perception_ industrial psychology

8/3/2019 Perception_ Industrial Psychology

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WE DONT SEE THINGS AS THEY

ARE, WE SEE THINGS AS WE ARE.


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Perception

The study of perception is concerned with identifying the process

through which we interpret and organize sensory information to

produce our conscious experience of objects and object relationship.

Perception is the process of receiving information about and making

sense of the world around us. It involves deciding which informationto notice, how to categorize this information and how to interpret itwithin the framework of existing knowledge.

A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory

impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.


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The Perceptual Process

1.Sensation

An individuals ability to

detect stimuli in theimmediateenvironment.

2.Selection

The process a personuses to eliminate someof the stimuli that havebeen sensed and toretain others for furtherprocessing.

3.Organization

The process of placingselected perceptual

stimuli into aframework forstorage.

4.Translation

The stage of theperceptual process atwhich stimuli areinterpreted and givenmeaning.


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Receiving Stimuli(External & Internal)

Selecting StimuliExternal factors : Nature,

Location,Size,contrast,Movement,repetition,similarity

Internal factors : Learning,needs,age,Interest,

OrganizingFigure Background ,Perceptual Grouping( similarity, proximity,closure, continuity)

ResponseCovert: Attitudes ,

Motivation,Feeling

Overt: Behavior

Perceptual Process

InterpretingAttribution ,Stereotyping,Halo Effect, Projection


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Attribution Theory

When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is

internally or externally caused.

observation Interpretation Attribution of cause

Consistency

Consensus

Distictinctiveness

Individual behavior

Internal

External

Internal

External

Internal

ExternalH

L

H

L

H

L

Hhigh L- Low


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DistictivenessDoes this person

behave in

this mannerin other situation

YesHigh

ConsistencyNoLow

Consistency

No

LowConsensus

YesHigh

Consensus

YESLowDistinctiveness

NOHigh

Distinctiveness

ConsensusDo other personBehave in the

Same manner?

ConsistencyDoes this person

behavein this same

manner at othertimes ?

InternalAttribution

ExternalAttributi

on


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Social Identity Theory

(Tajfel & Turner 1979)

Our social identity, a part of our identity is derived fromthe social groups that we belong to and that we do notbelong to (defining who we are by who we arent)

We derive self esteem by positively differentiating our in-group from out-groups (us and them)

We therefore tend to categorize our social environmentinto groups

We tend to favourize our in-group over out-groups

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Evaluation, advantages

Supporting research

Understanding of prejudice

Can be used for predictions of social behavior in groups

Methodological advantages of supporting studies (wellcontrolled, standardized procedures)

Can be generalized to other cultures (Yuki et al. 2005)

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Evaluation, disadvantages

Identification with an in-group may sometimes lead tolow self esteem (e.g. being black in the 1930:s Clarkand Clark 1939, Jane Eliot classroom exercise)The social identity process can also be affected bypermeability (e.g. Haslam & Reicher 2006)We may also develop our self esteem and identitythrough our individualityMethodological problems of supporting studies(generalisability and ecological validity)

Possible cultural differences for in-group favouritism(Yuki et al 2005)The results of the Tajfel study may be due to thecompetitive behavior, not in-group bias

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Self-fulfilling prophecy

In certain situations, we may respond to stereotypesin such a way that false definitions end up beingaccurate. In this phenomenon, called the self-fulfillingprophecy, a person or group that is described as

having particular characteristics begins to displaythose very traits.

(e.g., when teachers and counsellors tell a bright childfrom a working class family that he would make a

good carpenter or mechanic, for instance, they maydiscourage him from thinking of college or aprofession.)

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Self-fulfilling propheciescan be especially devastatingfor minority groups. The dominant group in a societybelieves that subordinate group members lack the abilityto perform in important and lucrative positions. So it

denies them the training needed to become scientists,executives, or physicians, effectively locking thesubordinate group into societys inferior jobs. The false

definition has become real: in terms of employment, the

minority has become inferior because it was originallydefined as inferior and was prevented from achievingequality.

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PERCEPTUAL ERRORS & ATTRIBUTIONS

STEREOTYPES

Based on appearance

HALO (HORN) EFFECTS

One outstanding characteristic noted

CONTRAST EFFECT

OrderingRECENCY EFFECT

Limited recall

PROJECTION

Similar to me Error

SKEWING ERRORS

Central tendency, leniency, strictness bias

SELF-FULFILLING PROPHESY

People respond the way you expected they would

SELECTIVE PERCEPTION (MIND SETS)

Filtering, selection, and salience

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PERCEPTUAL MIND SET ERRORSROSENHAN

Ho: THESE PEOPLE ARE INSANE(Dont let them out!)

TRUTH

SANE INSANE

SANE -----------------------------------------------------------

OK TYPE I

ERROROBSERVED ------------------------------------------------

BEHAVIOR TYPE II OK

ERROR

INSANE -----------------------------------------------------------

35/118 Youre ok

TYPE I ERROR = Rejecting HO: when it is true (Alpha Error)

TYPE II ERROR = Acceptin HO: when it is false (Beta Error)

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PERCEPTUAL MIND SET CONTDROSENHAN

NOTE THE CHANGE IN BIAS, BASED ON SENSITIZATION

Ho: THESE PEOPLE MIGHT BE SANE

(Dont keep anyone who is ok!)

TRUTH

SANE INSANE

SANE -----------------------------------------------------------

OK TYPE II

ERROR

OBSERVED ------------------------------------------------

BEHAVIOR TYPE I OK

ERRORINSANE -----------------------------------------------------------

41 Ringers spotted by staff

23 by psychiatrists

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Learning in Organizations

Definition: A relatively permanentchange in knowledge or behavior thatresults from practice or experience.

Two types of learning:

Operant conditioning

Social learning

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Operant Conditioning

Learning that takes place when the learner recognizes theconnection between a behavior and its consequences.

Individuals learn to operateon their environment, to behave incertain ways to achieve desirable consequences or avoidundesirable consequences.

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Reinforcement

Reinforcement: Increasing the probability that adesired behavior will occur again in the future byapplying consequences that depend on the behavior inquestion.

Positive Reinforcement: The administration of positiveconsequences to workers who perform desiredbehaviors.

Pay, promotions, interesting work, praise, awards

Negative Reinforcement: The removal of negativeconsequences when workers perform desired behaviors.

Nagging, complaining

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Reinforcement Schedules

Continuous Reinforcement: Occurs after everyoccurrence of a behavior.

Partial Reinforcement: Occurs only a portion of thetime that behavior occurs.

Differences: Continuous reinforcement can result in faster learning

of desired behaviors.

Behaviors learned using partial reinforcement are

likely to last longer.

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Reinforcement Schedules

Fixed-Interval Schedule: The period of time betweenthe occurrence of each instance of reinforcement is fixedor set.

Variable-Interval Schedule: The amount of time

between reinforcements varies around a constantaverage.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule: A certain number of desiredbehaviors must occur before reinforcement is provided.

Variable-Ratio Schedule: The number of desiredbehaviors that must occur before reinforcement variesaround a constant average.

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Advice to Managers: Reinforcement

Administer rewards only when workers perform desired behaviorsor close approximations of them.

When using reinforcement, make sure you identify the rightbehaviors to reinforce (those that help the organization achieve itsgoals).

Because job performance is likely to vary across workers,administer rewards so that high-performing workers receive morerewards than low-performing workers.

Do not assume that a given reward will function as a positive

reinforcer to all workers. Take individual preferences into account.Make sure the consequences of a behavior are equal to thebehavior

Make sure that workers know what reinforcers are available fordesired behaviors. Dont just assume that they know.

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Extinction and Punishment

Extinction: Removing a consequence that is currentlyreinforcing an undesirable behavior in an effort todecrease the probability that the behavior will occuragain in the future.

Punishment: Administering negative consequences toworkers who perform undesirable behaviors in an effortto decrease the probability that the behavior will occuragain in the future.

Verbal reprimands, docking pay, loss of privileges

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Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment

These two concepts are often confused; however, theydiffer from each other in two important ways.

First difference:

Punishment reducesthe probability of an undesired

behavior. Negative reinforcement increasesthe probability of a

desiredbehavior.

Second difference:

Punishment involves administeringa negativeconsequencewhen an undesiredbehavior occurs.

Negative reinforcement entails removinga negativeconsequencewhen a desiredbehavior occurs.

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Advice to Managers: Punishment

Remember that all behaviors, good and bad, are performed because

they are reinforced in some way. Undesired behaviors can be

eliminated by determining how the behavior is being reinforced and

removing the reinforcer.

When feasible, use extinction rather than punishment to eliminate

undesired behaviors.

When you use punishment, make sure workers know exactly why

they are being punished.

Make sure the chosen negative consequence is indeed a punishment

for the individual in question.Downplay the emotional element in punishment, punish immediately

after the undesired behavior, and do not punish in front of others.

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What is personality?

Defn: The relatively stable set of psychologicalcharacteristics influencing the way an individual interactswith his or her environment

Personality and OB

Dispositional Approach Focus on individual dispositions and personality

Individuals are predisposed to behave in certain ways

Significant focus on personality testing (eg., selection

of military personnel).

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Personality and OB

Situational Approach

Other factors in the work environment thatcan predict and explain behaviour

Characteristics of org setting and work tasks:rewards and punishments, etc.


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Personality and OB

Interactionist Approach (interactionism) Org behaviour is a function of both situation and

disposition To predict org. behaviour, one must know something

about both personality and situation Weak vs. strong situations

Weak: Not always clear how to behave (therefore personalityhas more influence). Eg., newly formed orgsStrong: More defined rules, roles and contingencies(personality has less impact) Eg., routine military ops

FIT: some personality characteristics are useful insome situations (fit the right person with right job)


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Five Factor Model

Five basic, general dimensions: Extraversion (vs intraversion)

Emotional stability (vs. neuroticism)

Agreeableness Conscientiousness

Openness to experience

Cross-cultural correspondence; somegenetic basis


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Five Factor Model

Link to job performance Strongest predictor of job performance =

conscientiousness

Big Five related to other work behaviour Conscientiousness -> retention, attendance;

antidote to absenteeism, discipline probs

Extraversion -> promotes managerialperformance (when high consc.), elsepromotes absenteeism (more than introverts)


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Five Factor Model

Relation to motivation

Relation to job satisfaction

Relation to job search behaviour andcareer success

Relation to vocational orientation


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Stress What is it?

Stress physiological and psychologicalresponses to events in the environment

Eustress: good stress Distress: bad stress

Physiological Effects Alarm: preparation of body for fight or flight

Resistance: maintain state of elevatedpreparation

Exhaustion: when demands exceed bodys

capabilities


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Stress More Background

Where does stress come from?

Major life events?

Daily hassles: frequency, intensity, duration

Job satisfaction and stress those whoenjoy work suffer less impact fromstressful events


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Individual Differences in Coping

Social Support

Job Skill the more skilled at job, the lessstress

Physical Health good health leads toreduced impact of stress

Type A/Type B Personality Type A

personality reflected by competitiveness,inflated sense of time urgency, hostility


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Type A Personality

Hostility component of Type A personalityis linked to heart disease

Type A individuals, in essence, createmore stress for themselves

Type B individuals rarely have heartattacks before the age of 70


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More Individual Differences

Job Complexity increased complexityleads to heart disease in Type Aindividuals. But, complexity also is

linked to job satisfaction!!Locus of Control internal locus ofcontrol is linked to reduced impact ofstress

Negative Affectivity linked toneuroticism from the Big 5. A tendencyto focus on the negative aspects of life.

Linked to high levels of stress


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Individual Differences:Hardiness

Reflects a resistance to stress: elementsinclude :

Sense of commitment to family and work A perceived sense of control

A view of change as normal and challenging


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Even More Individual

DifferencesOrganization-based Self Esteem ourassessment of our adequacy and worthwith regard to our place in the employing

organization (job specific self esteem)Gender Differences female managersface more stressors than do male

managers (e.g., role conflict,discrimination, harassment)


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Stress and Type of Occupation

Clerical and blue collar workers suffer themost stress due to a relative lack of control

Most stressful professions include: laborer,

secretary, clinical lab. technician, nurse,first-line supervisor, restaurant server,machine operator, farm worker, miner

One of the least stressful professions iscollege professor yeah!!


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Work-Family Conflicts

Greater role conflict for women primaryresponsibility for family life falls on woman

Family with 3 kids, average work week forfemales is 90 hours, for males it is 70 hours

Bad work days tend to carry over into

family life tendency is stronger forwomen.

Sadly, positive states do not carry over


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Work-Family Conflict,

ContinuedWorkers report that jobs interfere withfamily life more than vice versa

Companies can help reduce stress withflexible schedules and supportivesupervisors more helpful than childcare facilities

Despite these problems, women withpaying jobs are psychological andphysically healthier than full-time

homemakers

C f St i th


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Causes of Stress in theWorkplace

Work overload Quantitative: too much to do in too short a

time

Qualitative: work that is too difficult Quantitative has increased in recent years

due to downsizing

Work underload work that is toosimple or insufficient to fill ones timeBoth of these impact stress and health,appears that a moderate amount of

stress is optimal


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Causes of Stress - Continued

Organizational Change if not hardy,change causes stress in individuals. Canbe reduced by including employees in

planningRole Ambiguity unstructured or poorlydefined job responsibilities (expectedstandards, methods, schedules)

Role Conflict conflict between jobdemands and employees personalstandards

Procrastination


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ProcrastinationDelay action for no good reason

Suggestions for controlling: Calculate the cost of procrastination: e.g.,

reduce chance of promotion

Worst in, first out principle: tackle worst task first

Break task into manageable chunks Make a commitment to other people: Ill give it

to you on Friday/by lunch

Remove mind clutter: eliminate trivial items fromto do list

Fill your schedule provides stimulation youhad been receiving by working up to deadlines

Effects of Stress in the Workplace


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Effects of Stress in the Workplace

Mass psychogenic illness also known

as assembly line hysteria. Isolation andsuggestibility

Burn out results from overwork.

Includes, Emotional Exhaustion

Depersonalization

Reduced sense of personalaccomplishment

Quantity of work may stay the same, butthe quality declines, depression, apathy,

irritability, and boredom may occur


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Workaholism

Addiction to work because of anxiety andinsecurity or because of a genuine liking

for the jobHealthy, work enthusiasts usually havejobs with autonomy and variety,appropriate skills for job, and supportive

familiesUnhealthy, workaholics Compulsive,driven to perform job tasks. Often

negatively impact co-workers

T ti St i th


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Treating Stress in theWorkplace

Organizational Techniques

Provide sufficient support for change

Provide sense of control through participation Clearly define employee roles

Eliminate work over and under load

EAPs for stress reduction (teach copingstrategies)

Provide opportunity for social support (formalor informal)

I di id l T h i f St


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Individual Techniques for StressReduction

Exercise

Relaxation Training

Biofeedback

Behavior Modification


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What Are Emotions?

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MoodsFeelings that tend to beless intense than emotionsand that lack a contextualstimulus.

EmotionsIntense feelings that aredirected at someone orsomething.

AffectA broad range of emotions that

people experience.


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Emotional Labor

A situation in which an employee expressesorganizationally desired emotions during

interpersonal transactions.

Emotional Dissonance

A situation in which an employeemust project one emotion while simultaneouslyfeeling another.

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Felt versus Displayed Emotions

Felt Emotions

An individuals actual emotions.

Displayed Emotions

Emotions that are organizationallyrequired and considered appropriate in a

given job.

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Emotion Continuum

The closer any two emotions are to eachother on the continuum, the more likelypeople are to confuse them.

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Emotion Dimensions

Variety of emotions

Positive

Negative

Intensity of emotions Personality

Job Requirements

Frequency and duration of emotions

How often emotions are exhibited. How long emotions are displayed.

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