Session No. 632

A Strategy for Reducing Construction Fatalities

John W. Mroszczyk, Ph.D., P.E., CSP Northeast Consulting Engineers, Inc.

Danvers, MA

Introduction Construction work is very dangerous. While the construction industry and government agencies have taken many steps in the past years, construction remains a very risky place to work. Data compiled from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) shows that the number of fatalities is disproportionate to the size of the workforce. The construction industry comprises only 5 % of the national work force yet has between 15% and 20% of total fatalities. While the overall trend as a percentage of the construction employment is trending downward, the construction industry still performs poorly compared to other sectors of the economy. It is important, therefore, to understand the nature of construction fatalities and put forward a strategy to make construction a safer place to work.

A great deal of research has been done to understand the causals factors related to construction accidents. It is known that construction workers are exposed to a wide range of hazards. Construction sites are generally multi-employer work sites. Safety responsibilities can become de-centralized when there are a number of contractors and tradesman coming and going. Construction projects are fast moving which increases the likelihood that hazards might be overlooked. There are often problems with workers and the work site. All of this adds up to a very dangerous place to work where accidents are multi-causal in nature.

This paper will review construction accident statistics, the types of hazards found on construction sites, the nature of construction work, and the research that has been done. The role of various stakeholders (owners, design professionals, general contractors, sub-contractors, workers) in reducing construction fatalities will be discussed. An eliminate-plan-prevent-protect strategy for reducing construction fatalities will be presented.

Construction Fatality Statistics The concern over construction fatalities is supported by the year to year trends in fatality statistics. Exhibit 1 shows total workplace fatalities (all industries) and total construction fatalities in the United States for the years 1992 through 2012 using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). There is a downward trend in total workforce fatalities from over 6,000 per year in the early 1990’s to under 5,000 in recent years. Construction has remained fairly level over that same time period varying between 738 and 1239 fatalities per year. While these numbers may not seem significant, a nominal construction fatality rate of 1000 workers per year is 83 workers killed per month or 19 per week in one single industry.

Exhibit 1. This figure shows total fatalities (all industries) and total construction fatalities for the years 1992 through 2012 (ref: BLS).

Exhibit 2. This figure shows the construction fatalities and construction employment rates for the years 1992 through 2012 (ref: BLS).

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Exhibit 2 shows a comparison of the fatality rates for all industries combined and construction. Construction employment as a percentage of total workforce employment is fairly consistent at 5%. Construction fatalities as a percentage of total workforce fatalities varied between 15% and 22 % during the years 1992 through 2012. This data shows that the number of construction fatalities are disproportionate to the size of the workforce. Construction employment is only 5% of the total workforce, yet accounts for 15 to 22% of total workforce fatalities. Construction fatalities as a percentage of construction workforce does show a downward trend from 20% in 1992 to less than 14% in 2012.

Construction Hazards In order to understand these statistics further, we look at the types of hazards that are found on construction sites. Exhibit 3 shows the percentage of total fatalities for each hazard category from the available BLS data. Falls account for the highest (about one-third) percentage of construction fatalities. Transportation related fatalities are next with about twenty-five percent. Contact with objects accounts for just under twenty percent. Harmful substances/environments is about fifteen percent.

Exhibit 3. This figure shows the percentage of total construction fatalities for the top four hazard categories for the years 2003 through 2012 (ref: BLS).

The four major hazard categories are broken further down based on 2010 BLS data. Table 1 shows the breakdown in fall fatalities. The top three fall hazards are ladders, roof edge, and scaffolds. An example of a fall hazard is shown in Exhibit 4. This photo shows what would

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have been a deadly floor hole. The floor hole has been properly protected by a guardrail. The orange paint increases the visibility of the guardrails. Total Fall Fatalities 264 Ladders 68 From roof edge 43 Scaffolds 37 Non-moving vehicle 17 To lower level 17 From roof 16 From structural steel 15 Through roof surface 13 Through skylight 11 Table 1. This table lists the construction fatality fall hazards for year 2010 (ref: BLS 2010).

Exhibit 4. This photo shows what would have been a potentially dangerous floor hole. (credit: J.Vinton Schafer/CCBC Catonsville/elcosh.org)

Total Contact With Object Fatalities 138 Struck by falling object 49 Excavation or trenching cave-in 24 Caught in or compressed by equipment 15 Caught in or crushed by collapsing structure 13 Compressed or pinched by rolling, sliding or shifting objects 11 Struck by swinging or slipping object 8 Caught in running equipment 7 Table 2. This table lists the construction fatality contact with objects for year 2010 (ref: BLS 2010). Contact with objects is listed in Table 2. The largest area is struck by falling objects. Excavations and trench cave-ins are next followed by caught in equipment and collapsing structures. Exhibit 5 shows an example of a dangerous trenching situation. There is one worker inside the trench with equipment along the sides. The trench does not have any shoring or benching.

Electricity accounts for majority of the contact with harmful substances fatalities which is listed in Table 3. Contact with power lines is the largest of this group. Exhibit 6 shows an example of a dangerous electrical hazard. The boom on the concrete pump truck is much too close to the electrical power lines.

Exhibit 5. This photo shows a dangerous trenching situation. (credit: NIOSH/John Rekus/elcosh.org) Transportation fatalities is the fourth hazard category. Transportation related hazards can be either collisions between vehicles, workers on foot that are struck by a vehicle, or a non-collision event such as rollover. Exhibit 7 shows an example of what can be done to protect workers in a

traffic area. Shadow vehicles provide notice to approaching traffic and physical protection to workers in traffic situations.

Exhibit 6. This photo shows a dangerous electrical hazard. (credit: Washington State Dept. of Labor/elcosh.org) Total Harmful Substances/Environments 126 Overhead power lines 35 Wiring, transformers or other electrical 29 Caustic, noxious, or allergic substances 23 Temperature extremes 19 Electric current of a machine or tool 9 Table 3. The table lists the construction fatalities exposure to harmful substances or environments for year 2010 (ref: BLS 2010). Total Transportation Fatalities 188 Pedestrian struck by vehicle 45 Collision between vehicles, mobile equipment (highway) 44 Non-collision event (highway) 27 Non-collision event (non-highway) 24 Vehicle struck object on side of road (highway) 22 Table 4. This table lists the construction transportation related fatalities for year 2010 (ref: BLS 2010).

Exhibit 7. Shadow vehicles can be used to protect workers in traffic. (credit: Mount Sinai/elcosh.org)

Construction Versus General Industry The construction fatality statistics clearly support the conclusion that construction work is more dangerous than general industry. There a number of reasons for this. General industry projects move relatively slower, the work is all under one roof, and each job task is well planned out. Workers generally have well defined job descriptions. Work hazards are generally known. For example, a worker in a manufacturing plant might be trained to operate one particular machine or a group of similar machines during their employment.

By comparison, construction workers are subject to a wide range of hazards such as electricity, toxic substances, work at height, moving vehicles, trenches, chemicals, and confined spaces. No two building projects are alike and projects move very fast. The work tasks and the hazards can be unpredictable. This dynamic environment makes it very difficult to create safe, stable work zones.

There are other differences. Construction work is physically demanding. Many construction workers work outdoors and must deal with adverse weather conditions. High worker turnover, temporary workers, and day workers make it difficult to maintain a trained workforce. Workers may be unfamiliar with construction work, lack the necessary skills, or lack understanding due to language barriers.

The safety management structure is also different. General industry workplaces are controlled by one employer. The management structure is centralized with well-defined safety responsibilities. Construction sites are for the most part, multiemployer sites. There are many different subcontractors and trades working simultaneously at a construction site.

Causal Factors in Construction Fatalities The existence of a hazard is only one aspect of a construction accident. There are many other causal factors that come into play. A great deal of research has been done in this area. Haslam, et al (Haslam,2005) studied causal factors in construction injuries and fatalities in Great Britain. They found that construction accidents result from the interaction between the work team, workplace, and equipment and materials. Problems with workers or the work team attributed to 70% of injuries and fatalities. Deficiencies in worker training can result in workers making poor choices such as: • Overlooking safety when faced with a heavy work schedule • Taking shortcuts to save effort and time • Misperception of the risk Tiredness and fatigue reduces concentration and also leads to poor decision making. Poor communication between workers was another contributing factor.

Problems with the workplace contributed to almost half (49%) of incidents. Inadequate space or access to perform a certain work task can also create difficulties. For example, inadequate space to extend stabilizers on a bucket truck can cause the truck to tip over. There can also be local site hazards.

Shortcomings with materials and equipment were identified in 56% of cases. An example of a hazard attributed to materials is a heavy steel angle that has to be manually maneuvered into place. Scaffolding (equipment) that is poorly assembled or configured is another example that can cause a fall.

Toole (2002) studied construction accidents in the United States. He identified seven factors related to injuries and fatalities. One factor is training. A worker that is not properly trained or not trained at all will not be able to recognize and avoid hazardous conditions. For example, a worker that is not trained in fall hazards and restraint systems might not know when fall protection is required, or may tie off to a defective anchor.

Deficient enforcement of training was another factor. For example, a foreman that observes a worker not using fall restraint systems and does not take action. Site management must monitor the site on a regular basis and be knowledgeable about the relevant safety standards and practices. Management must also have the authority to direct the actions of workers, stop the work if there is a hazardous condition, and discipline workers that do not work safely.

Injuries and fatalities were also related to a lack of proper safety equipment. The proper equipment must be provided for the task. The equipment must be inspected and maintained. The safe use of the equipment must be enforced.

Task sequencing is a fourth factor. Tradespersons have developed the means and methods to reduce the risk of an injury that depend on certain other tasks to be completed prior to doing their work. A deviation from the safe task sequence can increase the risk of an injury.

Unsafe site conditions is the fifth factor. Working under unsafe site conditions dramatically increases the chances of a fatality. Walking surface hazards, poor housekeeping, electrical hazards, and atmospheric conditions are some examples. Having too many trades working in the same area can also be unsafe.

Construction fatalities can also occur if workers do not use the safety equipment that is provided to them. Personal fall protection should be used properly. Other personal protective equipment such as gloves, steel toed shoes, eye protection, protective hearing devices, hard hats, and respirators should be used when required.

The last factor is poor worker attitude towards safety. Workers need to understand that all work tasks must be done safely. Poor attitudes like “I can’t be bothered with that,” or “I won’t be able to finish the job in time” cannot be tolerated.

Role of Stakeholders Each of the stakeholders on a construction project (owner, general contractor, subcontractors, workers, design professionals) has the ability to influence construction sites to make them safer. The general contractor (GC) is responsible for the means and methods to be used in the construction of the building in accordance with the contract documents prepared by the design professional. They are also responsible for overseeing the everyday operations of the project as well as site safety. The level of site control held by the general contractor and the ability to control site safety is very high (Toole, 2002).

As part of their over site responsibilities, general contractors are specifically tasked with monitoring and coordinating the work of the sub-contractors. This includes the quality of the work as well as site safety. It is custom and practice and written in most subcontracts that a GC can direct a subcontract foreman to remove certain workers from the site if their work or behavior is unacceptable (Toole, 2002).

Besides contractual obligations, 29 CFR 1926.16 Rules of Construction sets forth the authoritative guidelines regarding the role of general contractors that can be applied to all construction sites. The general contractor has a non-delegable duty for overall site safety and assumes all obligations prescribed to employers, whether or not he/she subcontracts any of the work. This would include enforcement of training (29 CFR 1926.21) and regular and frequent inspections (29 CFR 1926.20). The general contractor should provide a safety program and require that all subcontractors submit their own safety program for their specific work.

While the general contractor has overall responsibility, it is the subcontract employees that do the work. Subcontractors have task safety expertise. Under 29 CFR 1926.16, the subcontractor assumes responsibility for complying with the standards for his/her portion of the work. Each subcontractor must be sure that their employees are trained, and technically and physically capable of doing the work. If a subcontractor creates a hazard, they must protect their own employees and well as the employees of other employers that may be on the site (Hislop, 1998).

Under 29 CFR 1926.20, subcontractors are also required to do frequent and regular inspections. Subcontractors should train their employees on the recognition and avoidance of hazards (29 CFR 1926.21). Subcontractors should prepare a site specific safety plan for their work. The plan should include the anticipated hazards and the control methods to be used.

The construction worker is at the bottom of the chain of command. Workers have little control over the site. They are expected to work in a safe manner and get the job done according to their training (assuming they are trained). But even the best trained workers make mistakes. Workers can have lapses of memory, poor judgment, inattention, physical stress, and many other human factors issues.

The prevailing approach in the construction industry is to implement safety measures during the actual construction. With this approach, bad site decisions (or no decision) can lead to injuries and fatalities. A well-thought out design, on the other hand, offers the chance to eliminate hazards on the drawing board by minimizing bad site decisions and other worker actions that can cause an accident. The ideal time to influence safety is in the design phase of a project (Szymberski, 1997). This is where design professionals come in.

Design professionals can do their part to reduce construction fatalities by designing buildings that are safer to construct and maintain. Safety in Design (SiD) or Design for Safety (DfS) is a design philosophy that incorporates hazard analysis at the beginning of a design. Engineering measures are then applied to eliminate the hazard or reduce the risk to an acceptable level. If this cannot be done, then safety devices followed by warnings, instruction, training, and personnel protective equipment are implemented. This design philosophy is not a new concept. Its application to construction projects has only come about in the past decade.

Design for Construction Safety (DfCS) is the application of Safety in Design to construction projects. It extends the role of the design professional. Design professionals have traditionally designed buildings to comply with building codes, fire codes, and state building regulations which emphasize the safety of the end user, not the workers that construct the building. With the DfCS approach, the skill of the design professional is applied to incorporating certain design features that make a building safer to construct and maintain.

The DfCS approach can be illustrated by the following example. Safety management practices provide that workers be trained regarding fall hazards including how and when to use fall protection. A worker may or may not use fall protection, or may not use it properly leading to an accident. DfCS takes a different approach to fall hazards by designing buildings so that fall protection is not needed, or at least easier to use. DfCS can be extended to the full life cycle of a building including not only worker safety in the construction phase, but the maintenance phase, the end users who may occupy the building as a workplace, and final decommissioning of the building.

DfCS can have a significant impact on construction safety. There is a clear link between construction fatalities and design. Behm (2005) studied 224 fatalities and found that 42% were related to design decisions. In the United Kingdom, 63% of construction injuries and fatalities between the years 1986 and 1989 were traced back to design decisions or lack of planning. In Australia, 42% of fatalities during the years 1997 through 2002 were the result or poor design (NZCIC, 2006). A sample of actions or design features that can be implemented by designers can be found in the literature [ Behm (2005), Hecker (2004), and Lamba (2013)]: • Do not place equipment next to roof edges • Design and schedule handrails, guardrails, and stair rails to be

built during building erection. • Conduct an engineering survey before demolition or renovation

work to determine the condition of the structure • Design permanent anchorage points for commercial roofs • Design steel columns with holes at 21 and 42 inches above the

floor to support guardrail cables • Design 42” roof parapets so that workers can work without the

risk of falling.

• Specify temporary straps embedded in the building’s concrete frame that can be used for personal fall arrest systems

• Prefabricate structures on the ground then lift them into place (reduces time spent working at height)

• Specify electrical switchgear designed to contain and deflect away an arc within the unit.

• Specify electrical equipment that allows for inspection from outside the panel

Owners are yet another stakeholder. They purchase construction services, provide the funding, and are the end users of the building or facility. All owners should have an interest in any construction work that takes place on their property for a number of reasons. Besides contractor injuries and fatalities, ongoing construction work can damage their real property, disrupt their operations, and create dangerous conditions for others on the site including their own employees. Owners should therefore be proactive when it comes to construction safety, even if they have little or no expertise in safety.

Owners can select contractors with good safety records, encouraging designers to address safety issues in the design phase of a project, and participate in the safety management of the project (Huang, 2006). Owners should hire contractors that have a good safety record. A contractor with a good safety record is more likely to continue to work safely in comparison to a contractor with a poor safety record. According to the Business Roundtable (1982) owners should look for contractor management accountability, a qualified staff, written safety and health programs, and a commitment to safety. Carefully selected safety requirements can be included in the contract documents

To the extent possible, owners should participate in the safety management of the project. An owner can define safety goals by establishing a commitment to safety during design and communicating this commitment to everyone involved (Hislop, 1998). The Business Roundtable recommends that owners provide safety guidelines that the contractor must follow, require a formal site safety program, and require the contractor designate a supervisor to oversee site safety. Projects where the owner promoted safety and participated in safety recognition programs have had improved safety records (Huang, 2006).

Owners have a legal and moral responsibility to alert contractors of any hidden hazards or unsafe conditions that may be present on the site which could cause injury to construction workers. For example, in remodeling projects the owner should alert contractors about any structurally unsound areas and floor openings that they are aware of. An owner who is also a host employer is required under NFPA 70E to inform contractors of hazards that may not be recognized by the contractor’s employees and other information concerning the host employer’s installation.

Strategy Going Forward No one can predict the circumstances leading up to an accident. However, the number of accidents can be reduced by eliminating or reducing any or all of the causal factors. Table 5 lists the causal factors related to construction accidents. A strategy to reduce construction accidents is divided into six areas: hazards, management, equipment, workplace, workers, and unique

circumstances. Each stakeholder has a responsibility to eliminate or reduce any or all of the causal factors based on the strategy matrix shown in Table 6. First, hazards should be eliminated to the extent possible. Design professionals can take the lead by considering and anticipating hazards and designing them out so the workers are not exposed. Owners can be helpful by encouraging and supporting designers. Owners should consider that a short term increase in design fees can have greater payoffs in life cycle costs and a successful, safe project. Hazards-falls contact with objects exposure to harmful substances transportation Management-lack of training deficient enforcement of training lack of or inadequate monitoring of site deviation from safe task sequencing inadequate warning systems unsafe means and methods poor or no safety policies poor or no safety program failure to comply with regulations Equipment-defective equipment lack of maintenance improper equipment poorly assembled equipment Workplace-poor communication walking surface hazards poor housekeeping too many trades in one location limited work area Workers-taking short cuts misperception of the risk overlooking safety with heavy workload fatigue poor decision poor attitude towards safety not using proper equipment Unique to Construction-long work hours weather physical nature of work transient workforce high energy nature of work physical and mental stamina changing hazards Table 5. This table list the causal factors related to construction accidents

Design General Professional Owner Contractor Subcontractor Worker Hazards Eliminate Encourage/ Take measures Take measures Alert other workers hazards with support designers to prevent/protect to prevent/protect to open hazards and good design to eliminate hazards against hazards against hazards newly created hazards Frequent site Frequent site inspections inspections Management Owner presence/ Conduct regular involvement to toolbox talks/ show safety safety meetings commitment Have a site Follow general safety plan/ contractor safety policy plan/policy Require that Prepare safety subcontractors plan/policy for have their own specific work safety plan/policy Require all workers Train workers to be trained Monitor the site Equipment Use proper Use proper Use proper equipment equipment equipment Maintain Maintain equipment equipment Workplace Hire contractors Hire sub- with good records contractors with good safety records Frequent site Frequent site inspections inspections Workers Raise awareness Raise awareness Work safely Work according to training Unique to Regular breaks Regular breaks Construction Treat Temp/Day Treat Temp/Day workers as own workers as own

Table 6. This table shows the proposed Construction Accident Reduction Strategy Matrix. Falls account for nearly one-third of fatalities. The top three fall hazards involve ladders, roof edges, and scaffolds. Design features that can reduce scaffold accidents include:

• Gantry systems can be permanently installed so that scaffolds are not needed when servicing

atriums and skylights. • Consider designing a space to store a scissor lift which can be used to service lighting • Davits can be installed so that there will always be a permanent suspension system whenever

scaffolding is needed. Falls from ladders occur because a worker used the wrong portable ladder, a defective portable ladder, or did not use the ladder properly. Designing permanent, safe stairways or fixed ladders eliminates the need for a portable ladder. Install stairways as early as possible in the construction phase so that ladders are not needed.

Falls from roof edge occur because a worker does not have a safe place to tie off. They either do not bother to use fall protection, or tie off to a structure that is not structurally sound. A parapet wall that also functions as a perimeter guard can eliminate the need for temporary fall protection during construction and maintenance. Permanent roof anchors can be specified so that workers will always have a safe place to tie off.

Specifying holes in columns at 21 and 42 inches above the floor slab is a feature that makes it easy to install cable or wire perimeter cables. Embedded anchors can provide a safe place to tie off during construction when working near an open side. Straps can be attached to steel rebar then buried in a concrete beam or slab with its connecting D-ring left hanging.

Workers have also been killed due to structural collapses. A steel frame might be designed so that it is stable and sound when everything is in place, but can be unsafe during the erection process. Why leave bracing up to a contractor that may not have the experience or structural background that an engineer has? Specify bracing on the bid documents so that the structure does not collapse mid-way through the erection process.

A composite beam might be fine when the concrete has cured, but behaves differently during the construction phase. The concrete has little or no structural strength while it is curing, yet still has dead load. Designers should consider how a non-composite beam and supporting steel members are loading during the construction and curing process.

Leaving rebar details at beam/column joints off of the drawings can have catastrophic consequences. Congestion of rebar can create voids or honeycombing in the concrete can cause a collapse. Why rely on the contractor to “fill in the details”. Put the rebar details on the drawing so that there are no questions.

Contact with objects is another hazard area where designers can make an impact. Trenching accidents occur because contractors don’t bother to use shoring and trench boxes, or do not use them properly. Trenchless technology can be specified for utility and other similar work. This eliminates the need for a worker to be down in the trench.

There are a number of design features that can be implemented to reduce electrical accidents: • Do not specify ground water monitoring wells or other facilities near or under power lines. • Mark the location of existing electrical lines on the contract drawings. • Design embedded electrical lines deeper than the maximum depth of pipe hanger bolts so that

a worker does not penetrate an energized electrical line when drilling.

• Specify arc rated switch gear that deflect arc-flash energy away from where a person would be standing.

• New electrical panels permit inspection and measurements without getting inside the panel. Try to avoid confined spaces. This can be done by designing these spaces so they are normally habitable. Instead of putting valves in an inhabitable space, put them in an open area. Specify primers, sealers and other coatings that do not emit noxious fumes or contain carcinogenic

Designers can prepare a well-thought out site plan to reduce transportation related accidents. Keep roadways away from sloped areas to avoid vehicle rollovers. Locate material storage areas, job trailers, portable restrooms, and roads so that vehicle/vehicle and worker/vehicle contact is minimized.

Eliminating hazards in the design stage will reduce a significant percentage of accidents, but not all. There are hazards that arise during the means and methods of construction. General contractors should do regular inspections and take oversight responsibility. Subcontractors also need to do regular inspections with respect to their work. Preventive measures should take priority over protective measures whenever possible. For example, it would be preferable to put a secured cover over a floor opening rather than implement a personal fall arrest system. Workers who discover an open hazard or create a hazard should alert their supervisors so that others workers on the site are not put at risk.

Management is the next focus area. The general contractor (s) has a large role here because they are the only employer on the site that is aware of the subcontractors, who is site, and what work is being scheduled. The work should be carefully planned out to identify potential hazards so that safety rules and plans can be made. A job hazard analysis should be done to identify potential hazards. Contractors should communicate that safety is a priority by treating productivity, quality, and safety as three related parts of the project.

The GC should monitor the site on a regular and frequent schedule. Any open hazards should be promptly addressed. The work should be stopped if any worker is observed to be working in an unsafe manner. Careful attention should be paid to task sequencing so that unplanned hazards are not introduced. Owners can show their safety commitment by being physically present on the job from time to time.

The GC should also conduct regular toolbox talks and safety meetings. Toolbox talks provide a continuing method to inform and train workers. A subcontractor representative and workers should be invited to project wide safety meetings. A “stand-down” is another method to raise safety awareness. This is a job site break to talk directly to workers about safety, discuss job hazards, inspect safety equipment, train, and teach.

The GC should have a site safety plan/policy, and require that all subcontractors have their own safely plan/policy for their portion of the work. They should require and follow up that all workers are trained. The subcontractors should follow the GC safety plan and their own plan. The subcontractors have to make sure their workers are trained. If management does not put the rules, practices, and policies they create into practice, the workers will care less (Hamid,2008).

All contractors should make sure the proper equipment is used on the site. Equipment should be maintained. Unsafe equipment should be set aside and secured so that it cannot be used until it is repaired or replaced. For example, damaged ladders should either be destroyed or chained and locked so that a worker looking for a ladder does not use it.

Owners can contribute to making the workplace safe by hiring contractors with good safety records. General contractors, likewise, should hire subcontractors with good safety records. Frequent site inspection can identify unsafe conditions so that they can be corrected.

Workers should work safely according to their training. Contractors can help by raising safety awareness. Workers should feel free to alert their supervisors of any unsafe conditions.

There are a number of measures that can be taken regarding those factors unique to construction. Contractors should provide regular breaks for the workers. Stretching exercises can also be helpful. Transient workers should be trained as if they were permanent employees.

Conclusion The nature of construction work makes it difficult to create safe, stable works zones. Construction workers are subject to a wide range of hazards such as electricity, toxic substances, work at height, moving vehicles, trenches, chemicals, and confined spaces. Construction projects move very fast and hazards can be unpredictable. Workers must deal with physically demanding work. Workers very often must make their own site decisions. They may be distracted, fatigued, untrained, or have language barriers. Safety responsibilities can become de-centralized with multiple employers on site.

Construction workers are subjected to fall, contact with objects, harmful substances, and transportation hazards. Falls account for nearly one-third of construction fatalities. The top three fall hazards are from ladders, roof edge, and scaffolds. Fatalities are multi-causal resulting from the random interaction of hazards with deficiencies in management, equipment, workplace, workers, and conditions unique to construction. The hazards and the causal factors change with time.

Each of the stakeholders (design professionals, general contractors, sub-contractors, workers, owners) have a role to play in a strategic effort to reduce hazards and causal factors. Design professionals can take the lead by eliminating hazards with well thought out designs. General contractors have the highest level of site control. The GC should exercise this control by:

• Pre-qualifying subcontractors based on past safety record and current safety performance • Anticipate and control hazards by planning the work. • Mandate that all workers are adequately trained. • Monitor the site on a regular basis to correct hazards and check subcontractor compliance

with safety requirements • Hold regular safety meetings to review upcoming work and the safety measures that might be

required. • Hold “tool box talks” to educate workers regarding safe practices • Provide a site wide safety plan that all subcontractors are to follow • Require that subcontractors provide a safety plan for their specific work

Subcontractors should train their employees on the recognition and avoidance of hazards. Subcontractors should prepare a site specific safety plan for their work. If a subcontractor creates a hazard, they need to protect their employees as well as other employees at the site.

Raising awareness can also help. Managers can conduct a “safety stand-down” by taking a break for a toolbox talk, discussing job hazards, and inspecting safety equipment. Workers should work safely according to their training and alert other workers of any open hazards that they find. Owners should only hire contractors with good safety records. Owner presence and involvement will help to show a commitment to safety.

Construction will continue to be a dangerous place to work. The steps taken by a number of groups and agencies have created a downward trend in the fatality rate. However, the fatality rate is still unacceptable. An understanding of how construction accidents happen has been presented. The proposed “eliminate, plan, prevent, protect” strategy involving design professionals, general contractors, sub-contractors, workers, and owners will make further headway in the reduction of construction fatalities.

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