds, and any other naturally occurring biological crop threat. It is important to remember that different crops and different cultivars might be more susceptible to different pest infestations according to the geographical area. There are many resource guides, control manuals and programs available as an aid for identification and control, to the grower. It is important to evaluate the scientific background and applicability of the different resources on merit. If you are unsure of the source, it is always a good idea to consult the Integrated Production Guidelines for Export Citrus from the CRI, or to request assistance from the experts at the CRI or the CGA. 2. Identifying Beneficial Organisms Biological control of pests and diseases is a method of controlling pests, weeds and diseases in agriculture that relies on natural predation, parasitism or other natural mechanism, rather than introduced chemicals. Biological Control is defined as the reduction of pest populations by natural enemies and typically involves an active human role. Natural enemies of insect pests, also known as biological control agents, include predators, parasitoids, and pathogens. Biological control agents of plant diseases are most often referred to as antagonists. Pathogens are disease-causing organisms including bacteria, fungi, and viruses. They kill or debilitate their host and are relatively specific to certain insect groups. There are three basic types of biological control strategies:

• Conservation. • Classical biological control. • Augmentation.

These are discussed in more detail later in this module. Beneficial organisms for citrus fall into the categories of parasitoids or predatory insects and mites. The parasitoids are mainly wasps that lay their eggs in or on their hosts, resulting in the larvae that feed on the host and kill it off in the process. Some female wasps also puncture their host while laying eggs and consume the escaping body fluid, resulting in the host’s death. Predatory insects and mites consume their prey. The following (table 1.1) are important beneficial organisms in citrus:

Host (The pest) Organism (Predator)

Mealybug Anagyrus (Parasitic wasp)

Red scale, circular purple scale, mussel scale Aphytis (Parasitic wasp)

Soft scales Coccophagus semicircularis


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Red Scale Comperiella bifasciata (Pradatory wasp)

Citrus Mealybug Coccidoxenoides (Small wasp)

Red scale, circular purple scale Chilocorus distigma (Ladybird)

Red scale Chilecorus nigritus (Ladybird)

Red scale, mealybug, psylla, aphids, mites Chrysoperla pudica (Green lacewing)

Mealybug Cryptolaemus montrouzieri (Ladybird)

Thrips, mite pests Euseius spp (Predatory Mite)

Mealybug, scale, aphids, occasionally mites Exochomus spp (Predacious ladybird)

Circular purple scale, Red scale Lindorus lopanthae (Predatory beetle)

Australian bug Rodolia spp (Vedalia beetle)

Pest mites Strethorus spp (Strethorius beetle)

Citrus thrips, lepidopteran eggs, mites, possibly scale crawlers

Orius thripoborus (Predatopry bug)

Table 1.1 – Beneficial Organisms A detailed description and identification photos of different citrus predators and their affect on their prey can be found in the CRI Identification Manual for Citrus Pests and their Natural Enemies. 3. Monitoring Beneficial Organisms Recognition of both harmful and beneficial organisms impacting on citrus production is essential to development of a sound IPM program. Growers and field scouts need to recognize pests and beneficials in various stages of development with the help of a hand lens. Equally important is the ability to recognize pest activities or diseases through use of symptomology. Most insect and mite pests can be identified with a low power (10 to 14X) lens, but visual evidence of damage to fruit, foliage or trees is useful for identification of causal agents. Moreover, the presence of microscopic pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, viruses and nematodes can be characterized by symptoms. Symptomology allows for the distinction between pathogenic and physiological disorders which sometimes are confused. 4. Beneficial Organism Counts In order to make more informed decisions concerning biological pest control, beneficial organisms must be identified and collected in the orchard to determine how many organisms are in the orchard. Citrus are produced in many different climatic and environmental regions in South Africa and effect that beneficial organisms have on pests differs from region to region. Professional insectariums must be contacted in order to obtain information concerning the optimum ratio of beneficial organism against pests. Remember it is important to identify the sex of insects when collecting both beneficial insects and pests to determine how many of each is present in the orchard. 5. Recognising Damage on Citrus and Assigning the Cause The most important tool that you could use in learning how to scout is to take the CRI scouting guide and go out into the orchard and try to find some of the specific pests or pests symptoms depicted there.

Remember that it is very important to distinguish between “old damage” and “new damage” caused by pests. This was discussed in detail in the level 2 guide. It is very important that the pest scout learns to distinguish between old and new damage. Remember that new damage is often a sign of new pest or disease infestation. Repeated scouting in the same orchard, by the same scout and detailed recordkeeping will assist in identifying new damage and identifying the cause.


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The following figures will assist you in identifying the possible pest according to the damage that is observed:


Choose the part on

which the damage is

most visible

Fruit

Foliage

Blossoms

Stems/ Trunks/ Twigs

Roots

Whole Tree

Figure 1 – Possible damage areas on the plants


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Figure 2 – Ascribing specific fruit damage to possible causes

Fruit Damage

Fruit Shape Abnormal

Lesions or marks on

fruit

Fallen Fruit

Possible Causes: Budmite

Or Bollworm

Possible Causes: Red Scale, Thrips, Bollworm, Brown

Leafhopper, Green Leafhopper, Wind, Hail

Possible Causes: False Codling Moth, Fruit Fly, Budmite,

Bollworm, Alternaria, Burst

Insects visible on fruit

Residue on fruit

Possible Causes: Mealy Bug

Aphids Australian bug

Possible Causes: Mealy Bug

Aphids Australian Bug

Prematurely coloured fruit or discoloured

fruit

Possible causes: False coddling moth, Fruit fly, Leafhopper,

Mites, Alternaria


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Figure 3 – Ascribing specific foliar damage to possible causes

Foliar Damage

Malformed Leaves

Residues on leaves

Leaf has been eaten by

something

Possible Causes: Budmite, Aphids, Thrips

Possible Causes: Mealy bug, Aphids,

Australian Bug

Possible Causes: Leafminer, Orange dog

butterfly, Thrips, grasshopper

Insects visible on leaf

Discoloured leaf

Possible Causes: Red scale, mites,

leafhoppers

Possible Causes: Leafhoppers, mealybug,

Australian bug, Soft brown scale, Mites


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Figure 4 – Ascribing specific blossom damage to possible causes

Blossom Damage

Abnormal blossom shape

Insects present on blossoms

Residues on blossoms

Possible Causes:

Budmite

Possible Causes: Bollworm, Aphids

Possible Causes:

Aphids


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6. Using Research Resources

It is helpful to consult specialists and publications in terms of new developments and research in the field of pest, disease and weed identification and IPM. The following are useful resources to consult, other than your Agricultural Chemical supplier:

Information services

• Citrus Growers Association - www.cga.co.za • Citrus Research International Integrated Production Guidelines for export citrus • Citrus Research International - http://www.cri.co.za/ • Du Roi IPM - http://www.duroibugs.co.za/ • ARC library services - http://www.arc.agric.za/home.asp?pid=392

7. Identification Techniques Pest and disease causing organisms can be identified in different methods. If the pest is large enough, it can be visually seen and its life stage identified. Some of the problematic organisms, however, cannot be seen with the naked eye and assistance is sometimes required in identifying the organism.

7.1. Macroscopic

Large insects can be seen without assistance, but the aid of a hand-held lens is often used by pest scouts to identify the insect more clearly, categorise its life stage accurately and to determine the insects sex.

7.2. Microscopic

Not all pest or disease-causing organisms can be seen without the assistance of a microscope. Microscopic identification is often called for to confirm that the organism suspected of causing the damage or disease symptom is in fact accurate. Microscopic identification requires skill of laboratory techniques and often requires the expertise of specialists.

7.3. Chemical

Some laboratory techniques require specific chemical stains to identify the micro-organism. These colour the organism or react with the organism which verifies its identity. In the case of diseases laboratory culture growth test are done to determine the presence of diseases and to identify specific diseases.

8. Identifying Disease and Damage Symptoms Details regarding the symptoms of specific diseases and damage have been discussed at level 2 and 3. It is important to accurately record the damage that is seen and to ascribe the symptoms as either old damage or new damage. Most diseases are identified through the symptoms that are displayed and the damage that is seen gives a detailed account of the symptoms observed. 9. The Frequency of Performing Scouting Monitoring frequencies vary between farms and production areas, but are usually set at specific intervals and time periods per orchard with an indication of specific scouting points. It is important to plan the monitoring in advance for the entire season or year to ensure that the correct procedures are followed. Regular and planned monitoring activities will assist in accurately identifying pests and diseases, population

http://www.cga.co.za/

http://www.cri.co.za/

http://www.duroibugs.co.za/

http://www.arc.agric.za/home.asp?pid=392


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sizes, life stages and natural enemies present. This will allow the farm to take action only if and when it is required and at such a stage that the pest or disease population can be controlled or eliminated. It is important to remember that scouting must also be planned for each orchard as a follow-up procedure after any action has taken place against a specific pest or disease to determine if the population size is in fact decreasing and if the action has in fact had the desired impact. Should no noticeable decrease or impact be visible on the pest or disease population after a set interval, trouble shooting actions should take place and questions can be asked about the effectiveness of the action, whether the action taken was administered correctly and at the recommended strength or dose, whether other factors such as wind has prevented the action from having effect or if the pest or disease organism has in fact built up resistance to the action. 10. Weather Patterns and its Impact on Pests and Diseases The weather plays a very important part in how pest populations behave and how they are affected by any actions taken against them. In high humidity conditions, one can expect the likelihood of fungal disease break-out to increase dramatically because the increased humidity creates an ideal growth environment for the fungi. As a result, actions might be taken on a preventative basis. Many weather stations actually release warnings in terms of the likelihood of specific diseases breaking out under specific conditions. The weather also affects the success of an action taken against a specific pest or disease. It is pointless to apply agrochemicals right before rainfall if the chemical is likely to wash off the plants before it has had any effect on the pest or disease. Application of agrochemicals during high wind speeds will prevent the chemical from targeting the right organism and orchard and might impact the environment negatively when the chemicals blow away and end up in the wrong areas or dissolve in the water source.

Chapter 2

The IPM regime can be quite simple, or sophisticated enough to be a farming system in its own right. The main focus is usually insect pests, but IPM encompasses diseases, weeds, and any other naturally occurring biological crop threat.

Biological control of pests and diseases is a method of controlling pests, weeds and diseases in agriculture that relies on natural predation, parasitism or other natural mechanism, rather than introduced chemicals.

Recognition of both harmful and beneficial organisms impacting on citrus production is essential to development of a sound IPM program.

In order to make more informed decisions concerning biological pest control, beneficial organisms must be identified and collected in the orchard to determine how many organisms are in the orchard.

The most important tool that you could use in learning how to scout is to take the CRI scouting guide and go out into the orchard and try to find some of the specific pests or pests symptoms depicted there.

It is helpful to consult specialists and publications in terms of new developments and research in the field of pest, disease and weed identification and IPM.

Pest and disease causing organisms can be identified in different methods. Most diseases are identified through the symptoms that are displayed and the damage that is

seen gives a detailed account of the symptoms observed. Monitoring and scouting frequencies vary between farms and production areas, but are

usually set at specific intervals and time periods per orchard with an indication of specific scouting points.

The weather plays a very important part in how pest populations behave and how they are affected by any actions taken against them.


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Chapter 3 After completing this chapter, the learner will be able to: Understand the different types of control measures that can be applied in integrated pest management program for pests, diseases and weeds. 1. Introduction Once you understand the principles behind IPM, it becomes important to examine how these principles can be applied in reality. An IPM system is designed around six basic components:

1.1. Acceptable pest levels

The emphasis is on control, not eradication. IPM holds that wiping out an entire pest population is often impossible, and the attempt can be more costly, environmentally unsafe, and all-round counterproductive than it is worth. Better to decide on what constitutes acceptable pest levels, and apply controls if those levels are reached. 1.2. Preventive cultural practices Selecting varieties best for local growing conditions, and maintaining healthy crops, is the first line of defence. 1.3. Monitoring Regular observation is the cornerstone of IPM. Visual inspection, insect traps, and other measurement methods are used to monitor pest levels. Record-keeping is essential, as is a thorough knowledge of the behaviour and reproductive cycles of target pests. 1.4. Mechanical controls Should a pest reach an unacceptable level, mechanical methods are the first options to consider. They include simple hand-picking, erecting insect barriers, using traps, vacuuming, and tillage to disrupt breeding. 1.5. Biological controls Natural biological processes and materials can provide control, with minimal environmental impact, and often at low cost. The main focus here is on promoting beneficial insects that eat target pests. 1.6. Chemical controls Considered as an IPM last resort, synthetic pesticides may be used when other controls fail or are deemed unlikely to prove effective. Biological insecticides, derived from plants or naturally occurring micro organisms, also fit in this category.

In order to implement these principles correctly and efficiently it becomes vitally important that the grower has a thorough understanding of the different types of pests and infestation levels that would cause economic damage to the crop. Without this understanding, it will become nearly impossible to implement the principles of IPM and to make sound decisions regarding monitoring and control methods. 2. Control Measures


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The three general approaches available for managing pests of citrus are: cultural control, biological control and chemical control. The first two are preventative in nature and may have more impact on long-term production, while chemical control provides short-term relief or prevention from pest pressure.

2.1. Biological control

Developments in FCM control via a virus:

One of the most exciting areas of research is the use of insect viruses for pest control. This research has been conducted by the CRI and Rhodes University. Insect viruses have been found to have tremendous advantages over chemical pesticides. Viruses are target-specific, thereby not harmful to beneficial insects, and they are naturally-occurring products that do not affect the food chain.

The moth virus that is being worked with is known as Cryptophlebia leucotreta granulovirus (CLGV). It belongs to a family of insect-pathogenic viruses (the Baculoviridae). When an insect swallows this virus, usually from the detritus of larvae already killed by it, the virus's protective granule is dissolved by the alkalinity of the gut.

Biological control may be seen as consisting of three major components, namely classical biological control, conservation of bio control agents and augmentation.

2.1.1. Classical biological control (CBC) Classical biological control (CBC) relies on the co-evolution of the host plant, pests and their natural enemies over long periods. Many pests originate from outside of Southern Africa. The co-evolved natural enemies of particular pests often do not accompany the pests when first introduced into Southern Africa.

Many indigenous bio control agents adopt new pests as their host or prey, but they seldom provide adequate control because they have not evolved in association with the pest insects. In CBC an attempt is made to restore the natural balance between plant, pest and its natural enemies by also introducing the relevant bio control agents from areas where the pest originated. The aim of CBC is to permanently establish these introduced bio control agents and consequently, reduce the status of the pest below an economically damaging threshold. These translocations are strictly controlled to ensure that they are ecologically safe and as such provide the most sustainable, cost-efficient and environmentally sound solution to pest problems. Biological control options rely on a close relationship between pest and natural enemy to achieve results of commercial significance. Natural enemies need to achieve a balance with their specific hosts. Unfortunately, CBC does not provide a solution to all pests since endeavours to find an appropriate bio control agent in the area of pest origin may be unsuccessful, the pest may be better adapted to its new environment than its bio control agents, or the pest may be an indigenous organism which has adopted citrus as a new and favourable host. Furthermore, the need to routinely resort to chemical intervention for the control of other pests may compromise the efficacy of the bio control complex.

2.1.2. Conservation


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Conservation of bio control agents relies on the cultural control practices described below and the minimisation of the effect of plant protection products on an existing bio control complex. Judicious selection of plant protection products to be used goes hand in hand with limiting reliance on chemical intervention to instances where it is essential to avoid financial losses.

2.1.3. Augmentation

Augmentation of critical components of the bio control complex relies on the timeous release of insectary-reared bio control agents. This technique is still in the early stages of development in Southern African citrus industry but it potentially offers a highly attractive, sustainable and environmentally acceptable component of an IPM strategy. This step from passively allowing the bio control complex to realise its inherent pest control potential, to actively manipulating the population dynamics of particular bio control agents, is what characterises bio-intensive IPM. Commercial insectaries currently supply parasitic wasps for the control of citrus mealybug, red scale and false codling moth, and predatory beetles for the control of mealybug and red scale.

Certain basic principles of natural enemy augmentation need to be implemented in order to enjoy success with this approach. These natural enemies must be released into an orchard environment that is suitable for their survival. Augmentation of parasitoids cannot be used to correctively control high pest levels. Parasitoid augmentation is a preventative approach, and therefore releases should be initiated as early as possible in the season. Releases should be conducted approximately monthly and should continue for a few months, preferably until parasitism of the target pest is at an acceptable level. Predators can more easily be released correctively against high levels of pest infestation. Through research, recommended release densities of certain natural enemies have been determined. These densities can be obtained from the appropriate expert or professional insectariums. Pest control achieved through natural enemy augmentation is gradual. It is therefore necessary that intensive monitoring of the target pest, and if possible its natural enemies too, is continued until it is clear that the pest is under good bio control.

2.2. Cultural Control

Surprisingly simple modifications of a pest's environment or habitat often prove to be effective methods of pest control. As a group, these tactics are usually known as cultural control practices because they frequently involve variations of standard horticultural, silvicultural, or animal husbandry practices. Since these control tactics usually modify the relationships between a pest population and its natural environment, they are also known, less commonly, as ecological control methods. Simplicity and low cost are the primary advantages of cultural control tactics, and disadvantages are few as long as these tactics are compatible with a growers’ other management objectives such as high yields, mechanization, etcetera. Unfortunately, there are still a wide variety of insect pests that cannot be suppressed by cultural methods alone.

2.2.1. Crop Rotation

Crop rotation, although not applicable to citrus production, is one of the oldest and most effective cultural control strategies. Growing a single crop year after year in the same field gives pest populations sufficient time to become established and build up to damaging levels. Rotating the field to a different type of crop can break this cycle by starving pests that cannot adapt to a different host plant. Rotation schemes have also proven successful for controlling pests in pasture lands.

2.2.2. Intercropping

Intercropping, also known as mixed cropping, is another way to reduce pest populations by increasing environmental diversity. In some cases, intercropping lowers the overall attractiveness of the environment, as when host and non-host plants are mixed together in a single planting. But in other cases, intercropping may concentrate the pest in a smaller, more manageable area so it can be controlled by some other tactic.


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In some crops, it is possible to create discontinuity in the pest's food supply simply by altering the time of year for planting or harvesting. This strategy, often known as phenological asynchrony, allows farmers to manage their crop so it remains out of phase with pest populations.

2.2.3. Managed Application

Managed application of water or fertilizer can have a big impact on the survival of pest populations in some crops. Good irrigation and appropriate fertilization keeps plants healthy, vigorous, and more resistant to insect injury.

2.2.4. Sanitation

Sanitation is another cultural control strategy that may be highly effective for some pests. Clean cultivation is often recommended as a way to eliminate shelter and/or over wintering sites for pest populations. Although it works well in corn and cotton cultivation, clean cultivation is not always the best solution for eliminating pest populations. In some cases, ground cover or crop debris shelters natural enemies that are important members of the ecosystem. Without adequate shelter these beneficial populations would die or move away.

The goal of cultural control is to use all practical horticultural techniques to reduce the likelihood of pest problems. These should encompass all phases of production, beginning with site selection and progress through the nursery operation to field establishment and eventually during full production. Site selection should take into consideration the soil type and elevation to avoid prolonged surface flooding and to minimize cold damage to trees. Site levelling is important to permit uniform irrigation. Planting schemes also influence the efficiency of agrochemicals applied after trees reach maturity. Selection of a rootstock with acceptable disease tolerance and good horticultural characteristics is an important cultural component to pest management, as is use of healthy disease-free scion budwood. No disease prevention effort is more important or pays greater dividends to the grower in the long run than the planting and maintenance of healthy virus-free trees. Every effort should be made in this regard to promote availability of certified, virus-free budwood for all commercially important citrus cultivars. Other preventive measures in the nursery include the practice of budding high enough on the rootstocks to minimize chances for infection by foot rot fungi.

Cultural practices can contribute both directly and indirectly towards the control of citrus pests. By increasing plant diversity, the susceptibility of the main crop can be reduced, populations of natural enemies can be increased and alternative food supplies for natural enemies can be provided. This increased diversity can be achieved through the use of ground covers, windbreak trees, other natural vegetation and, possibly the use of cash crops. Other operational systems can have a direct bearing on the pest population within an orchard or the ability of the tree to withstand pests. Topics in this category include irrigation, orchard sanitation, pruning, suppression of dust and reducing detrimental effects from adjacent non-citrus crops.

2.3. Chemical Control

Of the insecticides and miticides registered for citrus, some are specific in their range of pests controlled while some are non-specific. Good management philosophy for selection of pesticides embraces the premise that for a given pest situation, a particular pesticide or combination of pesticides will provide the most appropriate and cost-effective control among those available. Choosing the proper chemical requires familiarity with product labels and performance. Among the factors which influence the selection of a chemical, efficacy of the product against the target pest is perhaps the most important. Other factors to consider in selecting a chemical include:

• Cost effectiveness. • Hazard to beneficials and other non-target organisms.


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• Potential hazards to applicators, environment, orchard or fruit crop. • Limitations or restrictions on application. • Impact on development of pest resistance. • The Maximum Residue Levels specified by importing countries.

Product efficacy refers to the level of pesticidal qualities of a product with respect to specific target pests and is a relative measure of effectiveness when compared to performance of other products available for similar usage. Characteristics influencing efficacy include the time required for the product to gain control, the amount of residual control and the spectrum of pests controlled. Knowledge of individual product characteristics is important when choosing the most appropriate pesticide. Residual action in itself may or may not be a desirable quality depending on circumstances. Long-residual pesticides also may reduce the effectiveness of beneficial organisms. The comparison of the cost effectiveness of different pesticide strategies should factor in the amount of pest kill, length of control and cost of the product per hectare. The spectrum of activity of the pesticides should also be considered. A single broad spectrum material may substitute for two or more specific ones. Some may have adverse effects on beneficial organisms. Therefore, cost effectiveness relates to cost of product per unit of fruit produced or to net income received and is best determined over a period of at least one season, preferably longer.

3. Mating Disruption

Mating disruption (MD) involves the use of pheromones, i.e. the chemicals produced by an insect which evoke a specific response in the other individuals of the same species. MD is based on the principle that when a specific pheromone is released in the air in an orchard in sufficiently high quantity, the males are unable to orient to natural sources of pheromone and fail to locate the calling female and the reproduction is prevented.

Mating disruption aims to prevent male and female insects from coming in contact with each other. Mating disruption works in one of 3 ways:

3.1. Peripheral and Central Nervous System Effects

Olfactory receptors in moths concerned with the detection of pheromones are located on the antennae. When exposed to a constant stimulus, e.g., pheromone, the output from sensory organs declines rapidly this condition is known as adaptation. The sensory organs recover fairly rapidly, in about 2-3 seconds, once the stimulus is removed. On the other hand a high and uniform concentration of the pheromone could effectively shut down the ability of sensory organs to detect the pheromone.

The exposure to high concentration of pheromone may result in the decline of behavioural response lasting several minutes or few hours. This effect is on the central nervous system and is referred to as habituation. In this situation nerves do not recover in the normal manner. Thus habituation caused by the exposure of moths to high concentrations of pheromones could play an important role in suppressing normal male responsiveness in the mating disruption.

3.2. False Trails

This phenomenon works when many sources of pheromones are placed in the field and male moths are attracted to false sources, wasting time and energy. Under these conditions, the likelihood of a male finding a calling female would be very low. Under these situations it may also be important that all pheromone sources are releasing about the same amount of pheromone as a calling female.

Male moths would cease to be attracted to a pheromone source when the concentration of pheromone gets too high i.e. above a response threshold. If this mechanism is important, it would be beneficial to have as many pheromone point sources as possible.

3.3. Masking


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In this mechanism the background level of the pheromone is often high enough to mask the odour trail from a calling female. The sensory system of the male moths is normally functioning but in the high background level of the pheromone the relatively low concentration trails emitted by females cannot be perceived.

3.4. Advantages of Mating Disruption

• The use of broad spectrum pesticides which are widely used in the orchard pest management will be reduced.

• Biological control thrives best in MD blocks because pheromones do not adversely affect parasites and predators.

• The problem of pest resurgence is rarely seen when mating disruption is used as a pest control tool.

• MD provides an alternative control tactic that reduces pressure for development of resistance to pesticides.

• Pheromones present much lower hazard to farm workers since they are non-toxic. • Pheromones do not leave toxic residues on fruits because they are not applied directly to the

fruits, and since they are inherently volatile.

3.5. Disadvantages of Mating Disruption:

• MD may not always work for all pests and at all locations. Initial pest density, orchard size and distance from untreated or abandoned orchards are the most important factors that determine the success of MD.

• MD may not be a single control component particularly when the pest populations are very high because it cannot reduce those high populations to non-damaging levels. An initial pesticide application may be required to bring the pest population to a level manageable by MD.

• MD is highly specific and will not provide protection from many other pests which may have been kept below the damaging levels by insecticide controls made against the key pests. Thus those secondary pests may assume the status of key pests in MD blocks. Therefore, careful monitoring will be called for in a MD program. Though time consuming, this monitoring is critical to the successful implementation of mating disruption.

• The initial cost of MD is very high compared with insecticidal control. Thus to switch over to a MD program may not appear desirable to growers. This should be mitigated by the reduction of sprays needed for secondary pests.

• In certain situations MD may not be effective at all e.g. in orchards where winds are frequent because a continuous high concentration may not always be present. Again, steep slopes, irregular tree heights and missing trees may also affect the success of MD.

4. Sterile Insect Technique

Though not widely practiced in agriculture, a biological control method to take heed of is the Sterile Insect Technique. SIT is the first insect pest control method that uses genetics. It is most simply described as a form of insect birth control that is carried out on an area-wide basis. The SIT involves mass breeding huge quantities of target insects in a factory or insectarium and sterilizing the males by exposing them to low doses of radiation. These sterile males are then released by air over infested areas, where they mate with wild females. If the sterile males vastly outnumber the fertile wild males, the wild population quickly dies out. The proportion of infertile males to fertile wild males must be at least 10:1. The sterile males compete with the wild males for female insects. If a female mates with a sterile male then it will have no offspring, thus the next generation's population is reduced. Repeated release of insects can eventually wipe out a population, though it is often more useful to consider controlling the population rather than eradicating it.

5. Environmental Considerations IPM aims to also protect the environment during the actions taken against a specific pest or disease. Chemical applications have the highest impact on the environment because it can:


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• Damage or kill non-targeted organisms. • Poison water and soil water. • Increase the risk of resistance build-up against specific chemicals by pests. • Increase the risk of soil erosion and soil compaction due to increased vehicle and human

movement over the soil area during chemical applications. 6. Resistance and Mode of Rotation

A strategy which works hand in hand with IPM is pesticide Resistance Management (RM) because the reduction of pesticide use in an IPM program is the most effective strategy for reducing the development of resistant pests. An RM strategy is becoming increasingly important as the number of available pesticides suitable for IPM diminishes due to more stringent residue restrictions and increasing development costs. The use of IPM-compatible pesticides must therefore be sustained for as long as possible. Resistance develops faster under the following conditions:

• Shorter life cycles. • Little immigration of susceptible individuals. • Increased intensity of pesticide use.

As growers have little influence over the length of the life cycle and rate of immigration, they must concentrate on the intensity of pesticide usage to slow the development of resistance. The more often the same or closely related pesticide is applied, the more rapid is the selection of resistance towards that pesticide or pesticide group.

If only part of the population is exposed to the pesticide and susceptible genes are maintained in the non-exposed portion of the population, the development of resistance can be slowed. This is most likely to occur with short-residual pesticides applied to the outside canopy or where spot sprays are used. The term refugia are used to describe places where arthropods are not exposed to pesticide. Certain life stages are more susceptible to pesticides than others. If the most susceptible life stage is targeted the treatment will be most effective and there will be less need to reapply the treatment. This also makes good IPM sense because a lower dosage may be able to be used and non-target effects on natural enemies can be minimised. Dosage is a controversial topic in RM because it can have different effects depending on the genetics involved and the environment in which the pesticide is used. In most cases, RM strategies must be developed without knowing the genetics involved in resistance. In all cases of monogenic resistance and in a few cases of polygenic resistance where one gene plays the major role, low doses select more slowly for resistance than higher doses so the lowest registered dose should be used. In a closed environment such as a greenhouse where natural enemies are of no concern and material costs are relatively low, an extremely high dosage of pesticide can stop the development of resistance when the dose is high enough to kill all the pests with resistant genes. In citrus orchards this technique is impractical because the dosage required would be too expensive, it would eliminate all natural enemies, 100% coverage would be impossible and it may increase resistance in other pests. The use of moderately high dosages of 2-4 times the lowest registered dose will accelerate the development of resistance because these dosages more effectively select for resistant individuals.

Chapter 3

An IPM system is designed around six basic components: • Acceptable pest levels • Preventive cultural practices • Monitoring • Mechanical controls


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• Biological controls • Chemical controls

The three general approaches available for managing pests of citrus are: cultural control, biological control and chemical control.

Biological control may be seen as consisting of three major components, namely classical biological control, conservation of bio control agents and augmentation.

Classical biological control (CBC) relies on the co-evolution of the host plant, pests and their natural enemies over long periods.

Conservation of bio control agents relies on the cultural control practices described below and the minimisation of the effect of plant protection products on an existing bio control complex.

Augmentation of critical components of the bio control complex relies on the timeous release of insectary-reared bio control agents.

Surprisingly simple modifications of a pest's environment or habitat often prove to be effective methods of pest control. As a group, these tactics are usually known as cultural control practices because they frequently involve variations of standard horticultural, silvicultural, or animal husbandry practices.

Good management philosophy for selection of pesticides embraces the premise that for a given pest situation, a particular pesticide or combination of pesticides will provide the most appropriate and cost-effective control among those available.

Mating disruption (MD) involves the use of pheromones, i.e. the chemicals produced by an insect which evoke a specific response in the other individuals of the same species.

Though not widely practiced in agriculture, a biological control method to take heed of is the Sterile Insect Technique. SIT is the first insect pest control method that uses genetics. It is most simply described as a form of insect birth control that is carried out on an area-wide basis.

A strategy which works hand in hand with IPM is pesticide Resistance Management (RM) because the reduction of pesticide use in an IPM program is the most effective strategy for reducing the development of resistant pests.



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Chapter 4 After completing this chapter, the learner will be able to: Assist in developing a plan to assist the decision making process on the type of control to apply. 1. Introduction Monitoring, scouting and trapping are the major methods used to collect information about the presence of pests, weeds and diseases in the citrus orchard. These methods are also used to monitor the effectiveness of the IPM and any control techniques that might have been implemented on the farm. Once information have been collected the data needs to be structured and presented in such a manner that pest, disease and weed population trends become easily visible. 2. Collecting and Using Monitoring Data Monitoring data is collected by the completion of scouting forms. An example of such a form and an explanation of how the form is completed are available in the level 3 training material. Once scouting forms have been completed form are handed into the IPM manager for analysis. The IPM manager will capture the data from the forms. When capturing the data the IPM manager will firstly compare the records against the monitoring plan to ensure that the plan was followed and the correct orchards was scouted in the correct manner. The records must also indicate if the traps in the area were emptied and pheromones were replaced where necessary.

2.1. Pests and Predator Data

The records are then used to determine estimated pests and predator populations. These population numbers are used to develop a graph to indicate the population growth trend. On the pest and predator population graph all control methods that was implemented must be noted to indicate if the control technique had the desired effect on population numbers.

2.2. Diseases

The occurance of any disease symptoms will also be noted on the scouting records. This information is evaluated by the IPM manager and compared with previous records from the same orchard. Any new diseases are noted and listed.

2.3. Weeds

The presence and level of infestation is also noted on the scouting records. The infestation levels of different weeds and unwanted plant growth in the different control areas are also capture and used to develop graphs from which infestation trends will become visible. Any treatment programmes that were implemented to control weeds level must also be noted on the graph to determine the effectiveness of the measures taken.

2.4. Incidence Reports

On the scouting reports any incidences such as damage to orchard caused by wildlife or climatic conditions must also be noted. This information are also captured by the IPM manager and checked against historical data to determine if it is a reoccurring incident.


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3. Incorporating the Data into a Management Plan Once all the monitoring data have been collected and captured a monitoring report are designed containing all the information and graphs. This monitoring report is then used to make management decision about the direction the IPM plan should take.

3.1. The Decision Making Process

Decision concerning whether any control methods needs to be implemented are taken after analysing the monitoring report. The population and infestation graphs are used and measured against predetermined action levels. The presence of diseases in the orchard will require direct action or further testing and monitoring. Continious incidence reports concerning wildlife damage to trees or wind damage to certain parts of the orchard might require a capital outlay to strengthen fences or to plant windbreaks.

3.2. Selecting the Control Option

Once it is decides that it is necessary to take action to control either pests, weeds, diseases or other causes of damage all the available control options must be investigated and using the IPM criteria the correct method chosen. The factors that will influence the choice of a specific control method are discussed in previous chapters. Control methods selected must be prioritised and an action plan developed to determine when methods will be implemented.

3.3. Implementing the Control Option

The control method action plan is used to determine when certain methods are implemented. Part of the action plan will be instructions on how methods should be implemented and the techniques used. The persons responsible for the implementation of control methods must be identified and the necessary instructions relayed to them. Any chemical or equipment needed to facilitate the implementation must be procured and made available to the staff that is responsible for the implementation process.

3.4. Following the Application Instruction

To ensure that the implementation process takes place as planned records must be kept of all implementation facets. These records must ensure that all application instructions detailed in the action plan are followed precisely and adhered to. This is specifically important when chemicals or fertiliser are applied as part of a chosen control option. The incorrect application of chemicals, such as plant protection products, and of fertiliser can cause damage to the orchard and severely affect the profitability of the farm or production area.

3.5. Deciding on the Appropriate Application Method

The application method chosen will depend on the control method used. Each different control method will require the use of different application techniques. The different application techniques when applying PPP’s, fertilisers, weedicides and pheromones etcetera are discussed in previous chapter and in the level 2 and 3 learner guides.

4. Other Considerations When the action plan is developed detailing the implementation process and schedule of control methods, there are several factors that must be taken into account such as predicted weather conditions and the growth stage of the tree or fruit. The type of product to be used during the controlling technique will also influence the action plan development.


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4.1. Weather As discussed in previous chapters, weather conditions can severely affect the application of PPP by spraying. Rain or conditions where relative humidity levels are excessively high can cause pesticides or fungicides to have insufficient contact time on the plant or fruit to be effective. Windy conditions can cause spray applications to drift and not be effectively targeted. Weather predictions must be used, as described in previous chapters and in level 2 and 3 learner guides, to determine when control methods can be applied effectively. 4.2. Growth Stage Certain PPP’s are only effective if applied at the correct growth stage of the plant. If applied at the wrong time, crops and fruit can be damaged and the application ineffective. This is especially important when applying hormones to control fruit growth and development. 4.3. Type of Product Some products should only be applied at certain times. Suppliers can make recommendation about when products should be applied. These recommendations must be adhered to strictly when developing the control method action plan.

5. Selecting and Implementing Safety Measures When developing the action plan all safety measures to ensure worker and environmental safety must be considered and noted. The safety measures that need to be implemented are specified by legislation and must also include social responsibility issues.

5.1. Legal Requirements The Occupational Health and Safety Act, as discussed in previous chapters and in the level 3 learning material, stipulates conditions that farms and production area must comply with to ensure worker health and safety. Some PPP used in during the application of control methods is highly toxic and thereby dangerous to staff. It is important that all legislation pertaining to the use and handling of poisons and dangerous material must be adhered to and strictly implemented. There are several safety precautions that must be taken when handling chemicals and in later chapters we look in more details at those. 5.2. Social Responsibilities To ensure a successful and sustainable farming operation a grower must consider his responsibilities towards his workers and his environment. Control methods must never be implemented in such a manner that the health of workers or other persons living on and around the farm are not adversely affected. Care must also be taken when implementing control methods that natural resources such as soil and water is not polluted and that the damage done to the environment are kept to a minimum.

6. Evaluating the Water Needed Some control methods such as the application of fertiliser through irrigation requires large amounts of water to be available during the application of control methods. When planning the implementation process consideration must be given to the amount and quality of water that will be needed. If using fertigation the leaching requirement must also be factored into calculations. The water needed to mix chemical for spraying purposes as well as the level of application needed must also be determined and availability ensured.


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Chapter 4

Monitoring, scouting and trapping are the major methods used to collect information about the presence of pests, weeds and diseases in the citrus orchard. These methods are also used to monitor the effectiveness of the IPM and any control methods that might have been implemented on the farm.

Once scouting forms have been completed form are handed into the IPM manager for analysis. The IPM manager will capture the data from the forms. When capturing the data the IPM manager will firstly compare the records against the monitoring plan to ensure that the plan was followed and the correct orchards was scouted in the correct manner.

Once all the monitoring data have been collected and captured a monitoring report are designed containing all the information and graphs. This monitoring report is then used to make management decision about the direction the IPM plan should take.

Control methods selected must be prioritised and an action plan developed to determine when methods will be implemented.

The control method action plan is used to determine when certain methods are implemented. Part of the action plan will be instructions on how methods should be implemented and the techniques used.

To ensure that the implementation process takes place as planned records must be kept of all implementation facets. These records must ensure that all application instructions detailed in the action plan are followed precisely and adhered to.

The application method chosen will depend on the control method used. When the action plan is developed detailing the implementation process and schedule of

control methods, there are several factors that must be taken into account such as predicted weather conditions and the growth stage of the tree or fruit.

When developing the action plan all safety measures that must be implemented to ensure worker and environmental safety must be considered and noted. The safety measures that need to be implemented is specified by legislation and must also include social responsibility issues.

Some control methods such as the application of fertiliser through irrigation requires large amounts of water to be available during the application of control methods.



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Chapter 5 After completing this chapter, the learner will be able to: Execute post-application monitoring. 1. Introduction Field monitoring is the key to an integrated pest management program. When performed systematically on a quantitative basis, it provides the information needed to detect important changes in pest activity and disease incidence, evaluate pesticide performance, and establish seasonal records for evaluating and upgrading managerial decisions. When weather data and cultural practices that influence pest behaviour are considered, pest behaviour and populations can better be anticipated. Monitoring systems may be limited to a single primary pest such as the citrus rust mite, and to environmental conditions that influence rust mite behaviour or they may include all major pests and beneficial organisms. Monitoring techniques vary depending on individual preferences and management intensity, but should provide a consistent, repeatable means to numerically measure pest activity. Post-application monitoring includes the following actions:

• Checking on the efficacy of the product applied or action taken for pest control. • Monitoring “old” and “new” damage to the crop. • Monitoring “old” and “new” damage to the environment.

2. Determining the Efficacy of the Product Applied The efficacy of an applied agricultural chemical or other pest control action can only be determined through follow-up monitoring of the pest population against which the application was aimed. A significant decrease in the pest population size should at least be observed and the application should drive the population size lower than the threshold values given where pests are considered harmful to crops. Should the pest population not show a significant decrease or the desired effect is not observed, a trouble-shooting strategy should be considered to determine what went wrong. A number of different possibilities exist in terms of an agro-chemical action not having the desired effect:

• The agro-chemical has lost its efficacy due to expiry or loss of chemical action. • The agro-chemical applied was incorrectly. • The agro-chemical applied was not mixed correctly or the application was at the wrong dose. • Weather conditions such as wind or rain might have affected the efficacy of the application. • The method of application was incorrect or insufficient to reach the required plant parts or pest. • The follow-up regimes were not followed. • The application never took place. • The pest has built up resistance to the agro-chemical. • The pest identified and the agrochemical applied did not match.

2.1. Post Application Monitoring Frequency

Post application monitoring frequency depends on the pests' reproductive capacities and time needed under optimum conditions for populations to reach economic damage thresholds. Due to the reproductive potential pests such as citrus rust mite, biweekly monitoring of susceptible fruit is required from petal fall until harvest or the arrival of cool weather. Other pests generally require less frequent monitoring. Outside of the petal-fall to harvest interval, monthly monitoring is adequate for the citrus mite complex and other potential pest or disease situations.

2.2. Sampling Methods


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Sample size, location and selection are important to any sample program. Each citrus orchard is unique and requires individual monitoring. The first step in developing a monitoring system is to decide how many trees need to be examined and, within this parameter, how many fruit, leaf or soil samples need to be observed or collected for adequate representation and sampling reliability. Sampling may involve trees randomly selected for each monitoring period or permanently designated station trees. Trees should be dispersed sufficiently to achieve representative sampling of the entire orchard. This can be accomplished in most rectangular orchards by sampling in a diagonal direction. For square orchards, a Z-shaped pattern is appropriate.

The station tree concept involves the selection of representative trees at the time of orchard establishment or at the beginning of each season. Selected trees are flagged, numbered and revisited each monitoring period throughout the season. Random samples provide information on a larger proportion of trees within an orchard over time. Station trees more closely follow pest or disease dynamics on a few individual trees. Both systems have merit and, depending on the desired result and amount of time to be invested, a combination of both methods may prove most useful.

2.3. Field Records

Systematic recording of data in the field is time consuming but necessary for clarity in review and interpretation of results. If field counts are considered impractical and some form of rating scale is employed for example, trace, low, medium, high, very high, the assignment of numerical values from 1-5 is acceptable. Organization of the data in summary form following field sampling allows for rapid review and assessment of individual orchard situations. Information gathered during the monitoring process aids in planning future pest management strategies.

2.4. Control Action Criteria

Control action criteria can be defined as specific pest population levels or threshold levels that signal impending economic damage to the crop or trees. Ideally, each threshold value considers the pest's life cycle, its potential for rapid population increases under existing or anticipated environmental conditions, orchard history, the type of damage likely to occur in proportion to control costs, other stresses the trees are experiencing and other relevant factors.

Progress has been made in establishing threshold values for almost all citrus pests. But please note that action criteria in any pest management program are flexible and should be altered to fit individual management conditions.

2.5. Monitoring Guidelines

These guidelines provide information on how to monitor specific pests and offer insight on what constitutes reason for control action. Pre-season monitoring suggestions are provided to encourage early season inventory of pest populations and disease potential in advance of post-bloom control effects. Early monitoring provides information helpful in selecting the most appropriate and cost effective pesticides. This early information may be useful in making volume purchases of pesticide materials and for determining which orchards merit immediate attention.

3. Follow-up Regimes Some chemical applications require a follow-up application or forms part of an application program which involves additional actions or alternating applications in combination with other chemicals. These follow-up actions are of vital importance to ensure that the desired effect is reached against the pest. Failure to comply with follow-up actions can result in the pest population simply increasing again or can even lead to the pest building up resistance to the chemical. 4. Side Effects or Damage caused by Product Applications Post application monitoring activities must also include check for any damage that the application of chemical treatments might have caused. Any damage noted must be investigated.


36


Damage to crops includes: • Symptoms of chemical scorching on any plant structures. • Sudden wilting of plants, despite sufficient soil-water regimes. • Sudden die-back or death of plants for which no pest or disease symptoms can be identified. • Sudden abscission of leaves or fruit at the wrong time of year or development stage of the leaves or

fruit. Damage to the environment is often not immediately apparent, but can include the following:

• Decreased water quality. • Death of aquatic organisms due to poisoning or lack of oxygen in the water. • Soil and water pollution. • Affected non-targeted organisms, indicating that the chemical came in contact with them in some

way. • Decrease or loss of natural pest enemies. • Decrease or loss of indigenous fauna or flora due to exposure to agro-chemicals or loss of habitat.

Side-effects of agro-chemicals in terms of human and animal health vary and can include the following:

• Burns. • Poisoning. • Respiratory problems. • Decreased or loss of fertility. • Lack of appetite. • Drowsiness or lethargy. • Suffocation. • Vomiting or diarrhoea. • Lack of co-ordination or balance. • Long-term health problems such as the development of cancer or tumours.

5. Cleaning and servicing equipment Cleaning and servicing equipment used in any pest control action assists in the efficacy of the action in the following ways:

• Prevents residues from previous agro-chemical applications from interfering with, or affecting agro-chemical applications.

• Prevents leaks and spills or agro-chemicals if equipment is intact. • Prevents accidental exposure of staff to agro-chemicals if equipment is intact. • Eliminates the spread of disease or pest organisms from one orchard to the next if equipment is

cleaned after using it in a specific orchard. • Prolongs the working life of equipment if it is properly maintained. • Prevents injury to staff if equipment is in good working condition, without loose parts or protruding

parts.

Chapter 5

Field monitoring is the key to an integrated pest management program. When performed systematically on a quantitative basis, it provides the information needed to detect important changes in pest activity and disease incidence, evaluate pesticide performance, and establish seasonal records for evaluating and upgrading managerial decisions.

The efficacy of an applied agricultural chemical or other pest control action can only be determined through follow-up monitoring of the pest population against which the application was aimed.

Some chemical applications require a follow-up application or forms part of an application


37


program which involves additional actions or alternating applications in combination with other chemicals. These follow-up actions are of vital importance to ensure that the desired effect is reached against the pest.

Post application monitoring activities must also include check for any damage that the application of chemical treatments might have caused. Any damage noted must be investigated.

Many risks exist when taking agro-chemical action against a pest. It is important to be alert to symptoms of the chemical harming the crop, the environment or the health of humans or animals. All agro-chemicals should have a list of health risks or side effects on the product label.



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Chapter 6 After completing this chapter, the learner will be able to: Apply environmental and community considerations. 1. Introduction When drafting a detailed Integrated Pest Management plan for a citrus farm, it is necessary to consider more than simply the citrus crop and the economic benefits for the citrus grower. It is important to take a balanced and sustainable view that considers the immediate environment and its natural resources as well as the surrounding community and its health, safety and socio-economic needs. 2. Avoid Poisoning of Non-Targeted and Beneficial Organisms A non-targeted organism is anything that isn’t supposed to be touched or affected by the chemical application. In the case of herbicides, it means that the crop that is being grown and any protected or sensitive indigenous plants in the area should not be harmed or affected by the herbicide. Systemic herbicides are particularly dangerous since it affects all plants equally and usually through an internal action. The best way to protect non-targeted organisms is to read the label carefully, and ensure that the correct chemical is applied;

• In the correct way with the correct application equipment. • At the correct concentration. • At the correct time of year. • Under the correct climatic conditions.

2.1. Avoid Contamination of Natural Resources such as Soil and Water

Care should be taken when applying sprays so that spray drift does not contaminate water sources, such as dams, streams, and springs. Filling points where chemicals are mixed and where spray machine tanks are filled should be at least 50m from any water source, including boreholes. They must have a suitable drainage system, such as a French drain, that can safely drain away spilt chemicals and excess water.

2.2. Avoid drift onto non-targeted organisms and areas

Foliar sprays should not be applied when wind speed exceeds 12km/h. High wind speeds will negatively affect spray coverage of the tree, which could result in poor control of the target pest or disease.

Excessive wind will also result in spray drift that could damage other crops, pollute water supplies, and harm the environment. Workers in other orchards may also be affected by spray drift.

3. Disposing of empty containers Empty chemical containers must under no circumstances be reused for any purpose whatsoever. Even if the container has been washed thoroughly the risk of contamination remains high. Empty containers must be disposed of as follows:

• Empty containers must be rinsed by filling it to a quarter with clean water, close and shake it well. • Pour the rinse water into the spray tank. • Repeat this process at least three times. • Puncture the container after rinsing so that it cannot be re-used.


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Once containers have been punctured they should be reduced (flattened) in bulk and buried at a disposal area or in a pit. The disposal area must be:

• At least 50m from the nearest water source such as a dam, river, fountain, canal or borehole. • On relatively high ground or where the ground water is at least 2m deep. • Not in sandy soils that leach easily. • Fenced in and sign posted.

Waste bags, paper and mildly contaminated items must be burned, while severely contaminated items and excess, expired or contaminated chemicals must be disposed of using a high-temperature incinerator, which can also be used for empty containers. Please note however that containers of highly flammable chemicals must not be burned, even if they have been rinsed. It is recommended that a professional waste disposal company may be contacted in this regard. Where possible, contact the manufacturer of the product to determine how to deal with empty containers or excess or contaminated chemicals. 4. Managing Rinse Water

By definition a pesticide is a form of poison that kills of pests or organisms. It is the responsibility of the grower or citrus producer to ensure that all poisons are handled in an responsible manager to avoid contamination of natural resources or the contamination of labourers and beneficial organism. One of the areas where the danger of natural resource contamination is high but is most often overlooked on a farm is rinse water. Spraying equipment and chemicals containers must be cleaned after use and this is most commonly accomplished by rinsing the containers and equipment with water. This rinse water is full of chemicals and can easily pollute and poison natural resources if not managed correctly. A responsible management plan for the disposal of rinse water must pertain to legal requirements as stipulated by national and local authorities and must adhere to GAP requirements. Most commonly a rinse water management plan will include:

• A concreted area with drainage where the containers are rinsed and cleaned. • Drainage from the concrete area leading to concrete or cement treatment and holding dams.

The chemical supplier must always be contacted to obtain information around how long rinse water should be kept before the chemicals become inactive as well as how water can be treated to neutralise chemicals.

Chapter 6

When drafting a detailed Integrated Pest Management plan for a citrus farm, it is necessary to consider more than simply the citrus crop and the economic benefits for the citrus grower. It is important to take a balanced and sustainable view that considers the immediate environment and its natural resources as well as the surrounding community and its health, safety and socio-economic needs.

A non-targeted organism is anything that isn’t supposed to be touched or affected by the chemical application. In the case of herbicides, it means that the crop that is being grown and any protected or sensitive indigenous plants in the area should not be harmed or affected by the herbicide.

Care should be taken when applying sprays so that spray drift does not contaminate water sources, such as dams, streams, and springs.

Foliar sprays should not be applied when wind speed exceeds 12km/h. High wind speeds will negatively affect spray coverage of the tree, which could result in poor control of the target


40


pest or disease. Empty chemical containers must under no circumstances be reused for any purpose

whatsoever. Even if the container has been washed thoroughly the risk of contamination remains high.

One of the areas where the danger of natural resource contamination is high but is most often overlooked on a farm is rinse water.

Complete activity * in the Learner Workbook. Describe the warning methods used when chemicals will be applied by aeroplane


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Chapter 7 After completing this chapter, the learner will be able to: Oversee the management of an agrochemical storage facility effectively and responsibly. 1. Introduction Farm chemical stores should be for the sole use of agrochemicals and free from combustible storage. They should be dry, frost free well ventilated and secure against theft and vandalism. The store should be designed to prevent spills or polluting liquids seeping into adjacent ground or escaping into water courses. This applies especially in the case of a fire. The store should be constructed with materials giving a minimum fire resistance of 3O minutes. A dedicated store should be roofed with material which can be breached by fire, or be equipped with alternate means of providing a ready release for heat and smoke in the event of a fire. Strong shelving should be provided to separate powders from liquid chemicals and induce good housekeeping within the store. The store should be conspicuously marked with a notice so that emergency services are aware of the dangerous chemicals contained within thereby enabling the correct action to be taken in the event of a fire or spill. Stores should not be located:

• In areas liable to flooding or with a potential for the pollution of underground water supply sources such as wells and boreholes.

• In upstream catchment areas for water supply. • In environmentally sensitive areas.

2. Chemical Storage Requirements

Before we decide what we need to receive, it is necessary to first orientate ourselves with regards the type of storage that would be required in order to store goods in.

The store should at least be 5 m from other buildings. And it must not be near:

• A dwelling house. • Buildings for livestock. • Rivers, dams, boreholes and areas likely to be

flooded. • Buildings where feed, fodder, fuel and other

inflammable materials are stored.

Unacceptable places to store agrochemicals are:

• Cellars. • Garages. • Workshops. • Other rooms which are used frequently.

Chemicals stored under dry, cool conditions will not deteriorate as rapidly as those exposed to extreme temperatures and moisture. A well-organised store will prevent the wrong remedy being chosen accidentally. Cement floors tend to sweat. Therefore, to prevent damage to cartons or paper bags in which chemicals are packaged, they should: • Be placed on pallets. • Not be stacked against exterior walls.


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2.1. Ventilation

Cross ventilation is essential to keep fumes and vapours inside a store to an acceptable level, this can be achieved with vents at high and low levels consistent with security and the need to contain spillages. Well-designed and well-maintained ventilation systems remove corrosive vapours, fumes, mists or airborne dusts from the workplace and reduce their hazards.

The amount and type of ventilation needed to minimize the hazards of airborne corrosives depends on such things as the kind of job, the kind and amount of materials used, and the size and layout of the work area. An assessment of the specific ways corrosives are stored, handled, used, and disposed of is the best way to find out if existing ventilation controls, and other hazard control methods, are adequate.

Some workplaces may need a complete system of hoods and ducts to provide acceptable ventilation. Others may require a single, well-placed exhaust fan. Use corrosion-resistant construction in ventilation systems for corrosive materials. No special ventilation system may be needed when working with small amounts of corrosives which do not give off airborne contaminants.

2.2. Lighting

Stores must have adequate natural or artificial light by the provision of sufficient window area or artificial, electric, lighting. Windows should not allow direct sunlight to fall on to agrochemicals because ultra-violet light may cause deterioration of containers and content. This could be avoided by shading windows or, if building a new store, by positioning windows correctly. Electric lights and switches should be positioned in such a way as to avoid mechanical damage and there should be an adequate separation distance between lamps and stored agrochemicals to avoid the transmission of heat.

2.3. The Importance of Correct Storage

Correct Storage is necessary:

• To prevent accidents. • To prevent injuries to oneself and fellow staff members. • To prevent contamination and spread of bacteria or germs. • To improve the daily work routine. • To ease stock takes. • To facilitate inventory control and ordering. • To ensure more efficient maintenance.

2.4. Safety signs

Safety signs are displayed in and around the chemical store and can even be displayed while agricultural chemicals are applied. They instruct and warn staff in terms of dangers and how staff should conduct themselves around specific surfaces, equipment and substances.

The display of and adherence to safety signs is a requirement of the Occupational Health and Safety Act and all staff members should be thoroughly instructed in the use of and adherence to the signs in their workplace.

2.5. Equipment

2.5.1. Safety equipment

All workers must be fully trained in workplace safety regulations and these regulations should be enforced at all times. The regulations must include: • Regulations regarding the conduct of staff when handling chemicals such as:

o No smoking, drinking or eating is allowed in or near the areas where chemicals are mixed, applied or stored.


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o No person under the influence of alcohol or drugs is allowed to handle chemicals for whatever purpose under any circumstances.

o No unauthorised persons must handle or apply chemicals. • Safety regulations regarding the use of chemical application equipment. • Regulations regarding proper use of protective clothing and equipment. • Regulations on how to handle chemicals safely. • Prescriptive regulations on how chemical spills, leakages and other emergencies should be

handled.

Instructions concerning the chemical to be applied, the concentration to be used, the orchard to be sprayed and type of spray coverage required must be given in writing on a daily basis and signed by the supervisor.

Safety requires that unauthorised persons must never handle or mix or apply chemicals. It is very important that all personnel be informed of proposed spray activities to ensure that no people are working in or near orchards or blocks being sprayed. This avoids the risk of contamination.

Chemicals should only be mixed in areas designated for the purpose. These areas should be clearly marked and unauthorised persons should not be allowed into these areas while chemicals are being handled.

Adequate signage that is approved by the authorities and is easily observable should be placed in locations designated for a specific purpose. These signs must give bold and concise messages such as: • Danger. • No Entry. • No Smoking. • No Drinking and Eating. • Fire Extinguisher. • First Aid Equipment. • Emergency Exit. • Protective Clothing Required. • Do not drink the water from this tap.

Signs are either informative in nature or give a clear instruction to anyone regardless of their language.

2.5.2. Protective Gear

Before application commences, the person applying the chemicals must be adequately supplied with protective clothing and safety equipment. The degree of protection required will depend on the type of chemical to be applied. For example, if a Group 1 chemical is applied with a mistblower; full protection for the tractor driver is required, while minimum protection is required for a Group 4 chemical applied via the soil drench method. Maximum protection includes: • Cotton overalls. • Rain hat. • Rain coat and trousers. • Gum boots. • Goggles. • Respirator, with appropriate cartridge. • Rubber gloves.

Minimum protection includes: • Cotton overall.


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• Gum boots. • Rubber gloves. It is of utmost importance that the user is adequately protected when using plant protection products. Pictograms are displayed on product labels advising on the protective gear and safety equipment that are necessary when handling a particular chemical.

The biggest risk to the person that handles and applies PPP’s is poisoning. The chemical can enter a person’s body in the following three manners:

• By way of the mouth; orally. • Through contact with the skin; dermal contact. • By breathing; inhalation.

The most common manner of poisoning is through dermal contact. The following protective clothing must be available to those who use chemicals to eliminate the risk of poisoning.

• Cotton Overalls – Cotton, in comparison with lightweight synthetic alternatives, has shown

to be superior in durability, protectiveness and comfort. A two-piece overall is preferable. • Apron – An apron is used when mixing chemicals for added protection in case of spillage. • Rain Coat and Hat – Rain gear is used during foliar spray applications or applications

where mist forms. This will avoid contact with the skin. • Goggles – Eye protection when working with chemicals is essential. • Unlined Rubber Gloves – Wearing rubber gloves decreases the chance of skin contact. • Rubber Boots – Rubber boots or gumboots are worn to further decrease the chance of

skin exposure. • Facemask – A facemask is used if required on the product label to protect against

inhalation. • Respirator – A respirator protects the user more effectively against inhalation, because it

provides a separate supply of oxygen. Respirators are used if specified on the product label and is often used when handling corrosives and toxic fumes.

On completing the spray task, all persons involved should bathe and dress in clean clothing. Do not dress again in clothes that were used for the spray operation unless they have been laundered properly. All protective clothing and safety equipment must be in good repair at all times. Before protective clothing is utilised, the user must ensure that: • All items are free of holes and tears to prevent penetration of the chemical onto the clothes

underneath or onto the skin. • All items have been washed properly after previous use. • All buttons, zippers or other fastenings are working well. • Elastic used in clothing and facemasks are not perished or stretched.

Where it is found that protective clothing is torn, or has perished in some way, it should be replaced.

2.5.3. Protective Equipment Protective equipment includes: • Fire Extinguishers. • Fire blankets. • Materials such as sand and saw dust to absorb spills. • Specific measuring equipment and mixing equipment made of specific materials to handle

acids, alkalines and corrosives, etc.

It is important to use the equipment as per instruction and for the purpose that it was intended for. Fire extinguishers should frequently be serviced and refilled. Used fire blankets must be replaced.


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2.5.4. Other Equipment

All other equipment, such as brushes, knapsacks, mixing equipment, etc., must be washed with an approved liquid soap and well rinsed in a suitably well-drained area.

3. Chemical Categories and Separating Categories in the Store

The first step in identifying a product is to consult the chemical label. All chemicals must, by law, have a label on the container. Chemicals are coded according to their hazard in colours as follows:

Colour Band Hazard Statement Group

Red Very Toxic Ia – Extremely hazardous

Red Toxic Ib – Highly hazardous

Yellow Harmful II – Moderately hazardous

Blue Caution III – Slightly hazardous

Green IV – Acute hazard unlikely in normal use Table 7.1 – Chemical Colour Code Classification

Agricultural chemicals are found in one of the following forms: • Dry powders. • Dry granular products. • Liquids.

Agricultural chemicals can be one of the following:

• Herbicide – used against weeds and can either have selective action against specific weeds or affects all plants equally.

• Fungicide – used to control fungal infections on plants. • Pesticide – used to control specific pests on plants. • Fertilisers – used to fertilise plants via the soil or via the foliage. • Cleaning chemicals used for sanitising and cleaning buildings, floors and equipment.

The main reason for separating the chemicals by category is to avoid the wrong application of the wrong chemical. Applying herbicide instead of fertiliser or pesticide is disastrous.

Chemicals should also be separated by ingredient. Some of the chemicals can react with each other causing ineffectivity of the chemicals or causing chemical reactions that could lead to the break out of fires or explosions. Dry ingredients can easily be affected by liquid ingredients and should be stored separately.

All agricultural chemicals are classified in terms of their toxicity. This information is displayed on the product label of the chemical and informs the user of the potential hazard of the chemical if it is not used in correctly.

Table 7.1 above indicates the terminology used in classifying chemicals according to their potential hazards. This means that in the case of Group Ia and Ib type chemicals, a very small quantity of the substance will be a lethal dose and may cause death if ingested, while for Group IV type chemicals, a person would have to consume a much greater dose.

Internationally recognised symbols are also used to indicate the toxicity of chemicals in group I and group II, as indicated in the table below.


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Group Hazard Statement Symbol Description Symbol

Ia – Extremely Hazardous Very Toxic

Skull and Crossbones Ib – Highly Hazardous Toxic

II – Moderately Hazardous Harmful St. Andrew’s Cross

Table 7.2 – Chemical Hazard Symbols

Pictograms are used to: • Indicate the storage requirements for the product. • The type of product. • The requirements for protective gear and clothing that should be worn when handling or

applying the chemical. • The danger that the product poses for people and animals.

Storage Pictograms

Keep locked away and our of reach of children

Activity Pictograms

Application

Handling dry concentrate

Handling liquid concentrate

Advice Pictograms

Wear gloves

Wear protection over

nose and mouth

Wear eye protection

Wear respirator

Wear boots

Wear overalls

Wear apron

Wash after use

Warning Pictograms

Dangerous / harmful to livestock and poultry

Dangerous / harmful to

livestock

Dangerous / harmful

to poultry


wildlife and birds

Learner Guide Skills Area: Pests, Disease and Weeds Level: 4 Unit Stan

dards: 116301

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wildlife


birds

Not for aerial application

Dangerous / harmful to fish

and water bodies Figure 7.1 – Storage Pictograms

The rules for the safe storage of agrochemicals are prescribed by Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) legislation, and certification organisations, such as EurepGAP. To avoid the possibility of an explosion or the emission of toxic flammable or corrosive gases or chemicals:

• Store two incompatible chemicals at least 3m apart. • Where the chemicals could react violently, store them at least 5m apart. • Consider storing some chemicals (e.g. with a high Phosphorous content) in separate fire

rated enclosures or separate buildings with appropriate fire suppression equipment. Separate enclosures or buildings may also be required for those chemicals with special fire suppression requirements.

• Ensure that the shelves or palettes on which certain chemicals are stored are made of a material compatible with the chemical.

• Never exceed the weight baring capacity of shelves. • Make sure that shelves have lips or restraints on the ends and to the front to avoid that

chemicals slip off the shelf. • Avoid storing flammable chemicals in lockers or cupboards; if it has to be stored this way,

the locker or cupboard must be made of fire retarded material. • Don’t stack lockers or cupboards on top of each other, near emergency exits or under stair

cases or in corridors • Supply any chemical that poses a spillage hazard with a tray.

3.1. Stacking and Packing of Agro-Chemicals

To ensure a safe working environment and to enable people to adequately deal with accidents such as fires and spillage, proper adherence to Critical Control Point Management is essential.

• Make sure the labels are visible. • Store chemicals in rows or batches that can easily be reached. • Store chemicals with the chemical closets to expiry at the front of the row or lot to ensure

that it is used first; move the remainder of the chemicals forward as new batches are received and pack the newest batch with the latest expiry date at the back.

• Pack all chemicals with their labels facing forward to ensure that the labels will be visible even if the front chemical is removed. Alternatively, chemical names can be permanently fixed to an area via stencil on the floor or with permanent name cards.

• Marking containers without labels is essential. The name should be written with permanent marker and as per the original name of the supplier.

3.2. Packing and Stacking According to Label Information

The following information will be found on the label of the chemical:

• Instructions on how to use the chemical which must be read and executed accurately to ensure the correct application and action of the chemical and to ensure the safety of the user and others who are exposed to the chemical. This also ensures safety to the environment. Following the instructions is required by law failure to follow the instructions is an offence.

• Detailed information on the uses for which the product is registered. • A physical description of the product is supplied, including its colour code and whether it

is in fluid, powder or granular form. The crop protection manager should inspect the chemical in the container to ensure that it answers to this physical description. If not, the container and its contents should be discarded in the correct, prescribed manner.

• The chemical composition of the product is indicated on the label. • The toxicity of the product is indicated, along with instructions for its safe handling.

CitrusGrowers

Associati


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• The pre-harvest interval (PHI) of the product is indicated. The PHI, also known as the withholding period, refers to the period after application of a chemical treatment during which time the crop may not be harvested. PHI’s vary considerably from chemical to chemical and need to be checked by the crop protection manager.

• The product expiry date is stated, which is the date on or before which the chemical must be used. Chemicals must be used before the expiry date to make sure that the chemical is still effective and hasn’t lost its activity.

In general, store different types of chemicals and fertilisers separately, away from processing and handling areas, and from other materials. Separate storage can reduce the amount of damage caused in case of fires, spills or leaks. If totally separate storage is not possible, store corrosives away from incompatible materials. Some corrosives are incompatible with each other. For example, acids and bases react together, sometimes violently. Do not store them beside each other. Walls, floors and shelving in corrosive storage areas should be made from materials that resist attack by corrosives. Floors in areas where liquid corrosives are stored should not allow liquids to penetrate. Since many corrosive liquids flow easily, store them in corrosion-resistant trays to contain spills or leaks. For large containers, such as 250-litre (55-gallon) drums, provide dikes around liquid storage areas and sills or ramps at door openings. Store containers at a convenient height for handling, below eye level if possible. High shelving increases the risk of dropping containers and the severity of damage if a fall occurs. 3.3. Storage of Corrosives

3.3.1. Store Corrosives in Areas which are: • Well ventilated. • Supplied with adequate fire fighting equipment. • Supplied with suitable spill clean-up equipment and materials. • Labelled with proper warning signs.

3.3.2. Storing Containers of Corrosives

Before storing corrosives, inspect all incoming containers of corrosives to ensure that they are undamaged and properly labelled. Do not accept delivery of defective containers.

Corrosives can destroy containers made of improper materials. Be sure to store corrosive materials in the type of containers recommended by the manufacturer or supplier. Protect containers against banging or other physical damage when storing, transferring, or using them. Keep them tightly closed when not in use.

4. Emergency and Safety Plans Emergency situations occur even where every precaution has been taken to prevent it from happening. It is essential that all personnel that are authorised to handle and come into contact with chemicals are aware of the steps that are to be taken in case of emergency.

The most common emergency situations that occur where chemicals are handled are spills and leakages, and poisoning.

4.1. Procedures in Case of Poisoning The local doctor must be advised in advance of which PPP’s are going to be used during the season. The doctor should be given a copy of all product labels of PPP’s expected to be used so that appropriate antidotes can be kept on hand.


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Every person that works with chemicals or comes into contact with chemicals should be thoroughly aware of the symptoms of poisoning, and a list of the symptoms should be displayed prominently within the work area on a poster looking similar to the figure below:

General Signs and Symptoms of Poisoning (AVCASA, 2001)

• Headache

• Dizziness

• Nausea

• Tremors of Tongue and Eyelids

• Salivation

• Cramps

• Vomiting

• Sweating

• Muscular Weakness

• Anxiety

• Blurred Vision

Figure 7.2 – Poisoning Symptoms In the event of poisoning, arrange for medical attention as soon as possible, or arrange for transporting the affected person to a hospital or clinic. While this is being done, administer the following first aid procedures:

• Determine which chemical caused the poisoning. • If the product is known, consult the label for the specific first aid procedures. • Ascertain how the chemical was absorbed, being by mouth, through the skin or by

inhalation. • Make sure that the breathing tract is open. • If the patient is unconscious, turn him or her onto his or hers side. • Start artificial respiration if the person is not breathing. • If the patient absorbed the chemical via the skin, remove the patient from the contamination

point, remove all contaminated clothing and wash affected areas with soap and water. • If the eyes have been affected, wash with clean water for at least 15 minutes. • If the chemicals have been swallowed do not induce vomiting unless it specifically stated

on the product label. • Keep the patient warm.

The following emergency procedures can be administered to a person that has been poisoned, but may only be administered by qualified, authorised medical personnel:

• Organophosphate type chemicals – Atropine by injection. • Organochlorine type chemicals – Treatment will depend on symptoms. • Carbamate type chemicals – Atropine by injection.

4.2. Procedures for Spills and Leakages

In areas where chemicals are stored, the following equipment should be available and easily accessible at all times and must be used when a chemical spill or leakage occurs:

• Two sets of protective clothing, including respirators and facemasks. • Two brooms. • Two shovels. • 50kg powdered lime.


50


• A number of open-top drums in which to place spilled chemicals.

Lime is suitable as a general purpose absorbent for liquid PPP’s because it is alkaline, which assists the degradation of many of the more toxic substances such as organophosphates. If the above equipment is available and accessible, the personnel on hand can react rapidly as soon as a spill or leakage occurs.

4.3. Clean up Procedures

All persons that regularly work within a chemical storage area must be able and cope if a spill or leakage occurs. The following procedure must be followed in case of spillages:

• Give first aid to anyone affected by the chemical and obtain medical attention immediately. • Isolate the spill area and keep all unauthorised people away. • Every person involved in the clean-up operation must wear protective clothing. • Attempt to contain the spill or leakage as far as possible by constructing an absorbent

barrier of sand, soil or lime around the spilt material. • Place leaking containers, if any, into open-top drums and label the drums clearly for future

reference and disposal. • Collect the spilt material and absorbent substance using the shovels and brooms, and place

it into open-top drums for disposal. • Ventilate the building as much as possible by opening all doors and windows. • If the spillage is on soil or gravel, dig up the area and remove the contaminated material. • If the spillage is on concrete neutralise the chemical with lime or a 10% solution of sodium

carbonate (Na2CO3) or alternatively, with 5% sodium hydroxide (NaOH). • Clean all equipment used during the clean-up operation thoroughly, including laundering

protective clothing, and store it for future use. • Dispose of the open-top drums and its contents.

4.4. Incident Reports An incident normally refers to an accident or a near accident at the workplace where:

• Workers were or could have been injured or killed. • Safety was compromised. • Property was damaged.

In an effort to understand the causes of the accident, an incident report is written by the supervisor or manager responsible for the work being conducted. Incident reports are necessary as it compels persons involved to explore every angle of the accident or near accident, in an attempt to prevent any similar accidents in future. Serious accidents must be reported to the Department of Labour who will conduct their own investigation, which may lead to the prosecution of the responsible person if negligence is found to be the cause. An incident report should at least contain the following information: • Date of occurrence. • Place of occurrence. • Name of department manager. • Name(s) of injured person(s). • Description of injuries, illness or damage to property. • Full description of how the accident took place. • Names of witnesses to the accident.

5. Access control and security of the store

At all times allow only trained, authorized people into storage areas. Keep the amount of corrosive material in storage as small as possible. Inspect storage areas regularly for any deficiencies, including corrosion damage, leaking containers, or poor housekeeping. Correct all deficiencies as soon as possible.


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Chapter 7

Farm chemical stores should be for the sole use of agrochemicals and free from combustible storage. They should be dry, frost free well ventilated and secure against theft and vandalism.

Before we decide what we need to receive, it is necessary to first orientate ourselves with regards the type of storage that would be required in order to store goods in.

Cross ventilation is essential to keep fumes and vapours inside a store to an acceptable level, this can be achieved with vents at high and low levels consistent with security and the need to contain spillages.

Stores must have adequate natural or artificial light by the provision of sufficient window area or artificial, electric, lighting.

Safety signs are displayed in and around the chemical store and can even be displayed while agricultural chemicals are applied.

All workers must be fully trained in workplace safety regulations, the use of safety equipment and clothing and similar regulations should be enforced at all times.

The first step in identifying a product is to consult the chemical label. All chemicals must, by law, have a label on the container.

To ensure a safe working environment and to enable people to adequately deal with accidents such as fires and spillage, proper adherence to Critical Control Point Management is essential.

In general, store different types of chemicals and fertilisers separately, away from processing and handling areas, and from other materials.

Emergency situations occur even where every precaution has been taken to prevent it from happening. It is essential that all personnel that are authorised to handle and come into contact with chemicals are aware of the steps that are to be taken in case of emergency.

At all times allow only trained, authorized people into storage areas. Keep the amount of corrosive material in storage as small as possible.



52


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