partition of india

Partition of India 1

Partition of India

Colonial India

Imperial Entities of IndiaDutch India 16051825

Danish India 16201869

French India 17591954

Portuguese India 15101961

Casa da ndia 14341833

Portuguese East India Company 16281633

British India 16131947

East India Company 16121757

Company rule in India 17571857

British Raj 18581947

British rule in Burma 18241942

17651947/48


The Partition of British India was based on theprevailing religions, broadly as shown in this map

of 1909

The partition of India (Hindi-Urdu: (Devanagari) (Nastaleeq) )[1] was the partition of British India on the basis ofreligious demographics. This led to the creation of the sovereign statesof the Dominion of Pakistan (that later split again into the IslamicRepublic of Pakistan and the People's Republic of Bangladesh) and theUnion of India (later Republic of India). Indian Independence Act 1947had decided 15 August 1947 as the appointed date for the partition.However Pakistan came into existence a day earlier on 14 August.

The partition of India was set forth in the Indian Independence Act1947 and resulted in the dissolution of the British Indian Empire andthe end of the British Raj. It resulted in a struggle between the newlyconstituted states of India and Pakistan and displaced up to 12.5million people with estimates of loss of life varying from severalhundred thousand to a million (most estimates of the numbers of people who crossed the boundaries between Indiaand Pakistan in 1947 range between 10 and 12 million).[2] The violent nature of the partition created an atmosphereof mutual hostility and suspicion between India and Pakistan that plagues their relationship to this day.


The partition included the geographical division of the Bengal province into East Bengal, which became part of theDominion of Pakistan (from 1956, East Pakistan). West Bengal became part of India, and a similar partition of thePunjab province became West Punjab (later the Pakistani Punjab and Islamabad Capital Territory) and East Punjab(later the Indian Punjab, as well as Haryana and Himachal Pradesh). The partition agreement also included thedivision of Indian government assets, including the Indian Civil Service, the Indian Army, the Royal Indian Navy,the Indian railways and the central treasury, and other administrative services.The two self-governing countries of India and Pakistan legally came into existence at the stroke of midnight on14-15 August 1947. The ceremonies for the transfer of power were held a day earlier in Karachi, at the time thecapital of the new state of Pakistan, so that the last British Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten of Burma, could attend boththe ceremony in Karachi and the ceremony in Delhi. This is why Pakistan's Independence Day is celebrated on 14August and India's on 15 August.

BackgroundFurther information: Two-Nation Theory

Late nineteenth and early twentieth centuryThe All India Muslim League (AIML) had been formed in Dhaka in 1906 by Muslims who were suspicious of theHindu-majority Indian National Congress. They complained that Muslim members did not have the same rights asHindu members. A number of different scenarios were proposed at various times. Among the first to make thedemand for a separate state was the writer and philosopher Allama Iqbal, who, in his presidential address to the 1930convention of the Muslim League, proposed a separate nation for Muslims was essential in an otherwiseHindu-dominated Indian subcontinent. According to Iqbal, such a separation was imminent in a near future,according to his vision.The Sindh Assembly passed a resolution making it a separate nation a demand in 1935. Iqbal, Jouhar and othersworked hard to draft a resolution, working with Mohammad Ali Jinnah, who had until then worked forHindu-Muslim unity and who now was to lead the movement for this new nation. By 1930, Jinnah had begun todespair at the fate of minority communities in a united India and had begun to argue that mainstream parties such asthe Congress, of which he was once a member, were insensitive to Muslim interests.The 1932 Communal Award which seemed to threaten the position of Muslims in Hindu-majority provincescatalysed the resurgence of the Muslim League, with Jinnah as its leader. However, the League did not do well in the1937 provincial elections, demonstrating the hold of the conservative and local forces at the time.

1909 Provinces and Princelystates of British India

1909 Prevailing majorityReligions for different districts,Map of British Indian Empire.

1909 Percentage of Hindus. 1909 Percentage of Muslims.


1909 Percentage of Sikhs,Buddhists, and Jains.

1909 Prevailing (Aryan)Languages (Northern Region).

1901 Population Density.

19321942In 1940, Jinnah made a statement at the Lahore conference that seemed to call for a separate Muslim country. Thisidea, though, was taken up by Muslims and particularly by Hindus in the next seven years, and became a moreterritorial plan. All Muslim political parties including the Khaksar Tehrik and Allama Mashriqi opposed the partitionof India Mashriqi was arrested on 19 March 1940.Savarkar strongly opposed the partition of India. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar summaries Savarkar's position, in hisPakistan or The Partition of India as follows,

Mr. Savarkar... insists that, although there are two nations in India, India shall not be divided into two parts, one for Muslims and the other forthe Hindus; that the two nations shall dwell in one country and shall live under the mantle of one single constitution;... In the struggle forpolitical power between the two nations the rule of the game which Mr. Savarkar prescribes is to be one man one vote, be the man Hindu orMuslim. In his scheme a Muslim is to have no advantage which a Hindu does not have. Minority is to be no justification for privilege andmajority is to be no ground for penalty. The State will guarantee the Muslims any defined measure of political power in the form of Muslimreligion and Muslim culture. But the State will not guarantee secured seats in the Legislature or in the Administration and, if such guarantee isinsisted upon by the Muslims, such guaranteed quota is not to exceed their proportion to the general population.[3]

Most of the Congress leaders were secularists and resolutely opposed the division of India on the lines of religion.Mohandas Gandhi and Allama Mashriqi believed that Hindus and Muslims could and should live in amity. Gandhiopposed the partition, saying, "My whole soul rebels against the idea that Hinduism and Islam represent twoantagonistic cultures and doctrines. To assent to such a doctrine is for me a denial of God."[4]

For years, Gandhi and his adherents struggled to keep Muslims in the Congress Party (a major exit of many Muslimactivists began in the 1930s), and in the process enraged both Hindu Nationalists and Indian Muslim nationalists.Gandhi was assassinated soon after Partition by Hindu nationalist Nathuram Godse, who believed that Gandhi wasappeasing Muslims at the cost of Hindus.Politicians and community leaders on both sides whipped up mutual suspicion and fear, culminating in dreadfulevents such as the riots during the Muslim League's Direct Action Day of August 1946 in Kolkata (then "Calcutta"),in which more than 5,000 people were killed and many more injured. As public order broke down all across northernIndia and Bengal, the pressure increased to seek a political partition of territories as a way to avoid a full-scale civilwar.


19421946Until 1940, the definition of Pakistan as demanded by the League was so flexible that it could have been interpretedas a sovereign nation or as a member of a confederated India.Some historians believe Jinnah intended to use the threat of partition as a bargaining chip in order to gain moreindependence for the Muslim dominated provinces in the west from the Hindu-dominated center.[5]

Other historians claim that Jinnah's real vision was for a Pakistan that extended into Hindu-majority areas of India,by demanding the inclusion of the East of Punjab and West of Bengal, including Assam, a Hindu-majority region.Jinnah also fought hard for the annexation of Kashmir, a Muslim majority state with Hindu ruler; and the accessionof Hyderabad and Junagadh, Hindu-majority states with Muslim rulers.The British colonial administration did not directly rule all of "India". There were several different politicalarrangements in existence: Provinces were ruled directly and the Princely States with varying legal arrangements,like paramountcy.The British Colonial Administration consisted of Secretary of State for India, the India Office, the Governor-Generalof India, and the Indian Civil Service. The British were in favour of keeping the area united. The 1946 CabinetMission was sent to try and reach a compromise between Congress and the Muslim League. A compromiseproposing a decentralized state with much power given to local governments won initial acceptance, but Nehru wasunwilling to accept such a decentralized state and Jinnah soon returned to demanding an independent Pakistan.[6]

The Indian political parties were the following: All India Muslim League, Communist Party of India,Majlis-e-Ahrar-ul-Islam, Hindu Mahasabha, Indian National Congress, Khaksar Tehrik, and Unionist MuslimLeague (mainly in the Punjab).

Actual partition, 1947

Mountbatten PlanThe actual division of British India between the two new dominions was accomplished according to what has cometo be known as the 3 June Plan or Mountbatten Plan. It was announced at a press conference by Mountbatten on 3June 1947, when the date of independence was also announced 15 August 1947. The plan's main points were: Hindus and Muslims in Punjab and Bengal legislative assemblies would meet and vote for partition. If a simple

majority of either group wanted partition, then these provinces would be divided. Sindh was to take its own decision. The fate of North West Frontier Province and Sylhet district of Bengal was to be decided by a referendum. India would be independent by 15 August 1947. The separate independence of Bengal also ruled out. A boundary commission to be set up in case of partition.The Indian political leaders accepted the Plan on 2 June. It did not deal with the question of the princely states, buton 3 June Mountbatten advised them against remaining independent and urged them to join one of the two newdominions.[7]

The Muslim league's demands for a separate state were thus conceded. The Congress' position on unity was alsotaken into account while making Pakistan as small as possible. Mountbatten's formula was to divide India and at thesame time retain maximum possible unity.Within British India, the border between India and Pakistan (the Radcliffe Line) was determined by a BritishGovernment-commissioned report prepared under the chairmanship of a London barrister, Sir Cyril Radcliffe.Pakistan came into being with two non-contiguous enclaves, East Pakistan (today Bangladesh) and West Pakistan,separated geographically by India. India was formed out of the majority Hindu regions of British India, and Pakistanfrom the majority Muslim areas.


Countries of the modern Indian subcontinent

On 18 July 1947, the British Parliament passed the IndianIndependence Act that finalized the arrangements for partition andabandoned British suzerainty over the princely states, of which therewere several hundred, leaving them free to choose whether to accede toone of the new dominions. The Government of India Act 1935 wasadapted to provide a legal framework for the new dominions.

Following its creation as a new country in August 1947, Pakistanapplied for membership of the United Nations and was accepted by theGeneral Assembly on 30 September 1947. The Union of Indiacontinued to have the existing seat as India had been a foundingmember of the United Nations since 1945.[8]

Radcliffe LineFurther information: Radcliffe Line

the Punjab section of the Radcliffe Line

The Punjab the region of the five rivers east of Indus: Jhelum,Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej consists of interfluvial doabs, ortracts of land lying between two confluent rivers. These are theSind-Sagar doab (between Indus and Jhelum), the Jech doab(Jhelum/Chenab), the Rechna doab (Chenab/Ravi), the Bari doab(Ravi/Beas), and the Bist doab (Beas/Sutlej) (see map). In early1947, in the months leading up to the deliberations of the PunjabBoundary Commission, the main disputed areas appeared to be inthe Bari and Bist doabs, although some areas in the Rechna doabwere claimed by the Congress and Sikhs. In the Bari doab, thedistricts of Gurdaspur, Amritsar, Lahore, and Montgomery(Sahiwal) were all disputed.[9]

All districts (other than Amritsar, which was 46.5% Muslim) had Muslim majorities; albeit, in Gurdaspur, theMuslim majority, at 51.1%, was slender. At a smaller area-scale, only three tehsils (sub-units of a district) in the Baridoab had non-Muslim majorities. These were: Pathankot (in the extreme north of Gurdaspur, which was not indispute), and Amritsar and Tarn Taran in Amritsar district. In addition, there were four Muslim-majority tehsils eastof Beas-Sutlej (with two where Muslims outnumbered Hindus and Sikhs together).[9]

A map of the Punjab region ca. 1947

Before the Boundary Commission began formal hearings, governmentswere set up for the East and the West Punjab regions. Their territorieswere provisionally divided by "notional division" based on simpledistrict majorities. In both the Punjab and Bengal, the BoundaryCommission consisted of two Muslim and two non-Muslim judgeswith Sir Cyril Radcliffe as a common chairman.[9]

The mission of the Punjab commission was worded generally as thefollowing: "To demarcate the boundaries of the two parts of thePunjab, on the basis of ascertaining the contiguous majority areas ofMuslims and non-Muslims. In doing so, it will take into account other

factors."[9]

Each side (the Muslims and the Congress/Sikhs) presented its claim through counsel with no liberty to bargain. Thejudges too had no mandate to compromise and on all major issues they "divided two and two, leaving Sir CyrilRadcliffe the invidious task of making the actual decisions."[9]


Massive population exchanges occurred between the two newly formed states in the months immediately followingPartition. Once the lines were established, about 14.5 million people crossed the borders to what they hoped was therelative safety of religious majority. Based on 1951 Census of displaced persons, 7,226,000 Muslims went toPakistan from India while 7,250,000 Sikhs and Hindus moved to India from Pakistan immediately after partition.About 11.2 million or 78% of the population transfer took place in the west, with Punjab accounting for most of it;5.3 million Muslims moved from India to West Punjab in Pakistan, potentially 3.8 million Hindus and Sikhs couldhave moved from West Pakistan to East Punjab in India but 500,000 had already migrated before the Radcliffeaward was announced; elsewhere in the west 1.2 million moved in each direction to and from Sind.The newly formed governments were completely unequipped to deal with migrations of such staggering magnitude,and massive violence and slaughter occurred on both sides of the border. Estimates of the number of deaths rangearound roughly 500,000, with low estimates at 200,000 and high estimates at 1,000,000.[10]

PunjabThe Indian state of East Punjab was created in 1947, when the Partition of India split the former British province ofPunjab between India and Pakistan. The mostly Muslim western part of the province became Pakistan's PunjabProvince; the mostly Sikh and Hindu eastern part became India's East Punjab state. Many Hindus and Sikhs lived inthe west, and many Muslims lived in the east, and the fears of all such minorities were so great that the partition sawmany people displaced and much intercommunal violence.Lahore and Amritsar were at the centre of the problem, the Boundary Commission was not sure where to place them to make them part of India or Pakistan. The Commission decided to give Lahore to Pakistan, whilst Amritsarbecame part of India. Some areas in west Punjab, including Lahore, Rawalpindi, Multan, and Gujrat, had a largeSikh and Hindu population, and many of the residents were attacked or killed. On the other side, in East Punjab,cities such as Amritsar, Ludhiana, Gurdaspur, and Jalandhar had a majority Muslim population, of which thousandswere killed or emigrated.

BengalThe province of Bengal was divided into the two separate entities of West Bengal belonging to India, and EastBengal belonging to Pakistan. East Bengal was renamed East Pakistan in 1955, and later became the independentnation of Bangladesh after the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971.While the Muslim majority districts of Murshidabad and Malda were given to India, the Hindu majority district ofKhulna and the majority Buddhist, but sparsely populated Chittagong Hill Tracts was given to Pakistan by the award.

SindhHindu Sindhis were expected to stay in Sindh following Partition, as there were good relations between Hindu andMuslim Sindhis. At the time of Partition there were 1,400,000 Hindu Sindhis, though most were concentrated incities such as Hyderabad, Karachi, Shikarpur, and Sukkur. However, because of an uncertain future in a Muslimcountry, a sense of better opportunities in India, and most of all a sudden influx of Muslim refugees from Gujarat,Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajputana (Rajasthan) and other parts of India, many Sindhi Hindus decided to leave for India.Problems were further aggravated when incidents of violence instigated by Muslim refugees broke out in Karachiand Hyderabad. According to the census of India 1951, nearly 776,000 Sindhi Hindus moved into India.[11] Unlikethe Punjabi Hindus and Sikhs, Sindhi Hindus did not have to witness any massive scale rioting; however, their entireprovince had gone to Pakistan thus they felt like a homeless community. Despite this migration, a significant SindhiHindu population still resides in Pakistan's Sindh province where they number at around 2.28 million as perPakistan's 1998 census while the Sindhi Hindus in India as per 2001 census of India were at 2.57 million.


Perspectives

TIME magazine 27 October 1947 cover BorisArtzybasheff depicting a self-hurting goddessKali as a symbol of the partition of India. The

caption says: "INDIA: Liberty and death."

The Partition was a highly controversial arrangement, and remains acause of much tension on the Indian subcontinent today. The BritishViceroy, Lord Mountbatten of Burma has not only been accused ofrushing the process through, but also is alleged to have influenced theRadcliffe Line in India's favour.[12][13] However, the commission tookso long to decide on a final boundary that the two nations were grantedtheir independence even before there was a defined boundary betweenthem. Even then, the members were so distraught at their handiwork(and its results) that they refused compensation for their time on thecommission.

Some critics allege that British haste led to the cruelties of thePartition.[14] Because independence was declared prior to the actualPartition, it was up to the new governments of India and Pakistan tokeep public order. No large population movements were contemplated;the plan called for safeguards for minorities on both sides of the newborder. It was a task at which both states failed. There was a completebreakdown of law and order; many died in riots, massacre, or just fromthe hardships of their flight to safety. What ensued was one of thelargest population movements in recorded history. According to

Richard Symonds: At the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve million became homeless.[15]

However, many argue that the British were forced to expedite the Partition by events on the ground.[16] Once inoffice, Mountbatten quickly became aware if Britain were to avoid involvement in a civil war, which seemedincreasingly likely, there was no alternative to partition and a hasty exit from India.[16] Law and order had brokendown many times before Partition, with much bloodshed on both sides. A massive civil war was looming by the timeMountbatten became Viceroy. After the Second World War, Britain had limited resources,[17] perhaps insufficient tothe task of keeping order. Another viewpoint is that while Mountbatten may have been too hasty he had no realoptions left and achieved the best he could under difficult circumstances.[18] The historian Lawrence James concursthat in 1947 Mountbatten was left with no option but to cut and run. The alternative seemed to be involvement in apotentially bloody civil war from which it would be difficult to get out.[19]

Conservative elements in England consider the partition of India to be the moment that the British Empire ceased tobe a world power, following Curzon's dictum: "the loss of India would mean that Britain drop straight away to athird rate power."[20]

Delhi Punjabi refugeesAn estimated 25 million Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs (1947present) crossed the newly drawn borders to reach theirnew homelands. These estimates are based on comparisons of censuses from 1941 and 1951 with adjustments fornormal population growth in the areas of migration. In northern India undivided Punjab and North WesternFrontier Province (NWFP) nearly 12 million were forced to move from as early as March 1947 following theRawalpindi violence.Delhi received the largest number of refugees for a single city the population of Delhi grew rapidly in 1947 fromunder 1 million (917.939) to a little less than 2 million (1.744.072) between the period 19411951.[21] The refugeeswere housed in various historical and military locations such as the Purana Qila, Red Fort, and military barracks inKingsway (around the present Delhi university). The latter became the site of one of the largest refugee camps innorthern India with more than 35,000 refugees at any given time besides Kurukshetra camp near Panipat.


The camp sites were later converted into permanent housing through extensive building projects undertaken by theGovernment of India from 1948 onwards. A number of housing colonies in Delhi came up around this period likeLajpat Nagar, Rajinder Nagar, Nizamuddin East, Punjabi Bagh, Rehgar Pura, Jungpura and Kingsway Camp.A number of schemes such as the provision of education, employment opportunities, and easy loans to startbusinesses were provided for the refugees at the all-India level. The Delhi refugees, however, were able to make useof these facilities much better than their counterparts elsewhere.[22]

Refugees settled in IndiaMany Sikhs and Hindu Punjabis settled in the Indian parts of Punjab and Delhi. Hindus migrating from East Pakistan(now Bangladesh) settled across Eastern India and Northeastern India, many ending up in close-by states like WestBengal, Assam, and Tripura. Some migrants were sent to the Andaman islands where Bengali today form the largestlinguistic group.

Photo of a railway station in Punjab. Manypeople abandoned their fixed assets and crossed

newly formed borders.

Hindu Sindhis found themselves without a homeland. Theresponsibility of rehabilitating them was borne by their government.Refugee camps were set up for Hindu Sindhis. Many refugeesovercame the trauma of poverty, though the loss of a homeland has hada deeper and lasting effect on their Sindhi culture. In 1967 theGovernment of India recognized Sindhi as a fifteenth official languageof India in two scripts.

In late 2004, the Sindhi diaspora vociferously opposed a Public InterestLitigation in the Supreme Court of India which asked the Governmentof India to delete the word "Sindh" from the Indian National Anthem(written by Rabindranath Tagore prior to the partition) on the groundsthat it infringed upon the sovereignty of Pakistan.


Refugees settled in Pakistan

Indo-East Pakistani, later Indo-Bangladeshenclaves created by the partition

In the aftermath of partition, a huge population exchange occurredbetween the two newly formed states. About 14.5 million peoplecrossed the borders, including 8,226,000 Muslims came to Pakistanfrom India while 7,249,000 Hindus and Sikhs moved to India fromPakistan. About 5.5 million settled in Punjab Pakistan and around 1.5million settled in Sindh.

Most of those refugees who settled in Punjab Pakistan came fromIndian Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir andRajasthan. Most of those refugees who arrived in Sindh came fromnorthern and central urban centres of India, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan via Wahga and Munabaoborder, however a limited number of muhajirs also arrived by air andon ships. People who wished to go to India from all over Sindh awaitedtheir departure to India by ship at the Swaminarayan temple in Karachiand were visited by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan.[23]

Later in 1950s the majority of Urdu speaking refugees who migratedafter the independence were settled in the port city of Karachi insouthern Sindh and in the cities of Hyderabad, Sukkur, Nawabshah andMirpurkhas. As well the above many Urdu-speakers settled in the citiesof Punjab mainly in Lahore, Multan, Bahawalpur and Rawalpindi. Thenumber of migrants in Sindh was placed at over 540,000 of whomtwo-third were urban. In case of Karachi, from a population of around400,000 in 1947, it turned into more than 1.3 million in 1953.

Former President of Pakistan, General Pervez Musharraf, was born in the Nahar Vali Haveli in Daryaganj, Delhi,India. Several previous Pakistani leaders were also born in regions that are in India. Pakistan's first prime minister,Liaquat Ali Khan was born in Karnal (now in Haryana). The 7-year longest-serving Governor and martial lawadministrator of Pakistan's largest province, Balochistan, General Rahimuddin Khan, was born in the predominantlyPathan city of Kaimganj, which now lies in Uttar Pradesh. General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, who came to power in amilitary coup in 1977, was born in Jalandhar, East Punjab. The families of all four men opted for Pakistan at the timeof Partition.

Aftermath

Restoration of womenBoth sides promised each other that they would try to restore women abducted during the riots. The Indiangovernment claimed that 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women were abducted, and the Pakistani government claimed that50,000 Muslim women were abducted during riots. By 1949, there were governmental claims that 12,000 womenhad been recovered in India and 6,000 in Pakistan.[24] By 1954 there were 20,728 recovered Muslim women and9032 Hindu and Sikh women recovered from Pakistan.[25] Many of the Muslim women refused to go back toPakistan fearing that they would never be accepted by their family; similarly, the families of many Hindu and Sikhwomen refused to take back their relatives.[26]


India and PakistanSince Partition, with the riots and killings between the two religious communities, India and Pakistan have struggledto maintain normal relations. One of the biggest debates occurs over the disputed region of Kashmir, over whichthere have been three wars, and the reasons for the wars have related only to the confusion over partition. There havebeen four Indo-Pakistani wars: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947: Pakistani backed tribals (and later its army) invaded the princely state of Kashmir

that acceded to India as per the scheme of accession provided in Indian Independence Act 1947. A stalematefollowed since 1949.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965: Pakistani-backed guerrillas invaded Jammu & Kashmir state of India. India isgenerally believed to have had the upper hand when a ceasefire was called. Whereas Pakistan believed itsair-superiority over army and navy against India in the war to be key achievement and future success if warcontinued.[27]

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971: After India announced support for the Bengalis in East Pakistan, Pakistan launchedair strikes against India. India eventually captured 13,000 square kilometres of Pakistan's territory (which it laterreturned on the condition that newly-created Bangladesh is recognised by Pakistan). East Pakistan ceased to be apart of Pakistan and Bangladesh came into existence in its place.

1999 Kargil Conflict: Pakistani army troops invaded high peaks in Kargil sector in Jammu & Kashmir during thewinter when high mountain posts were unoccupied. India recaptured all territory lost.[28]

India and Pakistan have also engaged in a nuclear arms race.

Treatment of minorities by Pakistan and IndiaFurther information: Hinduism in Pakistanand2006 Lahore temple demolitionFurther information: Persecution of Muslims#Communal violence in India

1971 newsreel film about the partition and itsaftermath

Before independence, Hindus and Sikhs had formed 20 per cent of thepopulation of the areas now forming Pakistan, presently the percentagehas "whittled down to one-and-a half percent".[29]:66 M. C. Chagla, in aspeech at the UN General Assembly said that, Pakistan solved itsminority problem by the ethnic cleansing of the Hindus, resulting in"hardly any" Hindu minority population in West Pakistan.[30] Indiasuspected Pakistan of ethnic cleansing when millions of Hindus fled itsprovince of East Pakistan in 1971.[31] Hindus remaining in Pakistanhave been persecuted.[32][33] Yasmin Saikia writes that "although alarge number of Muslims migrated to Pakistan in 1947, the bulk of theMuslim population stayed in their homelands in India".[34] Accordingto Azim A. Khan Sherwani, the Hashimpura massacre case is "achilling reminder of the apathy of the (Indian) state towards access to justice for Muslims", he writes that the casedemonstrates that it is not just the Hindutva lobby, but also the Congress-Left and the socialists that are apathetic,and that Muslim "leaders" are more concerned with their personal ambitions and not with "issues afflicting thecommunity".[35] In Pakistan, Hindus sometimes resent the alleged discrimination and forced conversion toIslam.[36][37]

Integration of refugee populations with their new countries did not always go smoothly. Some Urdu speakingMuslims (Muhajirs)who migrated to Pakistan have complained that they are discriminated against in governmentemployment. Municipal political conflict in Karachi, Pakistan's largest city, often pitted native Sindhis againstimmigrants. Sindhi, Bengali, and Punjabi refugees in India also experienced poverty as they largely came emptyhanded. However, 50 years after Partition, almost all ex-refugees have managed to rebuild their lives.


All of the three nations resulting from the Partition of India have had to deal with endemic civil conflicts. InsideIndia, these have been largely due to inter-religious unrest and disruptive far left forces. Civil unrest inside Indiaincludes: The Sikh separatist movement of the 1980s which has since become almost nonexistent.[38]

Islamist separatist movement in Jammu & Kashmir resulting in the ethnic cleansing[39][40][41][42][43][44] ofKashmiri Hindus and massacres against Hindus such as the ones in Wandhama and Kaluchak. It has been foundwith enough evidence that the Pakistani government and its intermediaries have tacitly backed and armed thesemilitants[45][46][47]

The last example of unrest, the terrorism in Kashmir, is related to the ongoing Kashmir conflict and relates to theboth India and Pakistan.Within Pakistan, unrest is mainly because of ethnicities, with Sindhis, Bengalis, Balochis, all vying for morerepresentation within Pakistan and in some cases, the creation of an independent state. In 1971, Bangladesh Liberation War and the subsequent Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 which led to further

partition of Pakistan.

Current religious demographics of India proper and former East and West PakistanDespite the huge migrations during and after Partition, India is still home to the third largest Muslim population inthe world (after Indonesia and Pakistan). The current estimates for India (see Demographics of India) are as shownbelow. Islamic Pakistan, the former West Pakistan, by contrast, has a much smaller minority population. Its religiousdistribution is below (see Demographics of Pakistan). As for Bangladesh, the former East Pakistan, the non-Muslimshare is somewhat larger (see Demographics of Bangladesh):India (2006 Est. 1,095 million vs. 1951 Census 361 million) 80.5% Hindus (839 million) 13.10% Muslims (143 million) 2.31% Christians (25 million) 2.00% Sikhs (21 million) 1.94% Buddhists, Jains, Parsis and others (20 million)Pakistan (2005 Est. 162 million vs. 1951 Census 34 million) 98.0% Muslims (159 million) 1.0% Christians (1.62 million) 1.0% Hindus, Sikhs and others (1.62 million)Bangladesh (2005 Est. 144 million vs. 1951 Census 42 million) 86% Muslims (124 million) 13% Hindus (18 million) 1% Christians, Buddhists and Animists (1.44 million)Both nations have to a great extent assimilated the refugees.

A refugee train on its way toPunjab, Pakistan.


Artistic depictions of the PartitionThe partition of India and the associated bloody riots inspired many creative minds in India and Pakistan to createliterary/cinematic depictions of this event.[48] While some creations depicted the massacres during the refugeemigration, others concentrated on the aftermath of the partition in terms of difficulties faced by the refugees in bothside of the border. Even now, more than 60 years after the partition, works of fiction and films are made that relate tothe events of partition.Literature describing the human cost of independence and partition comprises Khushwant Singh's Train to Pakistan(1956), several short stories such as Toba Tek Singh (1955) by Saadat Hassan Manto, Urdu poems such asSubh-e-Azadi (Freedoms Dawn, 1947) by Faiz Ahmad Faiz, Bhisham Sahni's Tamas (1974), Manohar Malgonkar'sA Bend in the Ganges (1965), and Bapsi Sidhwa's Ice-Candy Man (1988), among others.[49][50] Salman Rushdie'snovel Midnight's Children (1980), which won the Booker Prize and the Booker of Bookers, weaved its narrativebased on the children born with magical abilities on midnight of 14 August 1947.[50] Freedom at Midnight (1975) isa non-fiction work by Larry Collins and Dominique Lapierre that chronicled the events surrounding the firstIndependence Day celebrations in 1947. There is a paucity of films related to the independence andpartition.[51][52][53] Early films relating to the circumstances of the independence, partition and the aftermath includeNemai Ghosh's Chinnamul (1950),[51] Dharmputra (1961),[54] Ritwik Ghatak's Meghe Dhaka Tara (1960), KomalGandhar (1961), Subarnarekha (1962);[51][55] later films include Garm Hava (1973) and Tamas (1987).[54] From thelate 1990s onwards, more films on this theme were made, including several mainstream films, such as Earth (1998),Train to Pakistan (1998) (based on the aforementined book), Hey Ram (2000), Gadar: Ek Prem Katha (2001),Pinjar (2003), Partition (2007) and Madrasapattinam (2010),.[54] The biopics Gandhi (1982), Jinnah (1998) andSardar (1993) also feature independence and partition as significant events in their screenplay.

References[1] William Dwight Whitney (1906) (in English). The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia: Cyclopedia of names (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=aYIhAQAAMAAJ& pg=PA505& dq=British+ India+ Official+ Language+ Hindustani+ It+ is+ the+ official+ language+ and+means+ of+ general+ intercourse+ throughout+ nearly+ the+ whole+ peninsula. & hl=en& sa=X& ei=y5HdT4WoG46s8QTpqvnWCg&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=British India Official Language Hindustani It is the official language and means of generalintercourse throughout nearly the whole peninsula. & f=false). Century Company. . Retrieved 17 June 2012. "Hindustani. One of thelanguages of Hindustan, a form of Hindi which grew up in the camps of the Mohammedan conquerors of India, since the 11th century, as amedium of communication between them and the subject population of central Hindustan. It is more corrupted in form than Hindi, andabounds with Persian and Arabic words. It is the official language and means of general intercourse throughout nearly the whole peninsula."

[2] Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp.221222[3] Ambedkar, Bhimrao Ramji (1945). Pakistan or the Partition of India (http:/ / www. columbia. edu/ itc/ mealac/ pritchett/ 00ambedkar/

ambedkar_partition/ 307a. html#part_2). Mumbai: Thackers. .[4] Hanson, Eric O.. Religion and politics in the international system today (http:/ / books. google. com/ books/ about/

Religion_and_politics_in_the_internation. html?id=Wz4nCOMd8ucC). Cambridge University Press,. p.200. ISBN0-521-61781-2. .Retrieved 9 December 2011.

[5] Jalal, Ayesha Jalal (1985). The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, The Muslim League and the Demand Pakistan. Cambridge University Press.[6] Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India.[7] Sankar Ghose, Jawaharlal Nehru, a biography (1993), p. 181[8] Thomas R. G. C., 'Nations, States, and Secession: Lessons from the Former Yugoslavia', in Mediterranean Quarterly, Volume 5 Number 4

(Duke University Press, Fall 1994), pp. 4065[9] (Spate 1947, pp.126137)[10] Death toll in the partition (http:/ / users. erols. com/ mwhite28/ warstat3. htm#India). Users.erols.com.[11] Markovits, Claude (2000). The Global World of Indian Merchants, 17501947. Cambridge University Press. p.278. ISBN0-521-62285-9.[12] K. Z. Islam, 2002, The Punjab Boundary Award, Inretrospect (http:/ / www. weeklyholiday. net/ 150202/ inret. html)[13] Partitioning India over lunch, Memoirs of a British civil servant Christopher Beaumont (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/

6926464. stm). BBC News (10 August 2007).[14][14] Stanley Wolpert, 2006, Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-515198-4


[15][15] Richard Symonds, 1950, The Making of Pakistan, London, OCLC 245793264, p 74[16] Lawrence J. Butler, 2002, Britain and Empire: Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World, p. 72[17] Lawrence J. Butler, 2002, Britain and Empire: Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World, p 72[18] Ronald Hyam, Britain's Declining Empire: The Road to Decolonisation, 19181968, page 113; Cambridge University Press, ISBN

0-521-86649-9, 2007[19] Lawrence James, Rise and Fall of the British Empire[20] Judd, Dennis, The Lion and the Tiger: The rise and Fall of the British Raj,16001947. Oxford University Press: New York. (2010) p. 138.[21][21] Census of India, 1941 and 1951.[22] Kaur, Ravinder (2007). Since 1947: Partition Narratives among Punjabi Migrants of Delhi. Oxford University Press.

ISBN978-0-19-568377-6.[23] Vazira Fazila-Yacoobali Zamindar (2007). The long partition and the making of modern South Asia (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/

books?id=EfhqQLr96VgC& dq=& cad=0). Columbia University Press. . Retrieved 22 May 2009. Page 52[24] Perspectives on Modern South Asia: A Reader in Culture, History, and ... Kamala Visweswara (http:/ / books. google. co. in/

books?id=m-EYXNnvMugC& pg=PA125& dq=muslim,+ hindu+ sikh+ women+ recovered& hl=en& sa=X&ei=TPoiT77rH5HzrQf1lvnYBg& ved=0CD8Q6AEwAzgU#v=onepage& q=12000& f=false). nGoogle Books.in (16 May 2011).

[25] Borders & boundaries: women in India's partition Ritu Menon, Kamla Bhasi (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=yNN4SE7cL60C&pg=PA99& dq=muslim+ hindu+ women+ recovered+ 1947+ riots& hl=en& sa=X& ei=dfYiT7TMHYTrrQfn8Pm7CA&ved=0CEoQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage& q=muslim hindu women recovered 1947 riots& f=false). nGoogle Books.in (24 April 1993).

[26] Embodied violence: Communalising women's sexuality in South Asia Kumari Jayawardena, Malathi de Alwi (http:/ / books. google. co.in/ books?id=i2AObmt7Z8wC& pg=PA17& dq=muslim+ hindu+ women+ recovered+ 1947+ riots& hl=en& sa=X&ei=dfYiT7TMHYTrrQfn8Pm7CA& ved=0CFsQ6AEwCA#v=onepage& q=muslim hindu women recovered 1947 riots& f=false). sGoogleBooks.in.

[27] The 1965 war with Pakistan (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-47067/ India) Encyclopdia Britannica[28] India encircles rebels on Kashmir mountaintop (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ WORLD/ asiapcf/ 9907/ 02/ kashmir. pakistan/ ), CNN[29] Outlook (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jPAvAQAAIAAJ). Hathway Investments Pvt Ltd. 2003. . Retrieved 25 March 2012.[30] Jai Narain Sharma (1 January 2008). Encyclopaedia of eminent thinkers (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=-Ll5eFliFfIC& pg=PA20).

Concept Publishing Company. pp.20. ISBN978-81-8069-493-6. . Retrieved 25 March 2012.[31] Rainer Mnz; Myron Weiner (1997). Migrants, refugees, and foreign policy: U.S. and German policies toward countries of origin (http:/ /

books. google. com/ books?id=tFyPwB7Fa_IC& pg=PA276). Berghahn Books. pp.276. ISBN978-1-57181-087-8. . Retrieved 25 March2012.

[32] US Congress religious freedom report on Pakistan, 2006 (http:/ / www. state. gov/ g/ drl/ rls/ irf/ 2006/ 71443. htm). State.gov.[33] US Congress religious freedom report on Pakistan, 2004 (http:/ / www. state. gov/ g/ drl/ rls/ irf/ 2004/ 35519. htm). State.gov.[34] Yasmin Saikia (2005). Assam and India: fragmented memories, cultural identity, and the Tai-Ahom struggle (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=1uOtYajARpEC& pg=PA44). Permanent Black. p.44. ISBN978-81-7824-123-4. . Retrieved 25 March 2012.[35] Khan Sherwani, Azim A. (26 September 2006). "Hashimpura Muslim Massacre Trial Reopens: Can Justice Be Expected?" (http:/ / www.

countercurrents. org/ comm-sherwani260906. htm). Countercurrents.org. Kumaranalloor PO, Kottayam District, Kerala. . Retrieved 25 March2012.

[36] "In pictures: Hindus in Pakistan" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ shared/ spl/ hi/ picture_gallery/ 07/ south_asia_hindus_in_pakistan/ html/ 5.stm). BBC News. . Retrieved 4 July 2012.

[37] Walsh, DEclan (25 March 2012). "In Pakistan, Hindus Say Womans Conversion to Islam Was Coerced" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2012/03/ 26/ world/ asia/ pakistani-hindus-say-womans-conversion-to-islam-was-coerced. html?pagewanted=all). New York Times. . Retrieved 6July 2012.

[38] Kumar, Ram Narayan, et al., Reduced to Ashes: The Insurgency and Human Rights in Punjab, p. IV.[39] The Kashmiri Pandits: An Ethnic Cleansing the World Forgot (http:/ / www. satp. org/ satporgtp/ kpsgill/ 2003/ chapter9. htm),South Asia

Terrorism Portal[40] Back to roots: Kashmiri Pandit youth fight back (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ news/ 2006/ dec/ 11koul. htm),Rediff.com[41] Katzman, Joe. (30 October 2005) Kashmir's Ethnic Cleansing & the Strangling of Tolerant Islam (http:/ / www. windsofchange. net/

archives/ 007678. php). Windsofchange.net.[42] The South Asian (http:/ / www. the-south-asian. com/ Nov2001/ Kashmiri_Pandits. htm) Overlooked and ignored Kashmiri Hindus[43] Panun Kashmir (http:/ / www. panunkashmir. org/ ). Panun Kashmir.[44] Rediff (http:/ / in. rediff. com/ news/ 2005/ sep/ 21ram. htm) Has the peace process forgotten the Pandits[45] (http:/ / www. cfr. org/ publication/ 11644/ )[46] http:/ / www. fas. org/ news/ pakistan/ 1994/ 940622-pak. htm[47] Leading News Resource of Pakistan (http:/ / www. dailytimes. com. pk/ default. asp?page=story_14-6-2005_pg1_4). Daily Times (14 June

2005).[48] Cleary, Joseph N. (3 January 2002). Literature, Partition and the Nation-State: Culture and Conflict in Ireland, Israel and Palestine (http:/ /

books. google. com/ books?id=omFqtDGADfYC). Cambridge University Press. p.104. ISBN978-0-521-65732-7. . Retrieved 27 July 2012."The partition of India figures in a goo deal of imaginative writing..."


[49] Bhatia, Nandi (1996). "Twentieth Century Hindi Literature" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=1lTnv6o-d_oC). In Natarajan, Nalini.Handbook of Twentieth-Century Literatures of India. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp.146147. ISBN978-0-313-28778-7. . Retrieved 27July 2012.

[50] Roy, Rituparna (15 July 2011). South Asian Partition Fiction in English: From Khushwant Singh to Amitav Ghosh (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=HCQfRFr6iMgC). Amsterdam University Press. pp.2429. ISBN978-90-8964-245-5. . Retrieved 27 July 2012.

[51] Mandal, Somdatta (2008). "Constructing Post-partition Bengali Cultural Identity through Films" (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=YWB0GmmoOSMC). In Bhatia, Nandi; Roy, Anjali Gera. Partitioned Lives: Narratives of Home, Displacement, and Resettlement.Pearson Education India. pp.6669. ISBN978-81-317-1416-4. . Retrieved 27 July 2012.

[52] Dwyer, R. (2010). "Bollywood's India: Hindi Cinema as a Guide to Modern India". Asian Affairs 41 (3): 381398.doi:10.1080/03068374.2010.508231. (subscription required)

[53] Sarkar, Bhaskar (29 April 2009). Mourning the Nation: Indian Cinema in the Wake of Partition (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=wghFNlpM3PIC). Duke University Press. p.121. ISBN978-0-8223-4411-7. . Retrieved 27 July 2012.

[54] Vishwanath, Gita; Malik, Salma (2009). "Revisiting 1947 through Popular Cinema: a Comparative Study of India and Pakistan" (http:/ /www. careerlauncher. com/ lstcontent/ plansuppliments/ attachments/ 40/ 62/ REVISITING 1947 THROUGH popular cinema. pdf) (PDF).Economic and Political Weekly XLIV (36): 6169. . Retrieved 27 July 2012.

[55] Raychaudhuri, Anindya (2009). "Resisting the Resistible: Re-writing Myths of Partition in the Works of Ritwik Ghatak". Social Semiotics19 (4): 469481. doi:10.1080/10350330903361158.(subscription required)

Further readingAcademic studies Ishtiaq Ahmed, Ahmed, Ishtiaq. 2011. The Punjab Bloodied, Partitioned and Cleansed: Unravelling the 1947

Tragedy through Secret British Reports and First Person Account. New Delhi: RUPA Publications. 808 pages.ISBN 978-81-291-1862-2

Ansari, Sarah. 2005. Life after Partition: Migration, Community and Strife in Sindh: 19471962. Oxford, UK:Oxford University Press. 256 pages. ISBN 0-19-597834-X.

Butalia, Urvashi. 1998. The Other Side of Silence: Voices from the Partition of India. Durham, NC: DukeUniversity Press. 308 pages. ISBN 0-8223-2494-6

Butler, Lawrence J. 2002. Britain and Empire: Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World. London: I.B.Tauris. 256pages. ISBN 1-86064-449-X

Chakrabarty; Bidyut. 2004. The Partition of Bengal and Assam: Contour of Freedom (RoutledgeCurzon, 2004)online edition (http:/ / www. questia. com/ PM. qst?a=o& d=108233199)

Chatterji, Joya. 2002. Bengal Divided: Hindu Communalism and Partition, 19321947. Cambridge and NewYork: Cambridge University Press. 323 pages. ISBN 0-521-52328-1.

Chester, Lucy P. 2009. Borders and Conflict in South Asia: The Radcliffe Boundary Commission and thePartition of Punjab. (http:/ / www. manchesteruniversitypress. co. uk/ catalogue/ book. asp?id=1204410)Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-7899-6.

Gilmartin, David. 1988. Empire and Islam: Punjab and the Making of Pakistan. Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press. 258 pages. ISBN 0-520-06249-3.

Gossman, Partricia. 1999. Riots and Victims: Violence and the Construction of Communal Identity AmongBengali Muslims, 19051947. Westview Press. 224 pages. ISBN 0-8133-3625-2

Hansen, Anders Bjrn. 2004. "Partition and Genocide: Manifestation of Violence in Punjab 19371947", IndiaResearch Press. ISBN 978-81-87943-25-9.

Harris, Kenneth. Attlee (1982) pp 35587 Hasan, Mushirul (2001), India's Partition: Process, Strategy and Mobilization, New Delhi: Oxford University

Press, 444 pages, ISBN0-19-563504-3. Herman, Arthur. Gandhi & Churchill: The Epic Rivalry that Destroyed an Empire and Forged Our Age (2009) Ikram, S. M. 1995. Indian Muslims and Partition of India. Delhi: Atlantic. ISBN 81-7156-374-0 Jain, Jasbir (2007), Reading Partition, Living Partition, Rawat Publications, 338 pages, ISBN81-316-0045-9 Jalal, Ayesha (1993), The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan, Cambridge,

UK: Cambridge University Press, 334 pages, ISBN0-521-45850-1


Kaur, Ravinder. 2007. "Since 1947: Partition Narratives among Punjabi Migrants of Delhi". Oxford UniversityPress. ISBN 978-0-19-568377-6.

Khan, Yasmin (2007), The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan, New Haven and London: YaleUniversity Press, 250 pages, ISBN0-300-12078-8

Khosla, G. D. Stern reckoning : a survey of the events leading up to and following the partition of India NewDelhi: Oxford University Press:358 pages Published: February 1990 ISBN 0-19-562417-3

Lamb, Alastair (1991), Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy, 18461990, Roxford Books, ISBN0-907129-06-4 Metcalf, Barbara; Metcalf, Thomas R. (2006), A Concise History of Modern India (Cambridge Concise

Histories), Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. Pp. xxxiii, 372, ISBN0-521-68225-8 Moon, Penderel. (1999). The British Conquest and Dominion of India (2 vol. 1256pp) Moore, R.J. (1983). Escape from Empire: The Attlee Government and the Indian Problem, the standard history of

the British position Nair, Neeti. (2010) Changing Homelands: Hindu Politics and the Partition of India Page, David, Anita Inder Singh, Penderel Moon, G. D. Khosla, and Mushirul Hasan. 2001. The Partition

Omnibus: Prelude to Partition/the Origins of the Partition of India 1936-1947/Divide and Quit/Stern Reckoning.Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-565850-7

Pal, Anadish Kumar. 2010. World Guide to the Partition of INDIA. Kindle Edition: Amazon Digital Services. 282KB. ASIN B0036OSCAC

Pandey, Gyanendra. 2002. Remembering Partition:: Violence, Nationalism and History in India. CambridgeUniversity Press. 232 pages. ISBN 0-521-00250-8 online edition (http:/ / www. questia. com/ PM. qst?a=o&d=105038993)

Panigrahi; D.N. 2004. India's Partition: The Story of Imperialism in Retreat London: Routledge. online edition(http:/ / www. questia. com/ SM. qst?act=adv& contributors=D. N. Panigrahi& dcontributors=D. N. Panigrahi)

Raja, Masood Ashraf. Constructing Pakistan: Foundational Texts and the Rise of Muslim National Identity,18571947, Oxford 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-547811-2

Raza, Hashim S. 1989. Mountbatten and the partition of India. New Delhi: Atlantic. ISBN 81-7156-059-8 Shaikh, Farzana. 1989. Community and Consensus in Islam: Muslim Representation in Colonial India,

18601947. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 272 pages. ISBN 0-521-36328-4. Singh, Jaswant. (2011) Jinnah: India, Partition, Independence Talbot, Ian and Gurharpal Singh (eds). 1999. Region and Partition: Bengal, Punjab and the Partition of the

Subcontinent. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 420 pages. ISBN 0-19-579051-0. Talbot, Ian. 2002. Khizr Tiwana: The Punjab Unionist Party and the Partition of India. Oxford and New York:

Oxford University Press. 216 pages. ISBN 0-19-579551-2. Talbot, Ian. 2006. Divided Cities: Partition and Its Aftermath in Lahore and Amritsar. Oxford and Karachi:

Oxford University Press. 350 pages. ISBN 0-19-547226-8. Wolpert, Stanley. 2006. Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India. Oxford and New York:

Oxford University Press. 272 pages. ISBN 0-19-515198-4. Wolpert, Stanley. 1984. Jinnah of PakistanArticles Brass, Paul. 2003. The partition of India and retributive genocide in the Punjab,194647: means, methods, and

purposes (http:/ / faculty. washington. edu/ brass/ Partition. pdf) Washington University Gilmartin, David. 1998. "Partition, Pakistan, and South Asian History: In Search of a Narrative." The Journal of

Asian Studies, 57(4):10681095. Jeffrey, Robin. 1974. "The Punjab Boundary Force and the Problem of Order, August 1947" (http:/ / links. jstor.

org/ sici?sici=0026-749X(1974)8:42. 0. CO;2-Z) Modern Asian Studies 8(4):491520. Kaur Ravinder. 2007. "India and Pakistan: Partition Lessons" (http:/ / www. opendemocracy. net/ article/

conflicts/ india_pakistan/ partition). Open Democracy.


Kaur, Ravinder. 2006. "The Last Journey: Social Class in the Partition of India". Economic and Political Weekly,June 2006. www.epw.org.in

Khan, Lal (2003). Partition Can it be undone?. Wellred Publications. p.228. ISBN1-900007-15-0. Mookerjea-Leonard, Debali. 2005. "Divided Homelands, Hostile Homes: Partition, Women and Homelessness".

Journal of Commonwealth Literature, 40(2):141154. Mookerjea-Leonard, Debali. 2004. "Quarantined: Women and the Partition". Comparative Studies of South Asia,

Africa and the Middle East, 24(1): 3550. Morris-Jones. 1983. "Thirty-Six Years Later: The Mixed Legacies of Mountbatten's Transfer of Power".

International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs), 59(4):621628. Noorani, A. G. (22 Dec. 2001 4 Jan. 2002). "The Partition of India" (http:/ / hindu. com/ fline/ fl1826/

18260810. htm). Frontline (magazine) 18 (26). Retrieved 12 October 2011. Spate, O. H. K. (1947), "The Partition of the Punjab and of Bengal", The Geographical Journal 110 (4/6):

201218 Spear, Percival. 1958. "Britain's Transfer of Power in India." Pacific Affairs, 31(2):173180. Talbot, Ian. 1994. "Planning for Pakistan: The Planning Committee of the All-India Muslim League, 194346".

Modern Asian Studies, 28(4):875889.Visaria, Pravin M. 1969. "Migration Between India and Pakistan, 195161" Demography, 6(3):323334. Chopra, R. M., "The Punjab And Bengal", Calcutta, 1999.Primary sources Mansergh, Nicholas, and Penderel Moon, eds. The Transfer of Power 194247 (12 vol., London: HMSO .

197083) comprehensive collection of British official and private documents Moon, Penderel. (1998) Divide & QuitPopularizations Collins, Larry and Dominique Lapierre: Freedom at Midnight. London: Collins, 1975. ISBN 0-00-638851-5 Zubrzycki, John. (2006) The Last Nizam: An Indian Prince in the Australian Outback. Pan Macmillan, Australia.

ISBN 978-0-330-42321-2.Memoirs and oral history Bonney, Richard; Hyde, Colin; Martin, John. "Legacy of Partition, 19472009: Creating New Archives from the

Memories of Leicestershire People," Midland History, (Sept 2011), Vol. 36 Issue 2, pp 215224 Azad, Maulana Abul Kalam: India Wins Freedom, Orient Longman, 1988. ISBN 81-250-0514-5 Mountbatten, Pamela. (2009) India Remembered: A Personal Account of the Mountbattens During the Transfer of

Power

Historical-Fiction Mohammed, Javed: Walk to Freedom, Rumi Bookstore, 2006. ISBN 978-0-9701261-2-2 ((Chopra, R.M., "The Punjab And Bengal", Calcutta, 1999.


External linksBibliographies Select Research Bibliography on the Partition of India, Compiled by Vinay Lal, Department of History, UCLA;

[[University of California at Los Angeles (http:/ / www. sscnet. ucla. edu/ southasia/ History/ Independent/partition_bibliography. html)] list]

A select list of Indian Publications on the Partition of India (Punjab & Bengal); [[University of Virginia (http:/ /www. lib. virginia. edu/ area-studies/ SouthAsia/ Lib/ man08par97. html)] list]

South Asian History: Colonial India (http:/ / www. lib. berkeley. edu/ SSEAL/ SouthAsia/ india_colonial. html) University of California, Berkeley Collection of documents on colonial India, Independence, and Partition

Indian Nationalism (http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ india/ indiasbook. html#Indian Nationalism) FordhamUniversity archive of relevant public-domain documents

Other links Clip from 1947 newsreel showing Indian independence ceremony (http:/ / www. harappa. com/ wall/ india. html) Through My Eyes Website (http:/ / www. throughmyeyes. org. uk/ server/ show/ nav. 22207) Imperial War

Museum Online Exhibition (including images, video and interviews with refugees from the Partition of India) A People Partitioned (http:/ / www. andrewwhitehead. net/ india-a-people-partitioned. html) Five radio

programmes broadcast on the BBC World Service in 1997 containing the voices of people across South Asia wholived through Partition.

Article Sources and Contributors 18

Article Sources and ContributorsPartition of India Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=518472813 Contributors: 11achitturi, A3RO, ABF, AMbroodEY, ARYAN818, Abecedare, Achaean, Adnandastagir,Adrian6335, Ajobin, Aksi great, Al-minar, Alcmaeonid, Alexeifjodor, Alimustafakhan, Aliyah.jmohammed, Alpha 4615, Altetendekrabbe, Amanmadh, Ambar, Anand7chandran, AndarielHalo,AndrewN, Anshuk, Ansumang, Anupam, Anuragsomani, Anwar saadat, Arjun024, AroundTheGlobe, Arvind Iyengar, Ashok4himself, Astute neophyte, Atomician, Atulsnischal, Auswiger,Aviad2001, Azad singh parihar, BD2412, Bakasuprman, Balloonguy, Balwinderdeep, BanyanTree, Basawala, Basketballkid 11, Belasd, BengaliHindu, Betterusername, BeverlyCrusher, Bevo74,Bewareofgautam, Bharat ki maa ko lun, Bharatveer, Bhurshut, Big Adamsky, BilCat, Billumian47, Bkell, Blake-, Blingpling, Bluethroat, BostonMA, Bouchecl, CalJW, Capricorn42, Carf1,Chaipau, Chris the speller, ChrisGualtieri, Chrism, Circumcised, CiudadanoGlobal, Cncs wikipedia, Complainer, Confuzion, Copana2002, Cpbaherwani, Croat Canuck, Culmin, DBigXray,Dablaze, Dangerous-Boy, Dark Formal, Darkness Shines, Datalogger12, DaudSharif, Davewild, DavidCiani, Davidjed, Davidsteinberg, Dbachmann, Dcamp314, Dconofrey, De728631,Deconstructhis, Deepak, Deepak D'Souza, Deeptrivia, Dejo, Delirium, DemolitionMan, Deville, Dfrg.msc, Dhanu86, Dhartung, Diannaa, Dimadick, Dmitri Lytov, Dmookerj, Domino theory,Donkeyballs, Doorvery far, Download, Dragon guy, Dreampiece55, Dsouzamarshall, Dwaipayanc, Dzenanz, ECVijil, ENeville, ESkog, Ekabhishek, El C, Eliaskurian, Elitedrago, Emiliojuanatey, Eraserhead1, Eric Wester, F2002801, Fadereu, Falcon007, Favonian, Fawad1, Fez78, Ficusindica, Fieldday-sunday, FieryPhoenix, Fluffernutter, Foobaz, Formeruser-81,Fowler&fowler, Francis Irving, Fratrep, Frog Splash, Fullstop, Fundamental metric tensor, FunkMonk, Gadfium, Galo1969X, Geni, GeorgeStepanek, Gerard Mulholland, Gilliam, Gkalai123,Goethean, Golbez, Gopinathajay, GraemeLeggett, GregNorc, Ground Zero, Gunnala, Guptadeepak, Gurubrahma, Gyrobest845, Hairy Dude, Hall Monitor, Harryboyles, Harthacnut, HawkShark,Heron, Hetam, Hillel, Hkelkar, Hongooi, Hoplon, Hornplease, Hossain Akhtar Chowdhury, Hssnyc, Hu, Hulleye, Husond, HussainAbbas, Hussainhssn, Huw Powell, Hvn0413, IFaqeer,ISTB351, Ian Pitchford, Iapetus, Idew, Idleguy, IndianCow, Iridescent, IronGargoyle, Islescape, Itlukaur, J3ff, JNW, Jabrankhaleel, Jagged 85, JamesBWatson, Jaxl, Jayantanth, Jcaneen, Jengod,Jiang, Jim1138, Jkp1187, Jmabel, John Hill, Jojalozzo, Jon Ascton, Jonaicha, Jonkerz, Joseph Solis in Australia, Josquius, Jovianeye, Jredmond, Jsharpminor, JustAGal, Kaal, Karada, Karmafist,KathrynLybarger, Kefalonia, Ken Arromdee, KenWalker, Khanjahmad, King Zebu, King2k, Kmorozov, Koavf, Kuralyov, LAX, Latajagtiani, Leandrod, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, Lilaac,LittleWink, Longhairandabeard, LordSimonofShropshire, Lucas(CA), MADDOX456, MER-C, MaGioZal, Madhava 1947, Madkayaker, Mandot, ManiF, Mar4d, Mark Arsten, Martin Wisse,Masalai, Master of the Orchalcos, Masterbobbykwaun, Mateo SA, MathewTownsend, Mattbr, Matthardingu, Matthias5, McMullen, Mewikky, Mianhassan, Michael Hardy, Mike Young,MilborneOne, Mishac, Mitul0520, Monk Bretton, Moonraker, Moriori, MrHarper, MrOllie, Mrg3105, Msbis, Mughalnz, Murad67, Mxn, Myavantssoslow, Mysoomro86, Naraht, Netfunk,Neutrality, Nick Number, Nightkey, Nightstallion, Nik42, Nirav.maurya, Nobleeagle, Np.apte, Nricardo, Of, Ohconfucius, OmgItsTheSmartGuy, OneGuy, Oreo Priest, OsirisX11, Osprey39,Owen, OwenBlacker, Oxymoron83, Pahadiraja, Pahari Sahib, PandarenLord, Paul Magnussen, Pearle, Pearz25, Pepsidrinka, Perspicacite, Phil Boswell, Piccolo Modificatore Laborioso,Pietdesomere, Piotrus, Pk5abi, Pmsamee, Pragmatist75, Premkudva, Puruvara, Pyromonkeykw, Radon210, Raghu.kuttan, Ragib, Raj.tota, Rajat Ghai, Rak3sh, Rama's Arrow, Ramashray, RaniP23, Ranveig, Rao Ravindra, RaphaelBriand, RashersTierney, Ravichandar84, Ravimetre, Reachmanasvi, Ready, RedWolf, Redtigerxyz, RegentsPark, Relata refero, Renewolf, RetiredUser2,RexNL, Riana, Rich Farmbrough, Richard75, Rj, Rjensen, Rjwilmsi, Rmhermen, RobNS, Robert K S, Rock2e, Roland zh, Roryyeung, Rpjs, Ruakh, Rumpelstiltskin223, S Seagal, S shashank s,SNIyer12, Saberlotus, Saif tinku, Saim1402, Salem990, Sam.ldite, Sandeepsp4u, Santsipahi, Saravask, Saxonthedog, Sfrab, Shaha zehra, Shalimer, Shastra, SherryShamsi, Shooke, Shovon76,Shyamsunder, Siddhant, Siddiqui, Signalhead, SimonP, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Sitush, Skoosh, SkyWalker, SlimVirgin, Slleong, Smartinfoteck1, Smartk1987, Smsarmad,Someguy1221, SpacemanSpiff, Spasage, Spiritualism, Spot, Srini81, Srs, Ssrose, Stallions2010, Stereotek, Steven J. Anderson, Stu181, Sunderland06, Surajcap, Sutlej, Sysy, Szhaider,TOMFAN208, Tabletop, Tarquin, TenaciousT, TexasAndroid, Thatguyflint, The Madras, The wub, TheObtuseAngleOfDoom, Theanthrope, Themightyquill, Thetalonofthewest, Thingg,Thinking-ape, Thiseye, Throughmyeyes, Thunderboltz, Tigeroo, TimBentley, Timrollpickering, Tinpisa, Tintin1107, Tiptoety, Titodutta, TopGun, Trialsanderrors, Tritium6, Turtle dude 77,Umar Zulfikar Khan, Umraojaan, UnknownForEver, Unmesh Bangali, Unre4L, Urnonav, Utcursch, Vamsidoc, VishalB, Vitamin b, Vssun, Vuovuo, W1 m2, Westsider, Wetman, Whoop whooppull up, Wiki Raja, WikiFlier, Wikieditoroftoday, Willy turner, Wimt, Wittyjack, Wknight94, Woohookitty, X3210, YLH, Yamamoto Ichiro, Ydam, YellowMonkey, Yksin, Yogesh Khandke,Yoyoyoyo1234567, Zondor, Zora, Zujine, Zzedar, , 792 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:British_Indian_Empire_1909_Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:British_Indian_Empire_1909_Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India.jpgLicense: Public Domain Contributors: Edinburgh Geographical Institute; J. G. Bartholomew and Sons.File:Brit IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader wasFowler&fowler at en.wikipediaImage:British_Indian_Empire_1909_Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:British_Indian_Empire_1909_Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India.jpgLicense: Public Domain Contributors: Edinburgh Geographical Institute; J. G. Bartholomew and Sons.Image:Brit IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader wasFowler&fowler at en.wikipediaImage:Hindu percent 1909.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hindu_percent_1909.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Fowler&fowler aten.wikipediaImage:Muslim percent 1909.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Muslim_percent_1909.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader wasFowler&fowler at en.wikipediaImage:Sikhs buddhists jains percent1909.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sikhs_buddhists_jains_percent1909.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Originaluploader was Fowler&fowler at en.wikipediaImage:Prevailing languages impgazind1909.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Prevailing_languages_impgazind1909.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors:Original uploader was Fowler&fowler at en.wikipediaImage:Population density impgazind1909.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Population_density_impgazind1909.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Originaluploader was Fowler&fowler at en.wikipediaImage:Modern india.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Modern_india.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors:Kintetsubuffalo, Kmusser, OwenBlacker, Ras67, Roland zh, 3 anonymous editsFile:RadcliffeLine.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RadcliffeLine.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: US ArmyFile:Punjabdoabs1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Punjabdoabs1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Fowler&fowlerImage:TIME Magazine October 27 1947 cover.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TIME_Magazine_October_27_1947_cover.jpg License: unknown Contributors:MaGioZalImage:Partion1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Partion1.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:IndianCowFile:Cooch-behar-enclaves-schematisch.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cooch-behar-enclaves-schematisch.png License: Creative CommonsAttribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: JeroenvrpFile:India - Pakistan Refugees.ogv Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India_-_Pakistan_Refugees.ogv License: Public Domain Contributors: National ArchivesImage:Refugeetrain1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Refugeetrain1.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:IndianCow

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

Partition of IndiaBackgroundLate nineteenth and early twentieth century1932194219421946

Actual partition, 1947Mountbatten PlanRadcliffe LinePunjabBengalSindh

PerspectivesDelhi Punjabi refugeesRefugees settled in IndiaRefugees settled in PakistanAftermathRestoration of womenIndia and PakistanTreatment of minorities by Pakistan and IndiaCurrent religious demographics of India proper and former East and West Pakistan

Artistic depictions of the PartitionReferencesFurther readingExternal links

License

partition of india

Documents

partition of british

portuguese india

danish india

french india

partition of india hindiurdu

portuguese east india

east pakistan

partition agreement