paddy field irrigation systems in myanmar

7/25/2019 Paddy Field Irrigation Systems in Myanmar

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Paddy field irrigation systems in Myanmar

Maung Maung Naing4

1. Introduction

Agricultural development is given priority in Myanmars socio-economic development as it is seen as essential

in its own right and as the basis of the other sectors of the economy. The agriculture sector contributes

43 percent of GDP; 41 percent of export earnings; and employs 63 percent of the labour force.

The population in Myanmar reached 53 million in 2003. It has an annual population growth rate of

2.02 percent and it is estimated that it will reach 61 million by 2010 and 86 million by 2025. More and more

food will be necessary for the countrys growing population. Rice is the main food for the people of Myanmar

and it is also a principle crop in the agriculture sector. Thus, the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI)

has laid down the objective to achieve a surplus in paddy production so as to meet the needs of the country.

Other objectives are to achieve self-sufficiency in edible oil and to set up the production of exportable pulses

and industrial crops.

In this connection, irrigation plays a major role in the development of Myanmars agriculture sector. Small

and medium scale irrigation projects have been constructed throughout the country, especially for year-round

cultivation of paddy and in conjunction with other crops. These irrigation systems can improve the traditional

farming practices and can adjust to the local hydrological characteristics. Furthermore, they can also contribute

to the rural environment, rural life, biodiversity and the recycling of energy functions.

2. Resources

2.1 Potential land for cultivation

The total area of Myanmar is 67.71 million hectares and an area of only about 10 million hectares is cultivated

for paddy and other crops. Myanmar has great potential to extend its cultivated area with few adverse

environmental consequences by using cultivable waste lands that still cover about eight million hectares.

2.2 Water

Myanmar has three distinct seasons: the rainy season, the hot (summer) season and the cold (winter) season.

Ninety percent of the annual rainfall in different regions of Myanmar is received during the rainy season

from May to October. Precipitation varies countrywide (Table 1).

4 Irrigation Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Myanmar.

Table 1. Rainfall distribution in Myanmar

Region Annual rainfall (mm)

1. South and western coastal strip 5 000

2. Delta 2 0003 000

3. North and eastern hilly regions 1 3003 000

4. Central dry zone 760

Myanmar has an abundance of high potential water resources. The drainage area is spread widely over the

country endowing it with an annual water volume of 1 082 cubic kilometres flowing in its many rivers. The

Ayeyarwady River and its tributaries such as the Chindwin, Mu, Panlaung, Zawgyi, Myitnge, Mone, Man,

Salin and the Sittoung River and its distributaries of the Bago and others rivulets mainly contribute water to


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the agriculture sector, especially for paddy irrigation. In addition, a large potential groundwater resource is

found in the Ayeyarwady River Basin and could be very useful for irrigating agriculture (Table 2).

3. Paddy fields and irrigation systems

Myanmars paddy fields can be found mostly in the delta and central dry zone areas (Figure 1). About

60 percent of the delta region, including the Ayeyarwady, Bago and Yangon region of Lower Myanmar, is

cultivated with rainfed paddy. Irrigated paddy is cultivated mainly in the Mandalay, Sagaing and Magwayregions which are located in the central dry zone of Myanmar.

Table 2. Potential water resources in Myanmar

River basinsSurface water Groundwater

(km3) (%) (km3) (%)

Ayeyarwady River Basin 455.13 42.07 303.42 61.33

Sittoung River Basin 81.15 7.50 28.40 5.74

Other River Basins 545.61 50.43 162.89 32.93

Total 1 081.89 100.00 494.71 100.00

Figure 1. Paddy fields and irrigation systems in the Ayeyarwady and Sittoung River Basins

Different type of irrigation systems and projects were developed mostly along the two major river basins

(Figure 1) and are connected to where the paddy field is located. The Irrigation Department, a governmental

organization established to coordinate the development and management of water resources for irrigation,

has constructed about 200 irrigation projects which are of dam, weir and sluice types. A surface water runoffof about 15 460 million cubic metre (MCM) has been stored in the constructed reservoirs and can irrigate an

area of about 1 million hectares (Figure 2).


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Various groundwater and river pumping projects have been implemented by the Water Resources Utilization

Department for crop irrigation and rural drinking water.

4. Water consumption

A total water volume of about 3 200 MCM comprising both surface water (91 percent) and groundwater

(9 percent) was used to meet the demand for irrigation, domestic and industrial water supplies (Figure 3).

Water consumption is divided among the agriculture sector (89 percent), the domestic sector (10 percent)

and the industrial sector (1 percent). Groundwater is mostly used for domestic purposes.

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Figure 3. Water consumption in the different sectors of Myanmar, 2001

5. Production of crops using the irrigation systems

The irrigation projects in Myanmar mainly supply water for paddy cultivation. Paddy production has been

increased by dry season paddy cultivation, which has followed rainy season paddy cultivation since 1992.

Paddy is currently cultivated under a total area of 6.48 million hectares, comprising 4.86 million hectares in

the rainy season and 1.62 million hectares in the dry season. Supplemental irrigation is supplied for the rainy

season paddy cultivation in the central dry zone, where the rainfall is not sufficient for the crop water


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requirement. Other upland crops are cultivated there in the dry season also using irrigation. The dry season

paddy is mostly cultivated in Lower Myanmar using irrigation. Thus, crop production is being increased by

the irrigation projects. Cultivation of paddy has increased from 4.78 million hectares in 1988 to 6.54 million

hectares in 2003 (Figure 4). The production has also increased from 12.96 million tonnes to 22.79 million

tonnes over the same period. Thus, rice exports have increased to 1 million tonnes in 2004. In accordance

with national planning targets, the sown area of paddy will be expanded to a total area of 7.29 million hectares

with the further expansion of 0.81 million hectares in the rainy season. To generate increasing production ofpaddy, high yielding varieties are being grown, including the introduction of hybrid rice varieties.

Among other upland crops, pulses and oilseed crops are also major crops in Myanmar and they participate in

the main cropping pattern of the irrigation projects along with paddy. Pulses are cultivated for export and the

cost of cultivation is relatively inexpensive. As a result of the increasing demand for domestic consumption

and export, the cultivation of pulses has increased substantially from 0.73 million hectares in 1988 to

3.31 million hectares in 2003 and the production has also increased from 0.5 million tonnes to 3 million

tonnes over the same period (Figure 5). Around one million tonnes of pulses are now being exported.

The major oilseed crops are groundnut, sesame and sunflower and cultivation of these crops increased to

2.78 million hectares in 2003.

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Figure 4. Sown area and production of paddy Figure 5. Sown area and production of pulses

6. Operation and maintenance

6.1 Management of the facilities

The Irrigation Department mainly maintains and operates the facilities such as main dams, headworks, main

canals and secondary units. The farmers have to maintain and operate the terminal units such as field ditches

and watercourses.

6.2 Water tariffs

The water tariff in the gravity dam irrigation systems of the Irrigation Department is very cheap for irrigation

and it does not recover the cost for the maintenance work. The annual budget for the maintenance and repair

of the facilities is mostly paid by the government (Table 3).

However, the water tariff in the river pumping systems of the Water Resources Utilization Department is

higher than that of the dam projects (Table 3). The water prices for paddy cultivation of the dam systems are

150 and 300 times less than those of the electric and diesel types of river pumping systems, respectively

(Table 4). As a result of the lower water price being less of a burden, the farmers use water without caring

about water shortages or water losses.


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6.3 Farmer participation and water user associations

Water users associations (WUAs) and water users groups (WUGs) fundamentally play an important role in

water management. However, the functional associations and groups are more useful for implementing

irrigation works. WUGs have been established in the projects under the guidelines of the Irrigation Department.

These are organized only for terminal units and they do not function well. Integrated systems have been

organized too, but they do not function well either.

In some of the projects the farmers improve the terminal units such as watercourses and field ditches. Andmaintenance works are performed differently even in the same projects. In the Ngamoeyeik Project, the farmers

are all equally involved in creating a maintenance fund when before the irrigation season they meet to

determine and collect maintenance fees based on acreage. That fund is used for their terminal units. In the

Swa Chaung Project, farmers have to repair and maintain that portion of the watercourse connected to their

areas. Generally, WUGs and WUAs organized in Myanmar still do not function well and they need to be

modified and good water management needs to be promoted.

6.4 Multipurpose water resources management

In conjunction with paddy irrigation, the isolated and multireservoir system projects have been constructed

for multipurposes: water supply for hydroelectric power generation, domestic use and environmentalconservation. As the project includes multisite reservoirs, different river basins and multiwater user sectors,

it becomes a complex system (Table 5). The operation and management of its water supply is also complicated.

Conventional practice is currently adopted for water supply in the simple water resources projects. However,

a complex solution for operation and management of the multipurpose and multireservoirs system projects is

a major issue for the Irrigation Department and other related agencies. Such a complex solution requires much

greater engineering and technical sophistication than do traditional and conventional practices. Thus, to be

able to achieve efficient water use and good water productivity, the project engineers and water managers

have to adopt more appropriate ways for operation and management.

Table 3. Ratio of the maintenance cost of the irrigation facilities between

the government and farmers

Budget yearGovernments subsidy Farmers contribution

(%) (%)

1993 95.24 4.76

1994 96.32 3.681996 95.27 4.73

1998 97.28 2.72

1999 97.6 2.40

2000 97.68 2.32

Table 4. Difference of irrigation tariff among the systems (ratio)

Crops Dam systemsRiver pumping systems

(Electric type) (Diesel type)

Paddy 1 150 300Other crops 1 75 150


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7. Competition and stress

7.1 Cropping pattern

The agriculture service has proposed a multicropping pattern in the projects to increase productivity and raise

farm and family incomes through improving farming on the basis of irrigation. Different kinds of cropping

patterns, including rainfed and irrigated paddy, rainfed with supplementary irrigation, irrigated upland crops

such as pulses and oilseed crops, are being cultivated in the projects. The proposed cropping pattern for the

Ngamoeyeik Project is presented in Table 6 and includes multicrops of different varieties and over different

periods within the system. Thus, complex adjustment of social, biophysical and economic factors is required.

However, the possibilities of water security for these purposes should be considered from the viewpoint of

hydrological characteristics also. If water supply for the other sectors is considered for the multipurpose

projects, such a condition needs to be carefully adjusted in terms of both technical and institutional possibilities.

Table 5. Characteristics of water resources projects in Myanmar

Project type Single/multisite River basin Water supplyOperation andManagement

1) Isolated reservoir Single site same Single purpose Simple

and single purpose

2) Isolated reservoir Single site same Multipurpose Not simpleand multipurpose

3) Multiple-reservoirs Multisite same Multipurpose Complex

and multipurpose

4) Multiple-reservoirs Multisite different Multipurpose More complex

and multipurpose

Table 6. Proposed cropping patterns and calendar in the Ngamoeyeik Project, Lower Myanmar toincrease farm incomes

Cropping patternCropping calendar

First crop Second crop Third crop

1) rice-food legume-rice Rainy season rice Black gram Dry season rice

(130135 days varieties) (70 days varieties) (130135 days varieties)

mid-May to mid-October mid-September to mid-December to March

November (Relay) (Transplanting)

2) rice-food legume-rice Rainy season rice Black gram Dry season rice

(115120 days varieties) (70 days varieties) (100105 days varieties)

mid-May to mid-September 4thwk September to mid-December to March

1stDecember (Tillage) (Direct seeding)

3) rice-food Rainy season rice Green gram Sesame

legume-oilseed (115120 days varieties) (70 days varieties) (7080 days varieties)

June to mid-October mid-October to December second week January to

first week April

4) rice-rice Rainy season rice Dry season rice

(130135 days varieties) (115120 days varieties)

June to October mid-November to March

(Direct seeding)


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7.2 Labour force

The continuous cultivation of paddy and other crops in Myanmar leads to agriculture labour force shortages.

Land preparation, transplanting and harvesting, unlike in a traditional farming system, need to be finished in

a short period of time so that the cropping seasons allow year-round cultivation. Thus, the farmers are faced

with labour shortages, especially for these periods and have no time to rest. Only 30 percent of farmers utilize

tractors for land preparation.

7.3 Investment

Because of the continuous irrigation for double or triple cropping, the paddy fields are less fertile and more

fertilizer has to be used to get a good yield. Thus, most farmers have problems with the high investment

needed for fertilizers. On the other hand, the rice price always falls when the paddy is harvested. The farmers

cannot wait until the price rises again and they have to sell their paddy to be able to invest in the next crop.

It is a serious problem, especially for farmers with no off-farm job. To address this, a suitable marketing and

trade system should be introduced for the farmers.

8. New requirements

8.1 Facilities

The downstream irrigation facilities in the existing projects have to be developed to promote agriculture

production and efficient water uses. The main canals should be rehabilitated for sufficient water supply in

these specific periods when it is required. Off-farm facilities such as watercourses, field ditches, land

consolidation and a proper irrigation and drainage network for farm productivity should also be developed.

From the viewpoint of future farm mechanization, a reasonable plot size should be consolidated for workability

and good water control. At the same time, ecological and environmental aspects also should be considered

together with paddy irrigation improvement.

8.2. Technical subjects

Based on traditional and conventional techniques, the operation and management of the facilities must be

technically improved to achieve the objectives of the sectors in the projects. The systems should be closely

monitored and evaluated for future development. The better modified techniques should replace the old ones.

8.3 Institutional subjects

Water user associations, farmer organizations and water user groups should be recognized and modified to

establish well-organized and functional groups. The related sectors should train farmers so that they have

basic knowledge of relevant subjects such as rice sciences, hydraulics and hydrology and other institutional

knowledge.

8.4 Water pricing

To reduce the governments burden on the operation and maintenance, the participation of farmers should be

improved and irrigation tariffs should be increased up to a reasonable price. Rules, regulations and principles

should be improved to ensure equitable and efficient water use and allocation.

9. Improvement of water management techniques

The Irrigation Department has implemented the Irrigation Technology Center (ITC) Project (Phase-II) in

cooperation with the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) for improvement of water management

to foster better paddy production. The main components are off-farm and on-farm facilities development,

monitoring and evaluation processes for operation and distribution planning, and conducting water management

training. As for irrigation and drainage development, the model farmlands for intensive and extensive types


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of farming have been consolidated in the Ngamoeyeik Project, and these demonstrate to the farmers and local

staff how important water management is for better farm productivity.

9.1 Reservoir operation and system water distribution plan

Based on the practice of water distribution and use in the project, the irrigation system has been developed

for more reasonable and efficient operation. A main consideration is to formulate an annual water distributionplan for irrigation, and then to implement this. At the implementation stage, if it is necessary, a periodically

revised plan can be used in accordance with the ground conditions such as water availability in the reservoir,

canal-wise actual irrigated area, working progress at the planting stage and on-farm level water use. Water

distribution should be monitored and evaluated throughout the season and all sectors should be involved in

the development work.

9.2. On-farm level water management development

Water management at on-farm level or plot level has a direct relationship with water productivity. To have

higher water productivity a farm needs to have reasonable water operation facilities such as irrigation and

drainage canals and control shutter gates at these canals for water regulation. Two types of model farmland

were consolidated within the project area to study on-farm level water management development. The first

is an intensive type, and it has an area of 25 ha including nine farmers, and the second is an extensive type

with an area of 134 ha including 38 farmers.

A plot-to-plot traditional irrigation system is demonstrated in the extensive model farmland (Figure 6a). It

includes only a main drain system for a group of plots or watercourses. However, it has a reasonable

watercourse density for water distribution. According to topographical conditions, watercourses were

constructed at intervals of 100 m, 200 m, 300 m and 400 m. A modern irrigation system is set up in the

intensive model farmland (Figure 6b), and water can be controlled at any depth for any plot whenever it is

necessary. It has a high density of watercourse and drainage canals for water management.

(a) Traditional irrigation system (b) Modern irrigation system

Drainage canalIrrigation canal

Farmroad

Irrigation canal

Drainage canal

Figure 6. On-farm level water distribution systems: (a) Traditional irrigation system, (b) Modern

irrigation system

After constructing these model farmlands, water management at on-farm level was studied there in relation

to water attainment time, water consumption at the growing stages and for land preparation, farm workability,

nature of water use and management by farmers and farmers socio-economic situations before and after thefarmland consolidation.


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9.3 Water management training

Water management training is one of the major components of the training programme of the Irrigation

Department. Its fundamental aims are to contribute knowledge of irrigation water management to farmers,

and to improve the technical skills of engineers and the technical staff of the Irrigation Department in this

field. This training has been implemented for both on-farm and off-farm level water management development.

Fundamental subjects include the setting of irrigation and drainage canals in the land consolidation areas,reservoir operation and distribution planning, operation and management of the facilities, data collection and

information management, and calculation of the water requirement. The two model farmlands are also used

to help all trainees understand on-farm level water management development. The training courses conducted

for these purposes are here presented in Table 7. A master plan for future training programmes in relation to

this subject is also being considered.

Table 7. Implementation of water management training in ITC of the

Irrigation Department (19992005 (Up to October))

Training typeNumber of Number of

training courses participants(1) Farmers 30 903

(2) Irrigation engineers and staff of 19 499

Irrigation Department

(3) Seminars 16 914

Total 65 2 316

9.4 Adoption of the techniques

The Irrigation Technology Center of the Irrigation Department is now implementing the extension project

(Intermediate Goal Areas Project) for water management improvement in other areas. The techniquesdeveloped in the ITC Project (Phase II) will be adopted and expanded to other areas in one project after

another. For the purpose, an implementing committee has been formed comprising members of the research

groups, operation and maintenance engineers and agricultural specialists and extensionists.

10. Others

With the cooperation of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific

(UNESCAP) and FAO, the Irrigation Department has launched a programme to develop the Myanmar Water

Vision and to coordinate the establishment of a national water coordination agency (NWCA) as an apex body

responsible for overall management of water resources of the country in cooperation with both the public

and private sectors. Furthermore, it is planned to establish a national level Myanmar Water ResourcesCommittee (MWRC) and formulate a strategic management plan (SMP) to enhance the application of

integrated water resources management in the country. In this connection, the Irrigation Department has

proposed the following components of IWRM to be studied in the formulation of the SMP:

principles of water resources development and management;

principles of operation and management;

water allocation among competing uses and users;

water productivity at farm, system, and basin level;

conjunctive use of surface and groundwater;

interactions between irrigation, human health, and the environment; public involvement; and

capacity building (CB) and human resources development (HRD).


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After the successful establishment of the MWRC and under the leadership of this committee, the SMP can

be promoted for the sustainable production of rice and other crops together with the harmonious development

of other sectors as well through improving integrated water resources management and water management

for paddy field irrigation systems.

Furthermore, the Irrigation Department has a plan to implement a project on strengthening of farmers

irrigation management together with the Myanmar Agriculture Services, Water Resources UtilizationDepartment and the Settlement and Land Records Department with the technical assistance of the Japanese

Government. It is aimed at reducing the administrative and maintenance costs of the construction of new

irrigation projects as well as those of the existing irrigation system. The resources made available from these

adjustments could be utilized in improving the system losses, expanding the area under irrigation, and updating

farm-level facilities. The farmers will voluntarily form water users associations, irrigation system management

will be enforced and maintenance and repairs of irrigation facilities will be carried out.

11. Conclusions

Myanmar has abundant water resources which can be used to meet the demand for water of the agriculture

and other sectors. Agriculture is a major economic sector of Myanmar and irrigation systems, especiallyrice-based irrigation systems, have been developed to promote agricultural production. These irrigation systems

allow crop production throughout the year as they make available water stored in the reservoirs and irrigation

systems.

Traditional paddy fields need to be developed into a more systematic farm type for application of farm

mechanization and good water control in the paddy fields. This can be achieved through land consolidation

and improvement of irrigation and drainage at both off-farm and on-farm locations. This development will

allow high cropping intensity with the cultivation of the high yielding varieties.

It is urgently necessary to adopt more appropriate ways for generating complex water resources projects in

Myanmar to meet the requirements of all sectors. Both technical and institutional measures are required to

be developed to replace traditional and conventional practices, but this should be carried out on the basis of

the careful consideration of previous experience, making adjustments where necessary.

A reasonable and functional system of water users groups (WUGs) should be newly established or modified

in conjunction with the local characteristics of the farming communities, including their economy, culture

and the social background of the respective regions in which they are to be found. They can support the

adoption of new measures for better water resources management. A reasonable water pricing system also

should be implemented to lessen the governments burden and to promote the farmers participation in

irrigation. A suitable marketing and trading system for crops and farm products is necessary for the farmers

convenience and to bring them sufficient benefits.

Under the leadership of the Myanmar Water Resources Committee, the irrigation systems can contribute todevelopment of multifunctional roles and the sustainable development of the rural environment.

Acknowledgements

The author expresses his gratitude to the Director General of the Irrigation Department, Ministry of Agriculture

and Irrigation, Myanmar for his support, and to the Viet Nam Institute for Water Resources Research (VIWRR),

Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Viet Nam and the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the

Pacific for their cooperation.


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irrigation system(volume 1), MYA/85/002.

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(in Burmese).

Irrigation Department.2002. Thaphanseik multipurpose dam project: background history(in Burmese).

Irrigation Department.2003. Study on effective use of drainage water in Shwebo irrigation scheme in Myanmar.

Irrigation Department. 2004a. Outline of the Irrigation Department.

Irrigation Department.2004b.Report on integrated water resources management in Myanmar.

Irrigation Department.2005a.Introduction to Irrigation Department(in Burmese).

Irrigation Department (Hydrology branch).2005b. Water storage development in the reservoirs(in Burmese).

Irrigation Department-ITC Project. 2004. Seminar report on completion of Irrigation Technology Center Project

(Phase II),ITC, Irrigation Department.

Irrigation Department-ITC Project. 2005. Technical Book on Ngamoeyeik Irrigation Project, ITC, IrrigationDepartment.

Kyaw San Win, U.2002.Multifunctional roles in irrigation system, Paper presented paper at the Third World Water

Forum (WWF3) Pre-symposium, Japan.

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MOAI, Myanmar.

Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation.2004b.Myanmar Agriculture in Brief, MOAI, Myanmar.

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Ministry of Information. 2002. Facts and figures 2002, MOI, Union of Myanmar.

Myanmar Water Vision Team, Ti Le-Hu & Thierry Facon.2003.Report on formulation of national water vision to

action (3rddraft), Irrigation Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Myanmar.

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Engineering Society, CAFEO22 paper 635, 01038.

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Development and management of large rice-based irrigation systems:Philippine scenario

Proceso T. Domingo5

Abstract

Current irrigation development in the Philippines stands at 45 percent of the irrigable area and this is short

of the threshold for reaching rice self-sufficiency. The tight financial situation that the government finds itself

in has necessitated pruning the annual irrigation development programme. Programme priority, in fact, has

shifted to system rehabilitation projects with new construction focused on small-investment small-scale

irrigation systems only.

Experience shows that major rehabilitation, although effective in checking system deterioration and

dysfunction, fails to improve irrigation performance and services. In response to this experience, the irrigation

agency is focused on improving water availability, allocation and regulation as a special part of its irrigation

projects. This innovation is intended to address the principal causes of low cropping intensity: low and

dwindling water supply and inequitable and wasteful water distribution.

Part of the advocated irrigation sector reform is the release by the irrigation agency to the irrigators associations

of stewardship over sections of public systems. This has the twin objectives of expanding farmers participation

and downsizing system offices, both sides benefiting from resultant financial rewards. Monetary incentives

received by irrigators associations in taking over system management represent the driving force that keeps

them supportive of system policies.

Insufficient collection of irrigation service fees (555 percent) keeps funding for system restoration inadequate,

resulting in suboptimal maintenance and repairs. Deterioration of water availability and irrigation services

ensues from repetition of such a situation, making farmers more unwilling to pay fees. This leads toa devastating cyclic phenomenon in irrigation operations that mere system restoration cannot break. Only

major rehabilitation with an enhanced irrigation package is likely to succeed.

Irrigation modernization in the country has started to move forward alongside the implementation of

institutional and policy reforms in the irrigation sector. These reforms are intended to elevate the operating

performance of the irrigation agency and irrigation systems as essential conditions to the rice self-sufficiency

thrust. A particular reform measure adopted is the implementation of a rationalization plan for the irrigation

agency that balances irrigation service delivery with agency financial stability.

1. Irrigation development: general description

Construction and rehabilitation of irrigation systems and promotion and adoption of improved farming practicesaim to increase annual rice production. Declining water supply, worsening system deterioration and defective

water control, however, tend to diminish the irrigated area and irrigation services. Financial distress, caused

by low revenues, growing workload and expensive materials, requires deferment of system repairs and

stretching of project execution.

(a) System performance

Water management, the main task in system management, aims to deliver correct and adequate amounts of

water at every offtake during the irrigation season. Dwindling and fluctuating water supply and inequitable

and wasteful water distribution, attributable to deficient water allocation and regulation, restrict success. The

irrigated area thus pegs at levels much below the service area and makes cropping intensity (135

5 percentper year) much below potential signifying poor irrigation services.

5 Administrator, National Irrigation Administration (NIA), EDSA, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines.


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Besides deficient water availability and distribution, inferior water allocation and severe system deterioration

also contribute to depressing system functioning. Poor irrigation services dissuade an increasing number of

farmers from paying an irrigation service fee (ISF), making collections inadequate for the restoration needs.

Radicalized farmers behaviour, caused by ISF-delinquent perceived role models and the tricks perpetrated

by some system staff, also push up the number of ISF non-payers.

(b) Irrigation contribution

Irrigation systems in the Philippines are rice-based, considering that rice is the local staple, with a few of

such systems supplying water to banana plantation canals. At the current low levels of irrigation development

(45 percent), rice yields and rain-dependent rice areas, domestic rice production remains short of the

requirement. Reducing this rice shortage has been the overriding goal of every banner rice-production

programme of the government over decades, but success remains elusive.

Increasing rice yield is the primary goal of the said programmes, with the farmers use of improved varieties,

correct fertilization and preventive pesticides as the strategies. Priority programme beneficiaries are the irrigated

areas, in view of the perceived dependability of water supply that reduces risks associated with crop-damaging

dry spells. Increasing the irrigated area and cropping intensity, however, remains the essential measures for

achieving and sustaining rice self-sufficiency for the country.

(c) Irrigation policies

Management (operation, maintenance and repairs) of large rice-based irrigation systems continues as a mandate

of the National Irrigation Administration (NIA). As evolved, NIA handles water management at the canal

(primary and secondary) level with NIA earmarking the task at the ditch (farm) level to the farmers. This

precursor of farmers participation necessitated organizing the farmers in every turnout service area (30 to

40 ha) into irrigators group, then training them.

Although the rotational irrigation method at the ditch level failed to take off, at the canal level it worked

with the support of the irrigators associations (IAs).6

This show of potential led to the release by NIA to IAsof selected system management tasks like canal maintenance, water management and ISF collection. Financial

incentives derived from executing these tasks provided a needed income source for the IAs a factor that

keeps the IAs active and useful partners of NIA.

2. Agricultural development: national thrusts

Expanding irrigated area outweighs the combined contribution of adopting improved rice varieties and crop

nutrition and protection in increasing rice production. Meagre annual increases in irrigation service area,

attributable to the reduced scope of irrigation development programmes to match funding constraints, stalls

efforts. Reaching rice self-sufficiency thus continues to be the prime aspiration of the nation and it remains

as such much longer than expected because irrigation development has fallen behind.

(a) Reaching rice self-sufficiency

Domestic banner agricultural development programmes envisage elevating the Philippines from a persistent

rice importing country to a rice self-sufficient one. Besides targeting increasing rice yield, expanding irrigated

area and increasing cropping intensity are the strategies designed to increase rice production. Expanding the

irrigated area through construction and rehabilitation of irrigation systems remains the more potent initiative

in approaching rice self-sufficiency.

Implementation of irrigation projects, however, is constrained by lack of funds, with the number and extent

of projects limited by an imposed budget ceiling. Both ongoing foreign-assisted and government-funded

6 IAs cover about 750 hectares, at the initial stage, composed of several irrigators groups and their formation is intended to facilitate

resolution of water-related conflicts and enforcement of operating policies and irrigation programmes.


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projects, in fact, suffer from a trickle of cash support, which results in negative slippage of the implementation

period. This situation further prolongs the time for reaching rice self-sufficiency because it inhibits efforts to

expand the irrigated area to the known threshold level.

(b) Expanding the irrigated area

Many people both in the rural and urban areas become aware of the importance of irrigation only whendevastating droughts and rice insufficiency crises strike. Under a no-crisis situation, many people become

oblivious of the necessity for irrigation systems a factor that exacerbates the effect of the tight financial

situation. Current priorities thus have skewed at less expensive system rehabilitation with new construction

projects focused only on low-investment small-scale systems.

Past rehabilitation works, however, defied expectations of improved irrigation performance, with irrigated

area and cropping intensity kept at the same low levels. Proper judgment of the needs (physical, procedural

and social) of and application of innovative measures in system rehabilitation offer hope for a turnaround.

Estimated achievable increase in irrigated area out of system rehabilitation would still be short of the

requirement to reach the threshold of rice self-sufficiency.

3. Sustainable irrigation: emergent requirements

NIA has embarked on releasing the stewardship over the secondary and tertiary levels of NIA-managed systems

to acquiescent and (what are deemed to be) capable IAs. As a means of enhancing inherent IA capability,

NIA earmarks in the said programme only those systems that have undergone or will undergo major

rehabilitation. A foreseeable attribute of the systems that undergo rehabilitation with an improved package is

the reduced incidence of problems of water allocation and distribution.

(a) Protecting system functionality

Income from ISF collections continues to be the main source of funding to meet the costs of operations,

maintenance and repairs of the NIA-managed irrigation systems. Such insufficient ISF collections result insuboptimal maintenance and repairs resulting in worsening of system deterioration and dysfunction. As

system performance and irrigation services decline, farmers willingness to pay ISF likewise declines, triggering

the onset of a worsening cyclic phenomenon.

With the systems engulfed by the said phenomenon, water availability and irrigated areas shrink, with the

farmers ending up the principal victims of this remiss. This has driven NIA to impose the controversial no

payment no irrigation policy, with support from the irrigators groups and IAs, to protect farmers interests.

Success in the implementation of this policy serves to demonstrate the relevance of organizing and training

IAs in mustering farmers collective action.

(b) Expanding farmers participation

Recognizing the need to tap the capability of IAs and to provide an income source for them, NIA encourages

the IAs to take over system management tasks. Programme implementation already has reached a stage

whereby many IAs have taken over the management responsibility of their respective jurisdictional areas

already. Promotion of irrigation management transfer (IMT) aligns with the national thrusts for farmers

empowerment and a management modality shift for the systems.

IMT renders particular system staff redundant but NIA could not convince the said staff to retire early because

of the unavailability of funding to offer incentives for them to do so. With the redundant staff continuing to

receive remuneration, the incentive fees received by the IMT-recipient IAs from NIA represent an added cost

to NIA. As IMT coverage expands, NIA now contemplates two possible scenarios: NIAs relevance may start

to dwindle and irrigation services may start to plunge.


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(c) Undertaking institutional reform

Compelled by financial difficulties, NIA proposed in 2002 a streamlining plan but lack of funds for personnel

retirement incentives stalled implementation. NIA now, along with other agencies in the executive branch of

government, is formulating a rationalization plan aimed at improving service delivery and agency finances.

NIA is enthusiastic the plan will be pushed through as the government is working on making available adequate

funds for the retirement incentives.

A consulting firm, engaged through a grant for the preparation of a proposed system rehabilitation project,

would formulate policy reforms in the irrigation sector. Financial strengthening of NIA, repair funds for

systems, management improvement of equipment and guidelines enhancement for IMT comprise the concerns.

These reforms intend to complement the envisaged enhanced package of system rehabilitation, all aiming at

improving agency and system performance.

4. Irrigation operations: management reform

The negligible effect of major rehabilitation on improving irrigation performance obligated NIA to incorporate

innovations in the rehabilitation scope of the systems. These innovations comprise water supply augmentation,water flow regulation, operating modality shift, repair fund generation, and agency institutional reform.

Improving water availability for the irrigation systems and service area represents the foremost input to

increasing irrigated area and improving irrigation services.

(a) Upgrading the development focus

Farmers and NIA staff in irrigation systems that underwent major rehabilitation become frustrated because

of its failure to improve irrigation services. Inequitable water distribution, shown by water superfluity in the

upper section, water deficit in the middle section and water deprivation in the lower section, persists. Major

rehabilitation, via its traditional package, does correct system deterioration and restore functionality but does

not improve irrigation performance.

Building on this experience, NIA is now focusing on improving water availability and water distribution in

its forthcoming construction and rehabilitation projects. Augmenting water supply, through drainage water

reuse and intermediate water storage systems, and improving discharge regulation are the new measures. An

envisaged innovation is the delivery of flowrates quantified using design-based water allocation, and controlled

and measured using appropriate structures.

(b) Tackling emergency repairs

Current levels of ISF rates are just enough to offset the costs of system operation, maintenance and repairs

but the low collection levels cause problems. Resultant limited funding, aggravated by high and rising costs

of construction materials and equipment fuel, constrain execution of maintenance and repairs. Trickling anddiminishing government appropriations for repair works have somehow provided relief to NIA, but the current

tight financial situation threatens cessation of the said subsidy.

Floods caused by typhoons often devastate irrigation facilities, many of which are so critical that if not repaired

immediately would imperil standing crops. Widespread and critical system devastation has happened already

almost every year and NIA, in many instances, has had to defer repairs because of lack of funding. To correct

such an image-damaging situation and to support IMT-recipient IAs, NIA now advocates the establishment

of a fund for emergency system repairs.


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Table 1. General information on rice-based irrigation systems in the Philippines

Parameter

Physical scale

100 000 ha All sizes100 000 ha

1. Number of systems

a. National irrigation system 183 13 196b. Communal irrigation system 6 702 6 702

c. Private irrigation system 4 001 4 001

Total 10 886 13 10 899

2. Annual water diversion, MCM 31.50

a. % for agriculture water use 100

b. % for domestic water use

c. % for other water uses

3. Design irrigation area, ha

a. National irrigation system 453 857 236 382 690 239

b. Communal irrigation system 537 304 537 304

c. Private irrigation system 174 200 174 200

Total 1 165 361 236 382 1 401 743

4. Effective irrigation area, ha

a. National irrigation system 1405%/yr

b. Communal irrigation system 1305%/yr

c. Private irrigation system 1305%/yr

Wt. mean 1345%/yr

5. Irrigation area, % of (3)

a. Rice 100% in WS

b. Vegetable and orchard 5% in DS

c. Other crops (banana) nil

No. of beneficiaries farmers

a. National irrigation system 434 844

b. Communal irrigation system 301 035

c. Pump irrigation system 134 540

Total 870 419

No. of beneficiaries city residents No info

Wetland areas supported, ha


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Large rice-based irrigation systems in Thailand

Chawee Wongprasittiporn7

1. Background information on large rice-based irrigation systems

In Thailand, most of the agricultural land is paddy field, therefore most irrigation schemes supply water to

paddy.

Four of the main large rice-based irrigation systems in Thailand are described below.

1. The Greater Chao Phraya Irrigation Project is in the central plain (1.2 million ha). The irrigation

system is composed of two storage dams the Bhumibol Dam and the Sirikit Dam, and two diversion

dams the Chao Phraya Dam and the Naresuan Dam.

2. The Mae Klong Irrigation Project is connected to the Greater Chao Phraya as well. The irrigation

system is composed of one storage dam the Wachiralongkorn Dam and one diversion dam.3. The Phitsanulok Irrigation Projectin the upper central plain (104 000 ha). The irrigation system is

composed of one storage dam the Sirikit Dam and one diversion dam the Naresuan Dam. The

Naresuan Dam will divert water to the Phitsanulok Dam and release water downstream to the Great

Chao Phraya Irrigation Project.

4. The Pak Panang Irrigation Projectin the southern part of Thailand (92 800 ha). The irrigation system

is composed of gate regulators in all mouths of the tributaries of the main Pak Panang River and in

the Pak Panang River there is one main gate regulator near to the river mouth to the sea. There is

one emergency canal and a gate and three or four man-made canals to divert flood water to the sea

and in the dry season a diversion canal is used as an irrigation canal.

2. Trends of agriculture development and water resources management

On the basis of the national socio-economic development trends, the Royal Irrigation Department reviewed

its vision, missions, objectives, and strategies in 2005 to serve the countrys development.

The Departments vision is articulated as supplying sufficient water to support agricultural production to raise

farmers incomes and sustain the economy.

Its missions are:

to develop water resources to their full potential;

to manage water for all water users equitably and in a sustainable manner; to encourage peoples participation in all levels of water resources development and management;

and

to protect against and to mitigate water-related disasters.

Its objectives are:

to develop irrigation sufficiently in agricultural areas; and

to provide a good service to enable farmers to have a good quality of life.

7 Royal Irrigation Department, Bangkok, Thailand.


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Its strategies are:

to expand the irrigation area;

to promote higher irrigation efficiencies;

to protect against and mitigate water-related disasters;

to encourage peoples participation and public relations; and to increase efficiency of the water management processes.

Because of the drought crisis of last year, the government has emphasized small scale water resources

development countrywide in order to enable all people to have access to water. Therefore, a list of numerous

small and medium scale projects countrywide has been proposed.

The expansion of the irrigation area will increase the irrigation area over the rainfed area in order to reduce

the risks of water shortage for farmers. This will lead to more secure revenue for farmers.

In the existing irrigated area, the policies are aimed at increasing irrigation efficiencies and improving water

management. With this strategy, the same amount of water should be utilized for more agricultural production.

Land resources and water resources utilities will be integrated to achieve higher production to serve the larger

population and fewer agricultural lands expected in the future. Normally in the dry season or in rainfed areas,

farmers migrate to the main cities, but the expansion of irrigation in rainfed area as well as more effective

use of water will increase cropping intensities and agricultural labour will be needed throughout the whole

year.

Moreover, if some existing agricultural lands are provided with irrigation facilities there will be less land

invasion in the forest preserve areas. This will help achieve the countrys environmental conservation goals.

3. New requirements for large rice-based irrigation systems

In recent years, the paddy price has increased (almost double the price of ten years ago in 1995), farmers

have responded by increasing the paddy area. This is most obvious in the dry season.

In some irrigation areas farmers have also developed their own water resources such as shallow tube-wells

for conjunctive water uses which they manage by themselves.

Three crops per year are available in some areas and this indicates that if water is sufficient, farmers will

make more concentrated uses of agricultural land.

As the higher paddy price is a powerful incentive for farmers, their behaviour and practices are also reflected

in irrigation management in some projects in terms of:

less time devoted to canal maintenance;

change in the management of the irrigation supply from continuous flow to rotation flow;

deterioration in the canal shape according to flow pattern changes;

more inequitable sharing of water among head-end and tail-end water users; and

more complaints and disputes from water users.

These changes need to be closely monitored and assessed and water management needs to be adjusted to

conform to farmers changing practices.

It is necessary for more people to participate in water management in order to catch up with demand and

supply side potentials and constraints and to open up opportunities for consultation between both sides for

concentrated land and water resources use.


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4. Measures undertaken

The 2005 vision, missions, objectives and strategies mentioned earlier in Section 2, introduced some new

foci in water management to provide good quality services. These are countrywide service delivery based on

the principle of equity and not focusing only on potential irrigated area but also on peoples participation.

4.1 Peoples participatory irrigation management (PIM)

Some strategic measures such as the project promoting peoples participatory irrigation management (PIM)

were implemented first in the form of pilot projects assisted by the Asian Development Bank (ADB). After

the pilot projects were completed, the Royal Irrigation Department applied the PIM approach to its routine

tasks at provincial level using its own annual budget.

In spite of budget limitations, the PIM approach is still practised and there is good consultation between

irrigators and farmers. Before each irrigation season starts, there will be a meeting of the provincial irrigators,

provincial agriculturists and farmers groups in the province. Irrigators will inform the meeting about water

availability and the irrigation starting date (after canal maintenance), the agriculturists will give information

about the trend of the agricultural market, and farmers will inform the meeting of their planned crops. The

amount of water, potential planting area, type of crop and marketing will be discussed to fine tune among

needs, availability and constraints so as to establish the cropping pattern and irrigation schedules. Additional

meetings will be established in case of a mid-season crisis or significant changes in plans.

These new practices (increasing the level of peoples participation) were implemented one or two years after

completion of the ADB supported pilot projects. In the past, farmers got to know about the irrigation schedule

by asking a zone-man in the field. With some projects, there was a notice board nearby the irrigation canal

informing farmers of the irrigation schedules. However, this is one-way communication that allows farmers

to receive information but not give information about their needs.

By allowing farmers to participate in water management, complaints and disputes are fewer and farmers can

better plan their production processes. The direction is moving towards demand-side management using thefull potential of resources, but it still faces some constraints. Equitable land and water resources utilization is

discussed and encouraged in the participation meeting.

4.2 Conjunctive uses of water

As the price of paddy is high, dry season paddy areas have been much greater than the potential area based

on irrigation water availability. In some areas, three paddy crops were cultivated throughout the whole year.

These three crops are possible because of the large numbers of alternative sources of water, namely private

shallow tubewells, developed by farmers.

In the Phitsanulok Irrigation Project, daily water use in paddy fields was measured. It was found that in thetail-end area where irrigation water is not very reliable, shallow tubewell water accounts for about 80 percent

of the water supplied, whereas in the head-end area irrigation water is still the main source of water. This

affects the planning of water management and irrigation schedules.

As the water requirement is much higher, irrigation scheduling has changed from continuous flow according

to design criteria to rotation flow. The operation of cross regulators for abrupt flow changes in rotation

schedules causes sliding of earthen canals. The trapezoidal shape of earthen canals has changed to a large

U-shape. Water flow is quite slow and the hydraulics of slow flow complicates irrigation management.

4.3 Water management for development and the environment

At present, under the technical assistance of the Government of Spain, the Royal Irrigation Department is

undertaking a study of irrigation improvement for the Phitsanulok Project. The content of the study is to

apply an appropriate mathematical hydraulics model to determine the most suitable water management regime.


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The potential of utilizing groundwater is being studied and the participation of water user groups in water

management is also included in the study.

In the south, a large paddy irrigation project the Pak Panang Project is a water management system

that was designed not only to achieve a development target but also to mitigate any adverse impact from the

project. The operation of a set of gate regulators is meant to store fresh water for the dry season, to mitigate

flooding in the rainy season, and to protect the agricultural area from salinity intrusion. Later on, additionalstudy was conducted to mitigate some environmental impacts such as water pollution downstream of the

gate in the dry season, to allow brackish water to act as a buffer zone between fresh and sea water for the

sake of brackish water animals and to divert acidic water from an upstream large acidic swamp out to a by-pass

canal to prevent the flow of highly acid water to a fishery site downstream.

Multi-objective water management for large scale paddy fields is the most complicated type of water

management in Thailand as the people in the project area have different occupations leading to differences

in water uses. Farmers need fresh water in the dry season for a second paddy crop (dry season paddy) while

fisherman and shrimp ponds need brackish water and want to fully open the regulator gates. To solve this

problem, the provincial governor, the provincial government agencies concerned with irrigation, fisheries,

agriculture, and resource persons from universities, non-government organizations and representatives from

each district have had continuous meetings to formulate a plan to be agreed by all sectors. The management

alternatives proposed by one of the meetings were taken to create a simulation exercise to predict the results

and bring them up for discussion at the next meeting. The meeting ended with the agreement that water

management will not have adverse impacts on the farmers. The gates of the main regulator will be operated

conforming to the sea water level to enable the brackish water zone to travel up to some control point during

the wet season to allow the nursing of shrimp in natural water. The other regulators will be operated in

conjunction with the main regulators to protect the paddy fields from salinity intrusion.

5. Further options to meet the changing requirements

In the Pak Panang Project, water management now includes socio-environmental considerations. After the

new gate opening was agreed, the peoples participation meeting also recognized the impact of the new

changes, therefore a monitoring team was set up to follow up with a monitoring programme. The place and

period of monitoring was discussed in the participation meeting. The monitoring team includes members from

all stakeholders such as local people, irrigators, environmental NGOs and staff of universities.

With regard to the conjunctive use of shallow tubewells in the Phitsanulok Irrigation Project, there is now

recognition of the additional sources of water that are managed by farmers. There are some relevant studies

in the Phitsanulok irrigation area such as the study of GIS of shallow tubewell potential, measurement of

water level in some representative shallow tubewells, study of water recharge rate to shallow tubewells. The

studies were undertaken to find out an appropriate water management regime to improve water allocation to

serve the demand and to solve the problem of sliding of the earthen canal. In the near future, the water

management will be changed to some extent to conform with the current situation.


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Information on irrigation systems in Thailand

National irrigation management Agency: Royal Irrigation Department

General information on irrigation systems

Physical scale of rice-based100 000 ha All scalesirrigation systems 100 000 ha

Number of systems 10 536 85 10 621

Annual water diversion (MCM) 4 787 29 642

% of agriculture water use

% of domestic water use

% of other water use

Designed irrigation area (ha) 2 611 700 2 668 160

Effective irrigation area (ha) 2 611 700 2 668 160

Rice irrigation area (ha)

Vegetable and orchard area (ha)

Other crops irrigation area (ha)

Beneficiaries farmers

Beneficiaries city residents

Wetland areas supported (ha)

Information of the largest rice-based irrigation system

Name The Greater Chao Phraya Irrigation Project

Location Central Plain

Construction period 19581972

Designed irrigation area 1 200 000

Functional irrigation area 1 200 000

Annual water diversion (MCM) 22 972

% of agriculture water use 80

% of domestic water use

% of other water use

Rice irrigation area (ha)

Vegetable and orchard area (ha)

Other crops irrigation area (ha)

Water supply per ha of irrigated rice field

Output (US$) per m3of water supply

Beneficiaries farmers

Beneficiaries city residents

Wetland areas supported (ha)


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The development of irrigation systemsfor sustainable agricultural development in Viet Nam

Nguyen Dinh Ninh8

Abstract

Viet Nam has a gross area of 330 991 km2with a population of about 80 million (2004), a population density

of 242 people/km2. Over 75 percent of Vietnamese people live in rural areas. Agriculture accounted for

22 percent of the gross domestic product in 2003.

In recent years, Viet Nams economic growth has been stable at the rate of 7.5 percent per year. Growth in

agriculture constantly increased at a rate of 4 to 4.5 percent per year. Viet Nam is a major exporter of

agricultural products (rice, coffee, rubber, pepper, cashew etc.). Agricultural development in recent years has

not only contributed to national income growth, food security and poverty reduction but also has contributed

to social stability and environmental protection.

However, the countrys integration into the international economic system has brought many challenges to

Viet Nams agriculture sector. To ensure sustainable agricultural development, issues of markets, pricing,

competition of agricultural products and water must be addressed.

Viet Nam is located in the tropical monsoon zone and, potentially, has abundant water resources. Annual

runoff is about 844 billion cubic metres, of which 323 billion cubic metres are generated inside the country,

and 521 billion cubic metres are generated from outside the country. Groundwater resources have a dynamic

potential of about 1 500 m3/s. However, water distribution is uneven in both space and time. From 75 to

80 percent of annual runoff is concentrated in three to four months of the mid-rainy season and 5 to 8 percent

is concentrated in three months of the mid-dry season. Therefore, water shortage, drought and water logging

often happen in most of areas of the country with serious consequences for farmers. Over the previous decades,water resources development and management have been a serious concern of the state and the people of

Viet Nam. Water resources development has contributed significantly to the economic and social development

of Viet Nam, especially in terms of agricultural production.

In the coming decades, Viet Nams economy will undergo a high rate of growth to achieve the countrys

goals of industrialization and modernization, and the population growth of the country will continue to increase,

with a forecast of 88 to 89 million people in 2010. Therefore, the demand for water for socio-economic

development in general and for sustainable agriculture in particular will seriously challenge the water sector.

This must be met with success.

1. Key water management and development problems and challenges

1.1. Some features of water resources in Viet Nam

Viet Nam is under the influence of two monsoon systems the northeast and the southwest monsoons.

Thus, the rainfall is distributed unevenly both in space and time. The rainy season usually starts in May or

June and finishes in October or November, which normally provides 75 to 80 percent of the entire annual

rainfall. The rainfall in the dry season is very low, many areas have no rain for months. As for space,

the rainfall distribution is affected by the topography: in some areas, the rainfall may reach up to 3 000 to 5

000 mm/year whereas for other areas, the rainfall is as little as 1 000 mm/year.

In the rainy season, the water flow module can be from 60 l/s/km2to 80 l/s/km2while in the dry season, the

water flow module is just 10 l/s/km

2

. As for time, the water flow in the rainy season accounts for 75 to80 percent of the annual water flow. The water flow in the lowest month is just 1 to 2 percent of the total

8 Deputy Director General, Department of Water Sources, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Viet Nam.


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water flow in the year. The difference between the high flow year and the low flow year can be two to three

times.

According to a national-level survey, the total amount of water which flows in Viet Nam is estimated at about

844 billion m3per year (approximately 271 000 m3/s), including 323 billion m3 from the internal flow of

Viet Nam accounting for 37 percent and 521 billion m3from the external flow.

Besides surface water resources, Viet Nam also has groundwater resources with the total amount of

50 to 60 billion m3(equivalent to 1 513 m3/s). It is estimated that the maximum exploitable capacity is only

10 to 12 billion m3.

One of the characteristics of Viet Nam is that drought and water shortages occur every year in different areas

with different degrees of seriousness. In the rainy season, flood and inundation are very common. In recent

years, Viet Nam has been faced with calamities of historical proportions: the drought in 1998 caused great

losses for the economy, more than three million people lacked water for domestic use; two successive floods

occurred in the central provinces in November and December 2000 and in 2001; the flood in the Mekong

Delta this year is the biggest in the last 70 years. At the beginning of 2002, there were serious droughts in

the central highlands, the south central provinces and the Mekong Delta.

Given the facts stated above, Viet Nams water resources must be used efficiently and effectively and at the

same time the adverse effects of too much or too little water must be mitigated.

1.2. Achievements of investment in irrigation systems development

1.2.1 Investment achievement of water supply and drainage development

Up to now the country has had 75 large irrigation and drainage schemes, 800 large and medium dams, over

3 500 reservoirs with capacity higher than 1 million m3and heights over 10 m, 5 000 large sluices, and over

2 000 big pumping stations and thousands of medium-scale and small-scale water works. All schemes have

irrigated fully 3.3 million hectares and partially over 1 million hectares. They have drained 1.4 million hectares,

prevented salt intrusion in 0.77 million hectares and improved 1.6 million hectares of acid sulphate soil. They

have also supplied 5 billion m3of water for domestic and industrial uses. Irrigated areas of paddy, uplandcrops, vegetables and short-term industrial trees have been constantly increased as shown in the diagram below.

In 2000, the water works irrigated 0.718 million hectares of upland crops, vegetables and industrial trees,

5.973 million hectares of paddy (of which there were 2.45 million hectares of winter-spring paddy, 1.82 million

hectares of summer-autumn paddy and 1.703 million hectares of late autumn paddy) and drained 1.596 million

hectares of cultivated land.

0

1

2

3

4

Series 1

Total capacity of water works

Servicearea(millio

nha)

Full irr. Partial irr. Drainage Salt prot. Soilimprovement

1.2.2 Investment achievements in flood protection and mitigation

The existing flood protection works systems consist of 5 700 km of river dykes, 2 000 km of sea dykes,

23 000 km of embankment rings and thousands of sluices, and hundreds of kilometres of revetment. The

dyke systems are now strengthened, improved to a higher standard for flood protection, especially for the

Red, Thai Binh, Ma and Ca Rivers.


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The Red River dyke system has the designed flood level of 13.4 m at Hanoi and 7.21 m at Pha Lai.

In combination with the upstream reservoirs, it can protect against floods of the magnitude of the

1971 historical flood. The Ma and Ca dyke systems can protect against overflowing of the magnitude

of historical floods.

The sea dyke system in the north and north central provinces can prevent salt intrusion and reduce

the force of sea waves caused by eight and nine degree winds.

The dyke and embankment ring system in the south central provinces and Cuu Long River Delta are

able to protect against the annual floods and thus protect the summer-autumn paddy crop.

1.3. Investment benefits of irrigation systems development

1.3.1. Rapid increase and stabilization of the paddy cropped area, yield and production

Because the irrigation water supply was increased and its quality services were improved, the paddy cultivated

area has increased from year to year in line with cropping pattern changes. In 2000, 7.67 million hectares of

paddy were cultivated (in 1986 it was 5.68 million ha). Especially, the winter-spring paddy area increased to

3 million ha (in 1986 it was 1.8 million ha) and the summer-autumn paddy increased to 2.33 million ha

(in 1986 it was 0.9 million ha). The increased paddy area was mostly in the Cuu Long River Delta, from

2.58 million ha to 3.97 million ha. The gross food production of the country rapidly increased and stabilized

from 16 million tonnes (1986) to 32.5 million tonnes (2000). This was a very great achievement of the

agriculture sector. It not only ensured national food security, but over 3 million tonnes of rice were exported

also with a value over 800 million USD.

1.3.2. Crop diversification development

The food upland crops, for example maize, increased its cultivated area from 460 000 ha (1986) to 700 000 ha

with the total production of 1.93 million tonnes. The planted area and production of annual and long term

commercial trees and orchards also increased. Annual average production (19862000) was much higher in

comparison with the previous five years, for example, groundnut increased 1.64 times, sugarcane increasedthree times, soybean increased 1.67 times, rubber increased five times, coffee increased 2.5 times. The fruit

trees such as longan, lichee, rambutan etc. also increased both in terms of planted area and production.

In 1995 the planted area was 37 600 ha and 223 000 tonnes were produced, in 2000 the planted area was

149 000 ha and 719 000 tonnes were produced.

The agriculture value per hectare of the cultivated land increased from 13.5 million VND/ha (1995) to

17.5 million VND/ha (2000), typically, but some places gained over 100 million VND/ha because irrigation

and drainage services were good and investment in new varieties and agricultural materials was higher.

1.3.3. Water supply for domestic use and industries

Providing services for domestic and industrial uses is becoming more important in water resourcesdevelopment. Up till now, hundreds of water works have supplied over 5 billion m3for domestic uses and

industries. The proportion of the rural population supplied with water is increasing, especially in remote

provinces in mountainous areas and the Cuu Long River Delta (42% of rural population).

1.3.4. Water for fisheries development

Fisheries development, especially in brackish water areas, has had a very high rate of growth. The improved

water works have ensured fresh water sources for fish farming and facilitated increase of the fish farming

area in saline and brackish water from 342 000 ha (2000) to 585 000 ha (2001).

1.3.5. Development of solutions for drainage and flood control

The development of solutions for drainage and flood control has brought very big benefits. Tens of millions

of people and millions of hectares of cultivated land within the delta that frequently is threatened by floods


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have been protected by water works. Loss of peoples lives and property caused by floods and typhoons is

not only much reduced but the ecology, peoples living environment, and sanitation have been improved,

diseases have been prevented and economic activities have been maintained also, even when heavy rains

and high flooding occur. This facilitates sustainable socio-economic development.

1.3.6. Contribution of water resources development to social improvement

Water resources development creates good opportunities for increasing land intensity (in the Red River Delta,

the land intensity increased from 1.4 up 2.3), creating new jobs for farmers, reducing labour in agricultural

production (by using water transport in canals as well as land transport on canal banks), improving habitat

arrangements for flood evacuation (especially in the Mekong Delta), improving the living conditions of farmers.

Many new economic zones have been established and rapidly developed and are strongly supported by water

resources development to supply water for domestic use and production activities.

1.3.7. Contribution of water resources development to environmental improvement

Water resources development contributes to quality of life and agricultural production, increases groundwater

resources, regulates runoff, increases soil moisture and water supply in the dry season and reduces flooding

in the rainy season. In the Mekong Delta, thanks to irrigation and drainage schemes, acid sulphate soils havebeen significantly reduced in terms of affected area and acidity levels. Fresh water irrigated areas have been

increasingly expanded to make a large zone where there are two or three crops per year instead of only one

summer crop as previously. In the mountainous and midland zones, most of the cultivable lands are on slopes

and bare hills and irrigation has changed the water regime in soils in a favourable direction creating better

water and air regimes in soil and increasing soil fertility. Irrigation has reduced the shifting cultivation practices

of minorities too and has protected the forest ecology and contributed to border security.

The benefits from water resources development are very significant not only in terms of raising peoples

income, but also in terms of other more intangible benefits for communities. There are positive impacts on

society, the environment, farmers lives and rural areas as well as contributing to economic and livelihood

sustainability and improving the cultural life of the people.

1.4. Challenges

1.4.1. The degradation of water resources

Water resources are affected adversely by the destruction of forests, by pollution and by global climate change.

Natural disasters, floods, drought, saline intrusion, flooding, tidal waves, pollution of water sources, etc. are

increasing daily and becoming severe enough to cause serious damage to people and property.

1.4.2. Economic growth

With rapid economic growth there will be an increase in the demand for water from various socio-economicsectors. Water conflicts between the various sectors need to be resolved in a way that meets the various

demands equitably without jeopardizing the countrys socio-economic development objectives and its progress

towards industrialization and modernization.

1.4.3 Increasing population pressure and quality of life

In 1999, the population of the whole country was 76.3 million, with 23.5 percent living in urban areas. It is

projected that in 2050, the population will increase up to 100 million and then stabilize within two or three

decades. Because of the increased population and the improvements in the quality of life, meeting the demand

for water for increased production and for domestic uses will be an enormous challenge and will need to be

met by the effective development and management of national water resources.


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1.4.4. Conflicts over water rights

Conflicts over transboundary water resources such as the Mekong River and the Red River will likely increase

as downstream riparian states suffer from the actions of upstream riparian states that alter the flow or quality

of the transboundary water resources.

1.4.5. Conflicts between local areas over water rights

Conflicts over water rights especially in interprovincial and interdistrict irrigation systems will arise and will

increase. In order to resolve these conflicts, water resources need to be developed and managed to ensure

their sustainable exploitation and their equitable allocation.

2. Irrigation systems management and development objectives

2.1. Objective 1:To contribute to the countrys industrialization and modernization programmes.

This requires structures to be prepared so that in 2010 sufficient water will be supplied to all sectors. Out of

a total volume of 95.52 billion m3, the water volume for domestic uses will be 2.06 billion m3; industry

4.85 billion m3; agriculture 71.91 billion m3; fishery 9.73 billion m3; and environment 6.98 billion m3

(and downstream flow in the dry season should be not less than 4 110 m3/s). This will:

ensure full exploitation of 15.8 million ha of land of various types by changing cropping patterns,

including 10 million ha of foods crops, 2 million ha of long-term industrial crops, 2 million ha of

short-term industrial crops, 1 million ha of foodstuff crops and 0.8 million ha of fruit trees of various

types, and achieve the production of 36 to 38 million tonnes of safe foods;

ensure water supply for domestic uses, especially for water scarce areas, with specific volumes as

follows: water volume for domestic uses in urban areas 150 to 200 l/day, in delta rural areas

100 l/day and mountainous rural areas 80 l/day (so that about 90 percent of people in rural areas

will be able to use water for domestic uses at the national standard); and

ensure development of industrial zones, of aquaculture (0.6 million ha for fresh water aquaculture

and 0.8 million ha for brackish water aquaculture), and for tourism services, etc.

2.2. Objective 2:To strengthen investment and the development of technical solutions and enhance protection

against and mitigation of natural disasters such as floods:

enhance the technical safety level of the Red River dyke and the Thai Binh River dyke to enable

protection against floods with a design flood level of 13.4 m in Hanoi, 7.21m in Pha Lai; and dykes

in the north of the former region No. 4 to protect against historical floods;

strengthen the stability of the sea dyke systems and saline dyke systems in coastal areas to protect

from storms with eight and ten degree winds and average tidal combination;

arrange a safe place for people in shallow flooded areas in the Mekong River Delta, and ensure safe

conditions for people in deep flooded areas; and

ensure safety of structures (including reservoirs, dyke systems, under-dyke sluices, etc.).

2.3. Objective 3:To strengthen national water resources management by establishment of water resources

management organizations from the central to local levels:

complete legal documents to facilitate water resources management and prevent pollution of water

sources to ensure sustainable use of the national water resources and exploitation of hydraulic

structures;

facilitate development of production and water supply for domestic uses; create a basis for sustainable development; and

strengthen improvement and accomplishment of technologies for construction and management.


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2.4. Objective 4: To strengthen scientific study capacity, water resources management, construction and

planning design abilities, application of new materials, technologies to construct hydraulic structures,

modernization of management facilities, arrangement of capable staff for management and exploitation of

structures.

3. Strategic implementation solutions

3.1. Strengthening investment in water resources development

3.1.1. Investment for exploitation of water resources

Focus investment on large repair, upgrading and modernization of existing water supply and drainage

headworks systems to strive for full capacity of works, serving polyculture and crop diversification. At the

same time, invest in rehabilitating canals from headworks to on-farm, apply advanced irrigation and drainage

technology combined with traditional techniques to save water to improve the land, maintain the land, and

maintain the water in sloping land areas. Focus investment on completing works under construction to promptly

serve production activities.

Invest in constructing works that can integrate various water uses, enhance regulation capacity to provide

adequate water to serve national economic development and improve environment.

Invest in the development of small works in mountainous areas and remote areas to serve the poverty

alleviation programme, settled agriculture and human settlements and ensure sufficient municipal water and

environmental hygiene for people in these areas.

3.1.2 Investment for flo

paddy field irrigation systems in myanmar

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