pacific lighthouses: renewable energy roadmapping for islands · implementation of regional...
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International Renewable Energy Agency
IRENA
Pacific LighthousesRenewable Energy Roadmapping for IslandsRe
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DisclaimerThe designations employed and the presentation of materials herein do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the International Renewable Energy Agency concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or concerning their authorities or the delimitation of their frontiers or boundaries.
Copyright © IRENA 2013 Unless otherwise indicated, material in this publication may be used freely, shared or reprinted, so long as IRENA is acknowledged as the source.
About IRENAThe International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) is an intergovernmental organisation that supports countries in their transition to a sustainable energy future, and serves as the principal platform for international cooperation, a centre of excel-lence, and a repository of policy, technology, resource and financial knowledge on renewable energy. IRENA promotes the widespread adoption and sustainable use of all forms of renewable energy, including bioenergy, geothermal, hydropower, ocean, solar and wind energy in the pursuit of sustainable development, energy access, energy security and low-carbon eco-nomic growth and prosperity.www.irena.org
AcknowledgementsThe collection of data for the preparation of this report was led by Herb Wade (Consultant). The report benefitted from very valuable comments from Solomone Fifita (Secretariat of the Pacific Community), Thomas Jenson (Energy Adviser, UNDP), Peter Johnston (Consultant), Atul Raturi (Head of Engineering, University of the South Pacific), John Rounds (Deputy Direc-tor, Secretariat of the Pacific Community), Silia Kilepoa Ualesi (PIGGAREP Project Manager, Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme) and John van Brink (CEO, Tonga Power Ltd). Their constructive feedback enriched the report and is gratefully acknowledged.
Authors: Linus Mofor (IRENA), Mirei Isaka (IRENA), Herb Wade (Consultant) and Apisake Soakai (Consultant)
For further information or to provide feedback, please contact: Linus Mofor, IRENA Innovation and Technology Centre. E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected].
August 2013
Pacific LighthousesRenewable Energy Roadmapping for Islands
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is landsI I
Pacific islands are endowed with a rich variety of renew-able energy resources, providing a viable and attractive alternative to fossil fuel imports. Globally, as deploy-ment rises and manufacturing costs fall, the economic equation increasingly favours renewable energy tech-nologies. This is particularly true for the Pacific region, which has already taken significant steps to alleviate its dependence on fossil fuels, which entail a volatile global market as well as high costs for local distribution.
In January 2012, the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) hosted a Pacific Leaders Forum in Abu Dhabi. In the resulting Abu Dhabi Communiqué, leaders from 11 Pacific Island Countries and Territories called on IRENA to work jointly on establishing an enabling environment for renewable energy deployment in the region. They asked for this work to be integrated into a roadmap for accelerated renewable energy uptake in the Pacific.
Since that time, IRENA has worked closely with a wide range of stakeholders in the Pacific, including gov-ernments, utilities, the Pacific Power Association, the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, North-REP, the Sustainable Energy Industry Association of the Pacific Islands and others, to identify gaps and produce innova-tive, practical and island-specific solutions.
IRENA’s multi-faceted work in the region is reflected in Pacific Lighthouses: Renewable Energy Roadmap-ping for Islands. The main report, intended to provide a framework for further action, is supported by 15 reports on specific islands and a document detailing hybrid power systems for the Pacific. Together, these reports identify key concepts, challenges and best practices for the accelerated uptake of renewable energy in the region. The aim is to provide island governments and, indeed, all stakeholders, with baseline information to assist in the development of local renewable energy deployment roadmaps, as well as strengthening the implementation of regional initiatives.
I trust this publication will prove useful to countries and territories with action plans in place, to those still formu-lating national roadmaps, and to the various develop-ment partners working to promote clean energy solu-tions and sustainability in the region. As our world works towards a future based on clean, secure and affordable energy services for all, the Pacific Island Countries and Territories have the opportunity to become beacons of confidence that can help chart the course for other island regions and beyond.
Adnan Z. Amin Director-General, IRENA
Foreword
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands I I I
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� II
Acronyms �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������V
Summary �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������VI
1� Introduction and context ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������1
2� The rationale for renewables in the Pacific Islands region ���������������������������������������������������������������� 3
2.1 Fossil-fuel dependence ..........................................................................................................................................3
2.2 The impact of climate conditions .......................................................................................................................3
2.3 Renewable energy can be a cost competitive alternative ..........................................................................3
2.4 Barriers to renewable energy uptake in the Pacific Islands ...................................................................... 4
2.5 The need for a regional and national framework for renewable energy uptake ....................................5
3� Energy landscape in the Pacific Islands region ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 7
3.1 General characteristics of Pacific islands ..........................................................................................................7
3.2 Energy use in the Pacific region .........................................................................................................................7
3.3 Use of renewable energy .................................................................................................................................... 18
3.4 Energy policy frameworks ................................................................................................................................. 18
4� Renewable energy resource potential in the Pacific Islands region ������������������������������������������������20
4.1 Abundant technical and economic renewable energy resource potentials ........................................20
4.2 Renewable energy costs and maintenance requirements ....................................................................... 23
5� Comprehensive power systems planning approach ������������������������������������������������������������������������� 28
5.1 Renewable energy resource data collection ................................................................................................. 28
5.2 Renewable energy integration ......................................................................................................................... 28
5.3 Grid modelling and verification .......................................................................................................................29
5.4 Energy efficiency .................................................................................................................................................29
5.5 Selecting partners with relevant experience ...............................................................................................29
5.6 Robust implementation guidelines and measurable goals .....................................................................30
6� Renewable energy for the transportation sector in the Pacific Islands �������������������������������������������31
6.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................................................... 31
6.2 Enhancing opportunities for renewables for transportation in the Pacific Islands .......................... 32
7� Challenges in implementing renewable energy systems in the Pacific Islands �������������������������������34
7.1 Solar, wind and wave energy .............................................................................................................................34
7.2 All renewable energy technologies ................................................................................................................. 35
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is landsIV
8� IRENA’s activities in the Pacific Islands �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 36
8.1 Country studies .....................................................................................................................................................368.2 Assessment of grid stability ............................................................................................................................. 378.3 Hybrid power systems ........................................................................................................................................ 378.4 Electricity storage and renewables for island power ................................................................................ 388.5 Ocean energy ........................................................................................................................................................ 388.6 REMAP 2030: Assisting energy planning in islands roadmaps in the Pacific ................................... 388.7 Renewables Readiness Assessment ............................................................................................................... 388.8 Establishment of the Global Renewable Energy Islands Network (GREIN) .......................................398.9 Capacity-building initiative ...............................................................................................................................398.10 IRENA Global Atlas ............................................................................................................................................398.11 IRENA Renewable Energy Country Profiles for the Pacific .....................................................................398.12 Policy challenges for renewable energy deployment in the Pacific Islands .....................................398.13 Harmonisation of RE standards ......................................................................................................................408.14 Assessment of RE technologies suitable for the Pacific .........................................................................408.15 Assessment of the use of more renewable energy in the transportation sector ............................408.16 IRENA Abu Dhabi Fund for Development project facility ......................................................................40
9� Conclusion: Key priority actions for enhanced renewable energy deployment in the Pacific Islands and possible IRENA roles ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������41
References ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������44
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands V
Acronyms
CROP Council of Regional Organisations in the Pacific
FAESP Framework for Action on Energy in the Pacific
GHG Greenhouse Gas
GIZ German Agency for International Cooperation (Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit)
IPESP Implementation Plan for Energy Security in the Pacific
IPP Independent Power Producer
GREIN Global Renewable Energy Islands Network
PICTs Pacific Island Countries and Territories
PPA Pacific Power Association
RE Renewable Energy
REMAP Global Renewable Energy Roadmap to 2030
RRA Renewables Readiness Assessment
SE4ALL The United Nations Sustainable Energy for All Initiative
SHS Solar Home System
SIDS Small Island Developing States
SPC Secretariat of the Pacific Community
PIGGAREP Pacific Island Greenhouse Gas Abatement through Renewable Energy Project
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is landsVI
Summary
The Abu Dhabi Communiqué, issued by leaders from 11 Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PICTs) in January 2012, called for assistance to the region with assessing renewable energy readiness, ascertaining op-portunities, identifying pathways to close gaps and integrating all activities to promote renewable energy in the region into a single, coherent roadmap. The Inter-national Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) responded by carrying out a wide range of activities of specific relevance and application to the region in close col-laboration with existing regional organisations and key stakeholders.
This Pacific Lighthouses report, along with 15 reports on specific islands and another on hybrid power systems for the Pacific that are attached to it, aims to support various local and regional initiatives on renewable en-ergy (RE) roadmaps by: (i) identifying the key concepts, challenges and best practices needed to increase the uptake of renewables in the region in an integrated and cost effective way; (ii) providing the countries and, indeed, all stakeholders, with baseline information; and (iii) highlighting areas of support from IRENA to nation-al and regional initiatives aimed at promoting enhanced deployment of renewables in the region. The report also highlights best practices and lessons from the transition to RE in some PICTs that could benefit other islands and regions.
The key messages arising from this report are the fol-lowing:
(i) Although the Pacific Islands region is varied in terms of its RE resource distribution, solar pho-tovoltaic (PV), bioenergy and, to a lesser extent, wind energy are the RE technologies with the greatest technical and economic potential for near-term deployment in the region.
(ii) An integrated approach promoting balanced im-plementation – with a strong emphasis on both RE and energy efficiency, and incorporating, among other measures, detailed resource, land availability, grid, energy storage and capacity development assessments – is required to arrive at the optimal solution in terms of feasibility, cost, social acceptance and phasing.
(iii) Due to the variability of solar PV and wind power, integrating into diesel generator-based power systems requires the use of a variety of enabling technologies.
(iv) The spatial constraints of islands requires that for successful large-scale deployment of RE, the energy, water and land-use nexus must be as-sessed carefully with stakeholder involvement in the planning process.
(v) The current dominance of development assis-tance financing for RE projects in the developing economies of the Pacific Islands region limits the opportunities to enhance investor confidence through demonstration of the commercial at-tractiveness of existing projects.
(vi) An enabling regulatory environment is needed to attract private sector investments in renewable energy deployment in the region.
(vii) Islands need to improve their collaboration – for example on common legal tools, training and regulations – to create economies of scale.
(viii) In the medium and long term, RE-based power solutions would be the most sustainable and cost-effective solutions for Pacific Islands communi-ties. In the transition to that stage, RE and diesel hybrid systems with high levels of RE integration and energy efficiency measures can play a key role in the energy supply for island communities and are, indeed, a viable option for the PICTs.
(ix) The “many partners, one team” approach needs to be put into practice through increased coordi-nation between development partners, donors, regional institutions and national authorities and institutions.
(x) RE-based transport options (such as electric cars and sustainable biofuels) can directly benefit island power-generation systems. As such, RE- based transport systems should be an important consideration in the long-term planning of the PICTs.
In line with the regional vision of the Framework for Action on Energy Security in the Pacific (FAESP), along with national targets and policies, the following key ac-tions are recommended to accelerate the transition to a renewables-based energy future for the PICTs:
● Strengthen institutional frameworks in the en-ergy sector: In many cases renewables transition planning takes place outside the group of energy ministries and utilities. Such an approach should be avoided as it reduces the chances of success significantly.
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands VI I
● Strengthen cooperation between the Pacific Power Association (PPA), Secretariat of the Pa-cific Community (SPC) and University of the South Pacific to develop a critical mass for transi-tion planning for the Pacific Islands.
● Strengthen strategic energy planning, combining RE deployment with energy efficiency promotion and implementation.
● Strengthen policy and regulatory frameworks as the essential enabler for enhanced RE deploy-ment.
● Strengthen the collection and management of energy data. This will assist in the development of robust energy information, notably for the transport sector.
● Assess the cost of RE solutions for island com-munities and provide information on technology availability and options.
● Assess and monitor RE resource potential. RE potential varies widely across PICTs, thereby necessitating the need for regional and island-specific RE strategies.
● Assess grid stability for high shares of RE inte-gration. It will be important to consider careful design and deployment of hybrid diesel–renew-able systems with high shares of renewables in the immediate term. This requires modelling and assessment of grids for different levels of RE pen-etration, supported by a step-by-step approach to realise the transition to renewables.
● Harmonise technical standards for implementa-tion of RE technologies: This should facilitate effective system operation with reduced failure of components. With most RE projects in the PICTs arising from development assistance, a wide range of RE equipment of different makes is being installed. This complicates operation and maintenance greatly. An energy development ini-tiative for Small Island Developing States (SIDS), such as SIDS-DOCK, could help to overcome such problems, provided funds are managed through the unified programme and not cut into many small projects with different decision makers.
● Undertake capacity development for RE at vari-ous levels – from vocational education to training for policy makers.
● Coordinate various RE projects and financing. This and a database of best practice cases for
sharing of knowledge should facilitate an ef-ficient and uniform strategy for successful RE deployment in the region.
● Develop bankable renewable projects. The qual-ity of project proposals needs to be improved across the region. The IRENA Project Navigator can help towards bankability of project propos-als. The fact that virtually all renewable power projects are funded from grants or soft loans endangers sustainability and is detrimental to the development of the RE sector. For renewables projects, more than for diesel generators, it is critical that projects include a sustainable busi-ness model where investment costs are readily recuperated. This is particularly so if productive uses for energy are prioritised in such models.
IRENA’s work on islands expanded as of early 2013, with the aim of accelerating the transition to renewable-based energy systems in other island regions. Mean-while, the organisation continues its work on Pacific Islands Countries and Territories in response to requests from its members. To this effect, IRENA is extending its work on grid stability to cover 15 countries and territories by 2015 and will also focus on other grid-related tech-nologies and enablers, including extension of previous IRENA work on storage options for island power. Ocean energy technologies provide a potential opportunity of high impact in the deployment of renewables in island regions. These technologies are still in the development and early deployment stages. IRENA is working on eval-uating the status of these technologies and their market outlook for deployment in the context of remote islands, particularly with regards to ocean thermal energy con-version (OTEC) for power generation, cooling and heat-ing. In the subsequent work programmes, IRENA will continue to work on areas of relevance and interest to countries in the region as they mobilise efforts towards achieving their various RE targets.
IRENA’s Pacific Lighthouses set of reports aims to pro-vide a better understanding of current energy condi-tions in the Pacific Islands region and to facilitate the continued assessment of challenges and opportunities for the deployment of RE in island environments. The set also constitutes an IRENA input for the Third Inter-national Conference on Small Island Developing States to be held in Samoa, 1-4 September 2014.
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands 1
In the Abu Dhabi Communiqué on accelerating renew-able energy uptake for the Pacific Islands, of 13 Janu-ary 2012, leaders from the Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PICTs) requested the International Renew-able Energy Agency (IRENA) to “…map the Renewable Energy Readiness of the Pacific Island countries and territories to ascertain the status of renewable energy opportunities and identify pathways to close gaps” and to integrate all IRENA activities in the region “…into a coherent roadmap for the Pacific Islands”. In response, IRENA has carried out a wide range of activities of spe-cific relevance and application to the PICTs as well as other Small Island Developing States (SIDS). This work has now been integrated in this IRENA support docu-ment for renewable energy roadmapping for islands aimed at the accelerated uptake of renewables in the Pacific Islands region.
A renewable energy deployment roadmap in itself is not sufficient to achieve an energy transition; yet it is not just a report. It is a living document and entails a process that requires regular monitoring and evalua-tion of progress towards a set renewable energy target, while adjusting to new circumstances. It clearly spells out the present energy situation and renewables poten-tial, and identifies gaps and needs, analyses and evalu-ates deployment strategies, puts in place action plans for achieving the target, and allocates the resources required to implement the plans. Finally, a roadmap should provide valuable benchmarks for monitoring and reviewing progress towards specified goals. Therefore, a renewable energy deployment roadmap needs proac-tive leadership at the highest level and wide stakeholder engagement, supported by clearly defined roles and responsibilities, time frames for action, a clear sense of priorities for action and allocation of resources. Further-more, availability of skilled staff is essential in order to develop and implement an RE roadmap that provides the framework for development partners (including multilateral development finance institutions and bilat-eral donors) and the private sector to provide the funds needed for investment in bankable project proposals with replicable and scalable business models.
Most PICTs have committed in policy statements to a path that will bring them ever closer to breaking the ties with fossil fuels. A number of islands have already start-ed substantial deployment of renewable energy, with some countries having put in place ambitious targets of
up to 100% renewables in the energy mix. However, in many cases, roadmaps laying out short, mid- and long-term strategies to meet such targets are not sufficiently developed, or implementation has been inadequate.
The PICTs can become lighthouses in the transition to-wards renewable energy, which is a core component of sustainable development. Renewable energy roadmaps or strategies and their associated implementation plan can provide an important, ambitious and commitment-driven mechanism for achieving the United Nations Sustainable Energy for All (SE4ALL) initiative. IRENA’s REMAP 2030 is the global framework for promoting a doubling of the share of renewables in the global energy mix by 2030 as one of three inter-related objectives of the SE4ALL initiative. The PICTs renewable energy tran-sition roadmaps will therefore contribute to the REMAP objective and vice versa. IRENA is involved in the Tonga Energy Roadmap (TERM) and, together with the Ger-man Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ) and the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC), is assisting Nauru in the development of its energy roadmap. As a result of the Renewables Readiness Assessment (RRA) conducted for Kiribati jointly by the Ministry of Public Works, the utilities of Kiribati and IRENA, five concrete actions needed to enable the development and scale-up of renewable energy in Kiribati have been identified; their successful implementation would lead to the need for a long-term roadmap through which the goal of be-ing energy independent could be realised. Other parties, such as the World Bank, also support roadmap devel-opment elsewhere in the PICTs, including the recently-completed Vanuatu National Energy Roadmap.
This document, in accordance with IRENA’s renewable energy roadmapping framework for islands, focuses on identifying the key concepts, challenges and best prac-tices needed to increase renewable energy uptake in the PICTs. The report, together with the accompanying island-specific study reports, is intended to provide PICT members of IRENA and, indeed, all stakeholders, with baseline information that could assist them in the de-velopment of their national renewable energy deploy-ment roadmaps or action plans, as well as contribute to the implementation of regional initiatives such as the Framework for Action on Energy Security in the Pacific (FAESP) and its associated Implementation Plan for En-ergy Security in the Pacific (IPESP). The data provided in the report and accompanying reports compliment
1. Introduction and context
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands2
and/or supplement those in other national and regional studies, including the SPC’s Country Energy Security Indicator Profiles1, the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) report on Pacific Perspectives on the Challenges to Energy Security and the Sustainable Use of Energy2, the Pacific Islands Renewable Energy Project (PIREP)3, and the Pacific Power Association (PPA) benchmarking reports, among others4.
In the following sections, the report outlines the case for increased renewable energy (RE) deployment in the PICTs in the context of the existing energy landscape in
1 Available at www.spc.int/edd/en/section-01/energy-overview/179-country-energy-security-indicator-profiles-2009
2 See www.unescap.org/apef/preparatory-process/scm/Pacific/documents/energy-security-final.pdf
3 www.sprep.org/Pacific-Islands-Greenhouse-Gas-Abatement-through-Renewable-Energy-Project/pirep-documents
4 www.ppa.org.fj/publication-report/
the region and policy targets (Sections 2 and 3). It then highlights RE resource potential for power generation in the region, together with their operation and mainte-nance requirements (Section 4). Section 5 presents the importance of sustainable energy systems design, mod-elling and planning as an integrated and comprehensive approach towards the transition to a renewables-based energy future in the Pacific region. Section 6 looks at renewable opportunities for the transport sector in the region. Section 7 highlights key barriers to increasing the share of renewables in the energy mix of the PICTs. Section 8 outlines key IRENA activities in the PICTs, including the country studies and key messages arising from them. The report concludes with Section 9, which summarises identified key actions needed to overcome barriers to enhanced deployment of RE in the PICTs, together with the possible roles for IRENA, working in partnership with the PICTs, member states and develop-ment partners, towards a renewables transition in the Pacific islands region.
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands 3
Pacific islands face a unique combination of geographic and economic factors that pose a particular risk to their energy security. More than 3,000 islands collectively known as the PICTs5 are mostly spread over the west of the Pacific Ocean. The islands are diverse and the distances between them are large.
2.1 Fossil-fuel dependenceThe majority of the PICTs depend almost exclusively on imported refined oil products to meet their power gen-eration and transportation energy needs with most of the islands located far from major oil refining and distribution hubs and depending on complex and lengthy fuel supply chains. Fuel delivery logistics are often further compli-cated by lack of modern port facilities in some islands, requiring the use of smaller, specialised ships. The fuel de-mand of individual islands is small. The small geographic size and economic resources of islands constrain fuel storage. Both factors reduce the purchasing power for oil. As a result, the PICTs face some of the world’s highest fuel costs and have greater exposure to price volatility and supply disruptions. Furthermore, diesel-based power generation is dominant in the region and is the most ex-pensive form of power for most situations in the region. For example, in 2010 the region’s utilities had consumer electricity tariffs that averaged between USD 0.39 and 0.44/kWh for household (200 kWh/month) and com-mercial (500 kWh/month) users6. For some islands the tariff exceeded USD 1.00/kWh. In fact actual electricity production costs are likely to be higher as many PICTs provide subsidies (whether explicit or indirect) to protect consumers from the full price of power generation.7
High energy costs, price volatility and risks to fuel sup-ply are of particular concern because most PICTs have
5 The PICTs referred to in this document are: Cook Islands, Feder-ated States of Micronesia, Republic of Fiji, Kiribati, Republic of the Marshall Islands, Republic of Nauru, Niue, Republic of Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Kingdom of Tonga, Tokelau, Tuvalu and the Republic of Vanuatu.
6 See, for example, the Pacific Power Association Benchmark-ing Report for 2011. Available at: www.ppa.org.fj/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/03-Benchmarking-Report-Dec-2011.pdf
7 Pacific Economic Monitor, Asian Development Bank, July 2010
small economies. The high cost of fuel dominates the trade deficit for the region, driving up prices of food and other essential items and thus limiting investments in education, infrastructure and other key services.
2.2 The impact of climate conditionsAs clearly demonstrated by various studies8, the PICTs are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and so face a significant threat from rising ocean levels (with some island having a maximum elevation of less than five metres above sea level), increased severity and frequency of storm activity and frequent weather disruptions. In this region unusual variability in the magnitude and timing (seasonality) of rainfall can affect hydropower output and dam design, as well as the yield of crops for biofuels. Slight temperature changes can affect the suitability of specific crops for biofuels. Mod-est changes in wind speed can significantly affect wind power output. Sea level rise can affect water tables and salinity gradients, which has consequences for energy needs related to water supply. Increased frequency and severity of cyclones could affect design considerations for wind and solar power systems. High temperatures and salinity require special attention to the durability of technology solutions. Therefore the design of RE systems for the PICTs needs to take into account the specific climate conditions of the region.
2.3 Renewable energy can be a cost competitive alternative
Successful widespread deployment of RE technologies in the Pacific would increase energy and economic se-curity by significantly reducing or even eliminating the
8 See, for example, Australian Bureau of Meteorology and CSIRO, 2011. Climate Change in the Pacific: Scientific Assessment and New Research. Volume 1: Regional Overview. Volume 2: Coun-try Reports. Available at: www.cawcr.gov.au/projects/PCCSP/ publications1.html; and also ADB’s report on Climate Risk and Adaptation in the Electric Power Sector by Peter Johnston. Avail-able at www.adb.org/publications/climate-risk-and-adaptation-electric-power-sector.
2. The rationale for renewables in the Pacific Islands region
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands4
dependence on imported oil. Several PICTs possess a variety of abundant RE resources with high technical potential that, given the high price of oil in the region, could be economically feasible and price competitive with fossil fuel-based energy supplies. Integrating high levels of RE technologies into the existing power sys-tems will require a highly skilled workforce and while this is a challenge it also opens the opportunity for creating local, high-wage jobs. High levels of RE would alter island marketplaces with new technologies and services, creating local entrepreneurship opportunities.
Notwithstanding the important and pressing drive to address the sustainable energy needs of island com-munities with tried and tested renewable energy tech-nologies, it is equally crucial to note that islands present unique challenges and opportunities for the deployment of RE in general. Islands can be lighthouses or beacons for the early commercialisation phases of RE tech-nologies through collaborative research, development and demonstration (RD&D) that leads to enhanced RE technology development and deployment suitable for island conditions. However, this has to be based on carefully chosen and targeted deployment that can lead to scale-up and replication potential in areas such as the PICTs, while also considering the technical capacity available locally for deployment, and the operation and maintenance of such systems. Furthermore, the small sizes of populations as well as power plants and grids make it easier to widely deploy entire new energy sys-tems based on renewables. Along with small scale, the isolation of island power systems allows for meaningful analysis of new technologies at varying levels of pen-etration and investment, thereby allowing for a much shorter feedback loop for corrective actions than would be likely on large, interconnected mainland power grids. In addition, the small physical scale of islands results in comparatively short driving distances, thus making electric vehicles (EV) an attractive transportation op-tion for PICTs to consider, especially if electricity costs can be substantially lowered and the batteries are not charged from fossil fuel-powered systems but from renewable sources.
2.4 Barriers to renewable energy uptake in the Pacific Islands
While RE has the potential to greatly improve the ener-gy security of the PICTs, there are significant challenges that need to be overcome. In the early stages, new and unfamiliar power generation and transportation systems based on renewable resources could be seen as difficult to design, operate and maintain in the PICTs, in com-parison to the established oil-based systems in place
today. However, the costs of renewable energy tech-nologies are decreasing globally. This could contribute to the potential for increased deployment of RE in the PICTs. A properly designed system depends on detailed knowledge of site specific RE resource availability; this is lacking or limited on many islands. Furthermore, the durability and successful operation of RE systems in island environments depend very much on the appro-priate selection of system components that are suitable for the high temperatures, salinity and climatic vari-ability found in the Pacific Island region. There are also specific stability issues to consider, with the integration of increasing shares of variable renewables into diesel generator-based grids. Specific skill sets are needed for the proper operation and maintenance of systems that address these issues and are often found to be lacking. In some cases of donor-funded projects PICTs have little input on equipment selection and project design, result-ing in a high risk of failure in operating and maintaining the installed system. As a result of these issues, as well as various management and business model limitations, many of the past RE systems deployed in the PICTs have not performed according to expectations. However, as RE systems have become increasing more common recently and the support systems have improved, the success rate of RE deployment has improved in more recent years.
In addition to technical and human capacity issues, the social, policy and economic environment on islands can present barriers to RE uptake. Land tenure in the PICTs is complex, with most land being communally owned and having complex systems of access rights. This factor, together with the small size of islands and the existence of numerous cultural sites, can pose chal-lenges to those RE systems that have significant land requirements. Therefore including all key stakeholders in the planning process and building social acceptance is essential to RE project success. Policy and regulatory frameworks on many islands have been set up for cen-tralised utilities that are usually vertically integrated and state owned. These frameworks will likely require some adjustment to allow widespread RE deployment.
Finally, while it is important to find commonalities among the PICTs and develop recommendations that are widely applicable across the region, it is critical to note that the PICTs are extremely diverse in size, ge-ography, population density, gross domestic product (GDP), resource availability, access to funding and many other key characteristics. These island specific charac-teristics greatly affect RE resource availability and RE project implementation.
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands 5
2.5 The need for a regional and national framework for renewable energy uptake
The SPC, together with the Council of Regional Organi-sations in the Pacific (CROP) agencies9, PICTs, indus-try representatives and development partners, led the development of “A Framework for Action on Energy Security in the Pacific (FAESP)10”, which was endorsed by leaders at the 41st Pacific Islands Forum in August 2010. The FAESP provides a regional framework for im-proved coordination and a whole-of-sector approach to addressing the energy security challenges in the Pacific region. It acknowledges that “…the national energy poli-cies and plans must be the principle means for achieving energy security in the Pacific.” and outlines areas for action to support the efforts of the PICTs to improve their energy security. In terms of energy production and supply FAESP identifies RE as an important part of the efforts to reduce dependence on fossil fuels in the PICTs.
In order to achieve the energy security outcomes de-fined in FAESP, a separate regional “Implementation Plan for Energy Security in the Pacific” (IPESP) was also developed, with the lead taken by the SPC in collabora-
9 CROP (Council of Regional Organisations in the Pacific) is a re-gional organisation which is mandated to improve cooperation, co-ordination, and collaboration among the various intergovernmental regional organisations in the Pacific region to work together for achieving the common goal of sustainable development.
10 Available at www.sprep.org/att/irc/ecopies/pacific_region/686.pdf
tion with the CROP, PICTs, industry representatives and development partners. The IPESP is a 5-year plan from 2010 to 2015, which aims to support the implementation of FAESP reflecting the priorities of the region. The work of the Energy Programme of the SPC is guided by, and reported under, the IPESP. The SPC’s energy security indicators (2009) for various PICTs are published un-der FAESP/IPESP11. The SPC is conducting a mid-term review of IPESP that is planned for completion by De-cember 2013. It is clear that regional solutions provide the scale that would be attractive for private sector investors to provide viable RE generation at a reduced unit cost. The Pacific islands region clearly requires strong support in terms of both engagement and im-plementation capacity to realise the IPESP projects for a sustainable energy development in the region. More recently, a number of countries have developed national energy roadmaps – such as the Tonga Energy Roadmap (TERM)12, the Cook Islands Renewable Electricity Chart13 and Tuvalu’s Enetise Tutumau. Vanuatu and Nauru are in the process of completing their roadmaps in 2013. Kiribati has carried out a RRA. Other PICTs are reviewing their energy policies and considering the development of their own roadmaps. Table 1 gives a summary of various regional energy programmes, national energy roadmaps and key documents in the PICTs.
11 www.spc.int/edd/en/document-download/finish/68-pacific-ener-gy-advisory-group-meeting/813-session1-faespipesp
12 See, for example, www.tonga-energy.to/
13 http://cook-islands.gov.ck/docs/renewableenergy/Cook%20Is-lands%20Renewable%20Energy%20Chart%20Final%20April%202012.pdf
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands6
Table 1: Existing energy roadmaps, documents and programmes in the Pacific Island Countries and Territories
Pacific Island Coun-tries and Territories
Existing National Energy Roadmap/Strategy Status Development partners
Cook Islands National Energy Policy 2003
Renewable Energy Chart 2011
Renewable Energy Chart Imple-mentation Plan 2012
ADB, NZMFAT, EIB, PIFS, SPC, UNDP.
Fiji National Energy Policy 2006 Review is in progress and expected to complete by 2013.
GIZ, SPC UNDP, ADB, EIB, GIZ, IRENA, IUCN, PIFS, REEEP, WB.
Federal States of Micronesia
Energy Policy 2010 ADB, EC, EIB, FSM, PIFS, SPC, UNDP
Kiribati Kiribati National Energy Policy 2009
RE target revised follow-ing IRENA RRA work-shop.
EC, GIZ, IRENA, PIFS, UNDP, WB.
Republic of Marshall Islands
National Energy Policy and Energy Action Plan 2009
Review to commence during second half of 2013.
ADB, AusAID, EC, IUCN, JICA, PIFS, REEEP, UNDP, WB.
Nauru Nauru Energy Policy Framework, 2009 (NEPF)
Nauru Energy Roadmap
Review in progress and expected to complete by 2013. Energy roadmap currently under develop-ment.
AusAID, EC, GIZ, ADB, IRENA, IUCN, UNDP.
Niue Niue Energy Policy and Action Plan 2005
EC, IUCN, PIFS, UNDP.
Palau Palau National Energy Policy, 2010 IUCN, EC, SPC, EIB, IRENA, JICA, REEEP, SPC, UNDP, WB .
Papua New Guinea PNG National Energy Policy 2006 ADB, EIB, NZMFAT, UNDP, WB.
Samoa Samoa Energy Sector Plan 2012-2016
ADB, AusAID, EIB, IUCN, NZMFAT, PIFS, REEEP, UNDP.
Solomon Islands National Energy Policy Framework 2007
Review in progress. ADB, AusAID, EIB, IUCN, JICA, NZM-FAT, PIFS, SPC, UNDP, WB.
Tokelau Tokelau National Energy Policy and Strategic Action Plan 2004 (NEPSAP)
Achieved approximately 100% RE in 2013.
NZMFAT, UNDP.
Tonga Tonga Energy Roadmap 2010-2020 (TERM)
Well advanced.
http://energy.gov.to/
ADB, AusAID, EC, EIB, GIZ, IRENA, IUCN, JICA, NZMFAT, PIFS, REEEP, SPC, UAE, UNDP, WB.
Tuvalu Enetise Tutumau 2012-2020
(Master Plan for Renewable Electricity and Energy Efficiency in Tuvalu)
EC, GIZ, IUCN, NZMFAT, UNDP
Vanuatu Vanuatu Energy Roadmap 2012 (VERM)
Expected to be adopted in 2013
AusAID, EIB, EU, GIZ, IUCN, JICA, NZMFAT, REEEF, UNDP, WB.
Where: ADB is Asian Development Bank; AusAID is the Australian Government Overseas Aid Program; EC is the European Commission; EIB is the European Investment Bank; EU is the European Union; FSM is the Federated States of Micronesia; GIZ is the German International Cooperation Agency Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit; IRENA is the International Renewable Energy Agency; IUCN is the International Union for Conservation of Nature; JICA is the Japan International Cooperation Agency; NZMFAT is the New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade; PIFS is the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat; REEEP is the Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership; SPC is the Secretariat of the Pacific Community; UAE is the United Arab Emirates; UNDP is the United Nations Development Programme; WB is the World Bank.
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands 7
3.1 General characteristics of Pacific islands
Figure 1 illustrates the dispersion of the Pacific Island Countries and Territories across the Pacific region.
IRENA’s efforts to increase sustainable uptake of RE for social, environmental and economic development in Pa-cific are focused on 15 PICTs. The basic characteristics of
these PICTs as listed in Table 2, were collected from the CIA World Factbook, the PPA and island utilities.
3.2 Energy use in the Pacific regionTransportation, power generation, and cooking domi-nate energy use in the Pacific. Industrial use of energy
3. Energy landscape in the Pacific Islands region
Source: Courtesy of the University of Texas Libraries, University of Texas at Austin, Texas, US.
The boundaries and names shown on this map do not imply official acceptance or endorsement by the International Renewable Energy Agency.
Figure 1: Regional map of the Pacific Islands region
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands8
Table 2: PICTs’ land area, population, GDP and electricity access
Country
Land area
(km2)
Population ’000 (2011 estimate2)
GDP per capita PPP
(USD)Electricity
Access1 Comments
Cook Islands 240 17 10,300 100%14 islands; 90% of people and 88% of land on 8 southern islands (volcanic & raised coral). Northern islands mostly small atolls. Population declining -3.2% per year.
Federated States of Micronesia
702 107 2,200 46%607 islands varying from mountainous to atolls spread over four states extending 2500 km east-west & 1000 km north-south. Population change of -0.3% per year.
Fiji 18,300 883 4,400 81%320 islands, ⅓populated. Largest two islands have 87% of land & ~ 95% of population. Population growth 0.8% per year.
Kiribati 811 101 6,200 60%
32 widely scattered atolls in three groups plus one raised coral island stretching 4200 km east-west & 2000 km north-south. Population growth of 1.3% per year, urban increasing 1.9% per year.
Marshall Islands 181 67 2,500 80%29 atolls (22 inhabited) and 5 raised coral islands (4 inhabited). No land higher than 5 m above sea level. Population growth of 2% per year; 72% of people in urban Majuro/Kwajalein.
Nauru 21 9.3 N/A 100%Single isolated equatorial island. Two plateaus with ‘topside’ peak of 71 m, typically 30 m above ‘bottom side’. Population growth of about 0.6% per year.
Niue 259 1.35,800 (’03)
100%Reputedly the world’s largest raised coral island. Reef is close to land and no lagoon. Land rises nearly vertically to perimeter height of 25-40 m. Population stable with very slow decline.
Palau 458 21 9,300 98%
200+ islands, most very small and in a compact area, only 9 are permanently inhabited; 95% of islands & 90% of population within the main reef containing Babeldaob, Koror & Peleliu is-lands. Estimated 0.4% growth rate per year.
Papua New Guinea
462,800 6,188 2,500 12%600+ islands, with 80% of population in the eastern half of the island of New Guinea. Estimated population growth of 2% per year.
Samoa 2,934 193 5,500 98%Volcanic islands of Savai’i (58% of land & 24% of population) and Upolu (38% & 76% respectively) plus 8 small islands. Popu-lation growth of 0.6% per year.
Solomon
Islands28,450 572 2,900 ~10%
Nearly 1000 islands of which 350 are inhabited. 6 main islands account for 80% of land area and bulk of population. Population growth of 2.2%, urban growth 4.2% per year.
Tokelau 12 1.4 N/A 100%Three atolls: Atafu, Fakaofo and Nukunonu. Highest land about 5 m above sea level. Population changing very little. No urban population.
Tonga 748 106 6,100 ~90%176 islands in 4 groups (Tongatapu, Ha’apai, Vava’u & Niua) with 36 inhabited islands. Population growth estimated at 0.25% per year.
Tuvalu 26 10.5 3,400 94%6 atolls with large lagoons enclosed by a reef plus 3 raised coral islands without large lagoons. Funafuti with 22% of land has about 50% of population. Estimated annual growth rate 0.7%.
Vanuatu 12,200 225 5,100 28%Over 80 islands, mostly volcanic, 65 populated. 80% of the pop-ulation is on 7 islands. Population grew by 2.6% per year from 1986-1996 but current rate is 1.3%.
Source: Updated to 2011 from National PIREP reports (2004)
Note: km2 is kilometres square; km is kilometre; and m is metre. ~ is ‘approximately’ Per-Capita GDP is from several sources and there are discrepancies between sources so figures should be considered indicative only
1 Includes rural electricity access through solar home systems2 Source: 2012 CIA fact book
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands 9
is mostly limited to mining on a few islands. More wide spread are agricultural, forestry and fish based indus-tries, almost all of which rely directly on electricity. The traditional use of biomass for cooking remains the largest component of overall energy use in rural areas throughout the PICTs though its use is slowly declining in favour of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and kerosene in the more urban areas. With the exception of some no-table contributions from hydropower in Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Samoa, energy use in the Pacific is domi-nated by imported oil. Excluding Papua New Guinea, the lack of known local oil resources and refining capacity in most PICTs means that refined oil products must be imported over large distances.
Transportation sector
In the Pacific, transportation accounts for the highest proportion of energy demand and uses mostly imported refined oil products. A lack of available, accessible, up-to-date and detailed data makes it difficult to determine the exact split of fuel usage between land, sea and air transport. However it can be generally stated that land transport is the largest sector and is dominated by a mix of diesel and gasoline passenger cars and light com-mercial vehicles. Sea and air transport play important roles for the Pacific states with a wide dispersion of populated islands. Generally sea transport is the larger of the two with varying contributions from inter-island passenger and cargo services and fishing fleets. Local air transportation is generally limit to a small number of light aircraft but can be significant on islands with developed tourist industries (e.g. the Cook Islands, Fiji and Vanuatu). It is by and large not practical to include long distance shipping or flights as part of island fuel consumption since international companies that handle their own fuel purchases generally provide these ser-vices and most refuelling takes place elsewhere.
At present cost, policy, technical and sociocultural bar-riers impede a major shift in the transportation sector from fossil fuels to RE. However, given that the transpor-tation sector dominates Pacific island oil consumption, it is essential that RE transportation options be thor-oughly examined to determine when and how they can be deployed on a large scale. Given the current barriers to increased use of renewables in the transportation sector, it is evident that increased shares of renewable energy integration in the Pacific Islands region in the near to medium-term would be achieved mainly from the power generation sector where integration of high percentages of RE has been successfully demonstrated and is likely to have the greatest near term impact, together with demand side energy management, on
reducing oil dependence and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
Power Sector
In 2010, electricity generation represented approxi-mately 25% of the Pacific Island’s oil demand. A review of the PPA 2011 Benchmarking Report revealed that commercial and residential sectors comprise the bulk of Pacific electricity demand. In 2010 these two sectors accounted for 68% of regional electricity sales. This figure is skewed by Papua New Guinea since for most PICTs the commercial and residential sectors account for an even higher percentage of electricity sales. The split between the sectors varies from island to island, but the usage for both is primarily comprised of lighting, cooking, consumer electronics, water production and supply, and refrigeration and air-conditioning. These usages also dominate the 16% of regional electricity sale to governments (mainly for air conditioning, lighting and powering of office equipment). The tropical climate in most of the Pacific limits heating demand. However, tourist resorts and other facilities often consume signifi-cant amounts of energy to heat water and for cooling. Industry constitutes only 16% of regional electricity sales and is limited to those islands with forestry, agricultural and fishery industries. Mining consumes large amounts of electricity on a few islands (mostly in Papua New Guinea), but is typically provided by private onsite generation.
The Pacific utilities are dominated by diesel generation with only Tokelau, Papua New Guinea, Fiji, Samoa and Vanuatu currently having more than 10% of electric-ity production through RE. An overview of the current characteristics of grid power system in the national utili-ties is seen in Table 3.
In 2011 electricity prices in the PICTs ranged widely from USD 0.15–1.50 /kWh, depending on the islands. The average (a combination of residential, commercial and government tariffs) was around USD 0.35 /kWh. Most of the island countries subsidise residential customers and several subsidise all electricity sales with very few even coming close to a full cost recovery for electric-ity deliveries. For utilities with a national tariff, there is considerable cross-subsidy from the urban centres to rural consumers (residential and others) on the grid. This could affect the financial viability of RE in smaller rural centres. Generally, most governments are unaware of the actual amount of the subsidy and so a clearer accounting is needed to capture and assess these subsi-dies. The actual cost of electricity delivery varies widely from place to place. Outer island electricity delivery cost often exceeds USD 1.00 per kWh and even higher for small grids.
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands10
Tabl
e 3:
Pac
ific
Isla
nds
Urb
an U
tiliti
es, t
heir
tariff
s an
d ge
nera
tion
sour
ces
(Tar
iffs
as re
port
ed to
the
PPA
for 2
013)
Coun
try
Util
ity o
rgan
isat
ion
& re
form
sM
onth
ly u
rban
tariff
(p
er k
Wh
in lo
cal c
urre
ncy*
)Pe
rcen
tage
of G
ener
atio
n fr
om
Rene
wab
les
Peak
Loa
d M
W
Die
sel
Capa
city
M
W
Die
sel
De-
rate
d
Capa
city
** M
WC
ook
Isla
nds
(Rar
oton
ga)
TAU
ser
ves
Rar
oton
ga. A
ll di
esel
but
ou
ter i
slan
ds a
re p
lann
ing
to c
hang
e to
al
l ren
ewab
les
by 2
020
.
Dom
estic
:<
60kW
h =
NZD
0.5
7 pe
r kW
h61
–30
0kW
h =
NZD
0.8
0 p
er k
Wh
> 30
0kW
h =
NZD
0.8
4 pe
r kW
hCo
mm
erci
al: N
ZD 0
.81 p
er k
Wh
plus
dem
and
and
serv
ice
adju
stm
ents
<1%
TA
U o
wne
d bu
t 7%
incl
udin
g ne
t met
erin
g an
d st
anda
lone
4.4
10.3
69.
5
Coo
k Is
land
s (O
ther
isla
nds)
12 o
uter
isla
nd s
yste
ms
run
by is
land
co
unci
ls. A
ll di
esel
but
out
er is
land
s ar
e pl
anni
ng to
cha
nge
to a
ll re
new
able
s by
20
20.
N/A
<1%
5kW
to
400
kWN
/AN
/A
Fede
rate
d St
ates
of
Mic
rone
sia
All
four
sta
te u
tiliti
es a
re g
over
nmen
t-ow
ned
and
corp
orat
ised
: CPU
C, K
UA
, PU
C &
YSP
SC.
Tariff
s va
ry d
epen
ding
on
stat
eYa
pRe
side
ntia
l:<
50 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.371
2 pe
r kW
h51
–250
kW
h =
USD
0.4
242
per k
Wh
> 25
0 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.450
7 pe
r kW
hO
uter
regi
ons
= U
SD1.0
949
per k
Wh
Com
mer
cial
: <
1 00
0 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.450
7 pe
r kW
h>
1 00
0 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.530
3 pe
r kW
hO
uter
regi
ons
= U
SD1.1
948
per k
Wh
Gov
ernm
ent:
USD
0.7
683
per k
Wh
Out
er re
gion
s =
USD
1.627
5 pe
r kW
hKo
srae
Resi
dent
ial:
< 10
0 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.428
per
kW
h10
1–1 0
00
kW
h =
USD
0.4
68 p
er k
Wh
1 00
1–10
00
0 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.478
per
kW
h10
00
1–10
0 0
00
kW
h =
USD
0.4
71 p
er k
Wh
>10
0 0
00
kW
h. =
USD
0.4
11 p
er k
Wh
Com
mer
cial
:<
100
kW
h =
USD
0.4
68 p
er k
Wh
101–
1 00
0 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.478
per
kW
h1 0
01–
10 0
00
kW
h =
USD
0.4
88 p
er k
Wh
10 0
01–
100
00
0 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.478
per
kW
h>1
00
00
0 k
Wh.
= U
SD 0
.438
per
kW
hG
over
nmen
t:<
100
kW
h =
USD
0.5
28 p
er k
Wh
101–
1 00
0 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.528
per
kW
h1 0
01–
10 0
00
kW
h =
USD
0.5
42 p
er k
Wh
10 0
01–
100
00
0 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.528
per
kW
h>1
00
00
0 k
Wh.
= U
SD 0
.488
per
kW
hIn
dust
ry:
< 10
0 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.528
per
kW
h10
1–1 0
00
kW
h =
USD
0.5
28 p
er k
Wh
1 00
1–10
00
0 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.533
per
kW
h10
00
1–10
0 0
00
kW
h =
USD
0.5
23 p
er k
Wh
>10
0 0
00
kW
h. =
USD
0.4
48 p
er k
Wh
Chuu
kRe
side
ntia
l: U
SD 0
.50
26 p
er k
Wh
Com
mer
cial
: U
SD 0
.532
6 pe
r kW
hG
over
nmen
t:
USD
0.5
526
per k
Wh
<1%
CPU
C –
4
KU
A –
1.1
PUC
– 6
.3
YSPS
C –
2.3
CPU
C –
6.4
K
UA
– 5
YS
PSC
– 6
.6
PUC
– 4
.3
N/A
Pohn
pei
The
follo
win
g ar
e fix
ed c
ost r
ates
on
top
of w
hich
the
utili
ty a
dds
a fu
el a
djus
tmen
t cos
t tha
t var
ies
with
fuel
de
liver
y. In
Aug
ust 2
013
the
char
ge w
as U
SD 0
.47.
Resi
dent
ial:
USD
0.14
per
kW
hSe
rvic
e ch
arge
USD
4.0
per
mon
thLa
rge
pow
er u
sers
: USD
0.12
per
kW
hC
harg
es U
SD 19
.0 p
er m
onth
Indu
stria
l: U
SD 0
.12 p
er k
Wh
(<10
0 0
00
kW
h pe
r m
onth
); U
SD 0
.08
per k
Wh
(>10
0 0
00
kW
h/ p
er
mon
th);
Cha
rges
USD
33.
10 p
er m
onth
Fiji
FEA
ser
ves
only
isla
nds
of V
iti L
evu,
Va
nua
Levu
& O
vala
u. In
clud
es p
rivat
e ge
nera
tion
for s
uppl
y
Dom
estic
:0
–75k
Wh
= FJ
D 0
.331
0 p
er k
Wh
Com
mer
cial
+ In
dust
rial:
Up
to 14
,999
kW
h =
FJD
0.3
990
per
kW
hO
ver 1
4,99
9 kW
h =
FJD
0.4
10 p
er k
Wh
(plu
s de
-m
and
char
ges)
67%
139.
621
1.2
(exc
ludi
ng
40 M
W
Nad
ariv
atu)
106,
624
Kiri
bati
PUB
sup
plie
s on
ly S
outh
Tar
awa
and
a sm
all p
art o
f Nor
th T
araw
a. P
WD
ope
rate
s on
Kiri
timat
i. KS
EC s
uppl
ies
by S
olar
Hom
e Sy
stem
(SH
S) o
n ot
her o
uter
isla
nds
Dom
estic
: AU
D 0
.40
per
kW
hCo
mm
erci
al: A
UD
0.5
5 pe
r kW
hIn
dust
rial:
AU
D 0
.70
per
kW
h
<1%
4.77
5.45
4.90
Mar
shal
l Isl
ands
MEC
ope
ratin
g on
Maj
uro,
Jal
uit &
Wot
je,
with
gov
ernm
ent m
eetin
g re
venu
e sh
ortf
alls
out
side
Maj
uro.
KA
JUR
ope
r-at
es o
nly
in E
beye
Dom
estic
:0
–50
0kW
h =
USD
0.4
1 per
kW
h>
500
kWh
= U
SD 0
.43
per k
Wh
Com
mer
cial
: USD
0.4
9 pe
r kW
hG
over
nmen
t: U
SD 0
.50
per
kW
h
6%8.
0 (
Maj
uro)
1.8 (
Ebey
e)
KA
JUR
– 3
.8
MEC
– 2
8K
AJU
R –
3.0
M
EC –
17
Nau
ruN
UA
sup
plie
s th
e en
tire
isla
ndD
omes
tic:
0–3
00
kW
h =A
UD
0.10
per
kW
h>
300
kW
h =
AU
D 0
.20
per
kW
h Co
mm
erci
al: A
UD
0.2
5 pe
r kW
hIn
dust
rial:
AU
D 0
.50
per
kW
h
<5%
***
3.3
86
Niu
eN
PC s
uppl
ies
the
entir
e is
land
A
ll cu
stom
ers:
0–1
00
kW
h =
NZD
0.5
0 p
er k
Wh;
10
1–30
0 k
Wh
= N
ZD 0
.60
per
kW
h>5
00
= N
ZD 0
.70
per
kW
hA
ll: +
NZD
15 p
er m
onth
3%0
.62.
11.4
Pala
uPP
UC
sup
plie
s Ko
ror a
nd B
abel
daob
on
the
mai
n gr
id. K
ayan
gel,
Pele
liu &
A
ngau
r hav
e sm
all g
rids
oper
ated
by
the
utili
ty.
Resi
dent
ial:
0–1
50 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.282
per
kW
h15
1–50
0 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.356
per
kW
h>
500
kW
h =
USD
0.4
05
per k
Wh
Com
mer
cial
/Gov
ernm
ent/
Res
t of P
alau
:=
USD
0.4
05
per k
Wh
3%15
.418
.952
Papu
a N
ew G
uine
aEl
com
cor
pora
tised
into
gov
ernm
ent
owne
d PN
G P
ower
Ltd
. (PP
L), r
espo
n-si
ble
for p
ublic
pow
er th
roug
hout
PN
G
but p
rivat
e po
wer
, mos
tly fo
r ind
ustr
y an
d m
ines
, has
mor
e ca
paci
ty th
an P
PL
Varie
s co
nsid
erab
ly b
y cu
stom
er ty
pe, u
sage
and
pa
ymen
t met
hod.
E.g
. dom
estic
cre
dit m
eter
cu
stom
ers
pay
PGK
47.
27 p
er k
Wh
for fi
rst 3
0 u
nits
an
d PG
K 8
0.3
3 pe
r kW
h fo
r bal
ance
of u
nits
use
d;
min
imum
cha
rge
of P
GK
15 p
er m
onth
.In
dust
rial c
usto
mer
s pa
y PG
K 6
0.0
1 per
kW
h an
d a
dem
and
char
ge o
f PG
K 7
3.10
per
kVA
; min
imum
de
man
d of
20
0 k
VA.
46%
92.9
292
NA
Sam
oaEP
C is
gov
ernm
ent-
owne
d &
cor
pora
-tis
ed. O
pera
tes
hydr
o pl
ants
and
min
i gr
id s
olar
sys
tem
and
die
sel p
lant
in b
oth
Upo
lu a
nd S
avai
i. EP
C a
lso
owns
and
op-
erat
es th
e m
ix o
f 33,
22
kV tr
ansm
issi
on
and
dist
ribut
ion
netw
orks
on
all i
slan
ds
in th
e Sa
moa
gro
up.
Resi
dent
ial:
0–5
0 k
Wh
= W
ST 0
.85
per k
Wh
>50
kW
h =
WST
1.0
1 per
kW
hPr
epai
d 0
–50
kW
h =
WST
0.8
4 pe
r kW
hPr
epai
d >
50 k
Wh
= W
ST 0
.99
per k
Wh
Com
mer
cial
:W
ST 1.
01 p
er k
Wh
Prep
aid
= W
ST 0
.99
per k
Wh
32%
Aft
er C
yclo
ne d
amag
ed
two
plan
ts (
Dec
20
12)
18.5
Upo
lu
2.8
Sava
i’I
43.5
Upo
lu
6.6
Sava
35 U
polu
5.8
Sava
i’i
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands 11
Coun
try
Util
ity o
rgan
isat
ion
& re
form
sM
onth
ly u
rban
tariff
(p
er k
Wh
in lo
cal c
urre
ncy*
)Pe
rcen
tage
of G
ener
atio
n fr
om
Rene
wab
les
Peak
Loa
d M
W
Die
sel
Capa
city
M
W
Die
sel
De-
rate
d
Capa
city
** M
WC
ook
Isla
nds
(Rar
oton
ga)
TAU
ser
ves
Rar
oton
ga. A
ll di
esel
but
ou
ter i
slan
ds a
re p
lann
ing
to c
hang
e to
al
l ren
ewab
les
by 2
020
.
Dom
estic
:<
60kW
h =
NZD
0.5
7 pe
r kW
h61
–30
0kW
h =
NZD
0.8
0 p
er k
Wh
> 30
0kW
h =
NZD
0.8
4 pe
r kW
hCo
mm
erci
al: N
ZD 0
.81 p
er k
Wh
plus
dem
and
and
serv
ice
adju
stm
ents
<1%
TA
U o
wne
d bu
t 7%
incl
udin
g ne
t met
erin
g an
d st
anda
lone
4.4
10.3
69.
5
Coo
k Is
land
s (O
ther
isla
nds)
12 o
uter
isla
nd s
yste
ms
run
by is
land
co
unci
ls. A
ll di
esel
but
out
er is
land
s ar
e pl
anni
ng to
cha
nge
to a
ll re
new
able
s by
20
20.
N/A
<1%
5kW
to
400
kWN
/AN
/A
Fede
rate
d St
ates
of
Mic
rone
sia
All
four
sta
te u
tiliti
es a
re g
over
nmen
t-ow
ned
and
corp
orat
ised
: CPU
C, K
UA
, PU
C &
YSP
SC.
Tariff
s va
ry d
epen
ding
on
stat
eYa
pRe
side
ntia
l:<
50 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.371
2 pe
r kW
h51
–250
kW
h =
USD
0.4
242
per k
Wh
> 25
0 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.450
7 pe
r kW
hO
uter
regi
ons
= U
SD1.0
949
per k
Wh
Com
mer
cial
: <
1 00
0 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.450
7 pe
r kW
h>
1 00
0 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.530
3 pe
r kW
hO
uter
regi
ons
= U
SD1.1
948
per k
Wh
Gov
ernm
ent:
USD
0.7
683
per k
Wh
Out
er re
gion
s =
USD
1.627
5 pe
r kW
hKo
srae
Resi
dent
ial:
< 10
0 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.428
per
kW
h10
1–1 0
00
kW
h =
USD
0.4
68 p
er k
Wh
1 00
1–10
00
0 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.478
per
kW
h10
00
1–10
0 0
00
kW
h =
USD
0.4
71 p
er k
Wh
>10
0 0
00
kW
h. =
USD
0.4
11 p
er k
Wh
Com
mer
cial
:<
100
kW
h =
USD
0.4
68 p
er k
Wh
101–
1 00
0 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.478
per
kW
h1 0
01–
10 0
00
kW
h =
USD
0.4
88 p
er k
Wh
10 0
01–
100
00
0 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.478
per
kW
h>1
00
00
0 k
Wh.
= U
SD 0
.438
per
kW
hG
over
nmen
t:<
100
kW
h =
USD
0.5
28 p
er k
Wh
101–
1 00
0 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.528
per
kW
h1 0
01–
10 0
00
kW
h =
USD
0.5
42 p
er k
Wh
10 0
01–
100
00
0 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.528
per
kW
h>1
00
00
0 k
Wh.
= U
SD 0
.488
per
kW
hIn
dust
ry:
< 10
0 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.528
per
kW
h10
1–1 0
00
kW
h =
USD
0.5
28 p
er k
Wh
1 00
1–10
00
0 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.533
per
kW
h10
00
1–10
0 0
00
kW
h =
USD
0.5
23 p
er k
Wh
>10
0 0
00
kW
h. =
USD
0.4
48 p
er k
Wh
Chuu
kRe
side
ntia
l: U
SD 0
.50
26 p
er k
Wh
Com
mer
cial
: U
SD 0
.532
6 pe
r kW
hG
over
nmen
t:
USD
0.5
526
per k
Wh
<1%
CPU
C –
4
KU
A –
1.1
PUC
– 6
.3
YSPS
C –
2.3
CPU
C –
6.4
K
UA
– 5
YS
PSC
– 6
.6
PUC
– 4
.3
N/A
Pohn
pei
The
follo
win
g ar
e fix
ed c
ost r
ates
on
top
of w
hich
the
utili
ty a
dds
a fu
el a
djus
tmen
t cos
t tha
t var
ies
with
fuel
de
liver
y. In
Aug
ust 2
013
the
char
ge w
as U
SD 0
.47.
Resi
dent
ial:
USD
0.14
per
kW
hSe
rvic
e ch
arge
USD
4.0
per
mon
thLa
rge
pow
er u
sers
: USD
0.12
per
kW
hC
harg
es U
SD 19
.0 p
er m
onth
Indu
stria
l: U
SD 0
.12 p
er k
Wh
(<10
0 0
00
kW
h pe
r m
onth
); U
SD 0
.08
per k
Wh
(>10
0 0
00
kW
h/ p
er
mon
th);
Cha
rges
USD
33.
10 p
er m
onth
Fiji
FEA
ser
ves
only
isla
nds
of V
iti L
evu,
Va
nua
Levu
& O
vala
u. In
clud
es p
rivat
e ge
nera
tion
for s
uppl
y
Dom
estic
:0
–75k
Wh
= FJ
D 0
.331
0 p
er k
Wh
Com
mer
cial
+ In
dust
rial:
Up
to 14
,999
kW
h =
FJD
0.3
990
per
kW
hO
ver 1
4,99
9 kW
h =
FJD
0.4
10 p
er k
Wh
(plu
s de
-m
and
char
ges)
67%
139.
621
1.2
(exc
ludi
ng
40 M
W
Nad
ariv
atu)
106,
624
Kiri
bati
PUB
sup
plie
s on
ly S
outh
Tar
awa
and
a sm
all p
art o
f Nor
th T
araw
a. P
WD
ope
rate
s on
Kiri
timat
i. KS
EC s
uppl
ies
by S
olar
Hom
e Sy
stem
(SH
S) o
n ot
her o
uter
isla
nds
Dom
estic
: AU
D 0
.40
per
kW
hCo
mm
erci
al: A
UD
0.5
5 pe
r kW
hIn
dust
rial:
AU
D 0
.70
per
kW
h
<1%
4.77
5.45
4.90
Mar
shal
l Isl
ands
MEC
ope
ratin
g on
Maj
uro,
Jal
uit &
Wot
je,
with
gov
ernm
ent m
eetin
g re
venu
e sh
ortf
alls
out
side
Maj
uro.
KA
JUR
ope
r-at
es o
nly
in E
beye
Dom
estic
:0
–50
0kW
h =
USD
0.4
1 per
kW
h>
500
kWh
= U
SD 0
.43
per k
Wh
Com
mer
cial
: USD
0.4
9 pe
r kW
hG
over
nmen
t: U
SD 0
.50
per
kW
h
6%8.
0 (
Maj
uro)
1.8 (
Ebey
e)
KA
JUR
– 3
.8
MEC
– 2
8K
AJU
R –
3.0
M
EC –
17
Nau
ruN
UA
sup
plie
s th
e en
tire
isla
ndD
omes
tic:
0–3
00
kW
h =A
UD
0.10
per
kW
h>
300
kW
h =
AU
D 0
.20
per
kW
h Co
mm
erci
al: A
UD
0.2
5 pe
r kW
hIn
dust
rial:
AU
D 0
.50
per
kW
h
<5%
***
3.3
86
Niu
eN
PC s
uppl
ies
the
entir
e is
land
A
ll cu
stom
ers:
0–1
00
kW
h =
NZD
0.5
0 p
er k
Wh;
10
1–30
0 k
Wh
= N
ZD 0
.60
per
kW
h>5
00
= N
ZD 0
.70
per
kW
hA
ll: +
NZD
15 p
er m
onth
3%0
.62.
11.4
Pala
uPP
UC
sup
plie
s Ko
ror a
nd B
abel
daob
on
the
mai
n gr
id. K
ayan
gel,
Pele
liu &
A
ngau
r hav
e sm
all g
rids
oper
ated
by
the
utili
ty.
Resi
dent
ial:
0–1
50 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.282
per
kW
h15
1–50
0 k
Wh
= U
SD 0
.356
per
kW
h>
500
kW
h =
USD
0.4
05
per k
Wh
Com
mer
cial
/Gov
ernm
ent/
Res
t of P
alau
:=
USD
0.4
05
per k
Wh
3%15
.418
.952
Papu
a N
ew G
uine
aEl
com
cor
pora
tised
into
gov
ernm
ent
owne
d PN
G P
ower
Ltd
. (PP
L), r
espo
n-si
ble
for p
ublic
pow
er th
roug
hout
PN
G
but p
rivat
e po
wer
, mos
tly fo
r ind
ustr
y an
d m
ines
, has
mor
e ca
paci
ty th
an P
PL
Varie
s co
nsid
erab
ly b
y cu
stom
er ty
pe, u
sage
and
pa
ymen
t met
hod.
E.g
. dom
estic
cre
dit m
eter
cu
stom
ers
pay
PGK
47.
27 p
er k
Wh
for fi
rst 3
0 u
nits
an
d PG
K 8
0.3
3 pe
r kW
h fo
r bal
ance
of u
nits
use
d;
min
imum
cha
rge
of P
GK
15 p
er m
onth
.In
dust
rial c
usto
mer
s pa
y PG
K 6
0.0
1 per
kW
h an
d a
dem
and
char
ge o
f PG
K 7
3.10
per
kVA
; min
imum
de
man
d of
20
0 k
VA.
46%
92.9
292
NA
Sam
oaEP
C is
gov
ernm
ent-
owne
d &
cor
pora
-tis
ed. O
pera
tes
hydr
o pl
ants
and
min
i gr
id s
olar
sys
tem
and
die
sel p
lant
in b
oth
Upo
lu a
nd S
avai
i. EP
C a
lso
owns
and
op-
erat
es th
e m
ix o
f 33,
22
kV tr
ansm
issi
on
and
dist
ribut
ion
netw
orks
on
all i
slan
ds
in th
e Sa
moa
gro
up.
Resi
dent
ial:
0–5
0 k
Wh
= W
ST 0
.85
per k
Wh
>50
kW
h =
WST
1.0
1 per
kW
hPr
epai
d 0
–50
kW
h =
WST
0.8
4 pe
r kW
hPr
epai
d >
50 k
Wh
= W
ST 0
.99
per k
Wh
Com
mer
cial
:W
ST 1.
01 p
er k
Wh
Prep
aid
= W
ST 0
.99
per k
Wh
32%
Aft
er C
yclo
ne d
amag
ed
two
plan
ts (
Dec
20
12)
18.5
Upo
lu
2.8
Sava
i’I
43.5
Upo
lu
6.6
Sava
35 U
polu
5.8
Sava
i’i
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands12
Coun
try
Util
ity o
rgan
isat
ion
& re
form
sM
onth
ly u
rban
tariff
(p
er k
Wh
in lo
cal c
urre
ncy*
)Pe
rcen
tage
of G
ener
atio
n fr
om
Rene
wab
les
Peak
Loa
d M
W
Die
sel
Capa
city
M
W
Die
sel
De-
rate
d
Capa
city
** M
WSo
lom
on Is
land
sSI
EA is
gov
ernm
ent o
wne
d. N
o co
rpo-
ratis
atio
n pl
ans
yet f
orm
ulat
ed. M
ain
grid
is o
n G
uada
lcan
al b
ut s
ever
al s
mal
l gr
ids
are
oper
ated
by
SEIA
in P
rovi
ncia
l C
entr
es
Resi
dent
ial:
SBD
6.18
67 p
er k
Wh
Com
mer
cial
: SB
6.6
465
per k
Wh
Indu
stria
l: SB
D 6
.753
1 per
kW
h
<1%
13.8
25.6
NA
Toke
lau
Pow
er s
epar
ate
for e
ach
of 3
isla
nds.
C
onve
rted
100
% s
olar
20
12Va
ries
by is
land
. Typ
ical
ly N
ZD 0
.50
per
kW
h. P
V
syst
em in
stal
led
in 2
012
App
roxi
mat
ely
100
%.
(prio
r to
PV s
yste
m in
stal
latio
n in
20
12:
2% F
akao
fo
<1%
Ata
fu
<1%
Nuk
unon
o )
prio
r to
PV s
yste
m
inst
alla
tion
in 2
012
:
51.2
kW F
ak
38.0
Ata
fu
36.7
Nuk
un
NA
NA
Tong
aTP
L go
vern
men
t util
ity s
erve
s To
nga-
tapu
& m
ain
isla
nds
of H
a’ap
ai, V
ava’
u &
‘E
ua. O
uter
isla
nds
all o
n so
lar e
xcep
t for
th
ree
with
sm
all d
iese
l grid
s no
w p
ro-
pose
d to
be
conv
erte
d to
sol
ar. 0
.54
MW
so
lar o
nlin
e la
ter i
n 20
13. 1
MW
sol
ar P
V
due
for c
onst
ruct
ion
in 2
014
All
cust
omer
s pa
y TO
P 0
.940
5 pe
r kW
h4%
9.5
16.8
15.0
Tuva
luTE
C is
gov
ernm
ent-
owne
d &
cor
pora
-tis
ed; s
erve
s al
l isl
ands
exc
ept f
or ti
ny
Niu
laki
ta w
hich
is h
as S
HS
only
.
Resi
dent
ial:
0–5
0 k
Wh
= A
UD
0.3
0 p
er k
Wh
51–1
00
KW
h =
AU
D 0
.39
per k
Wh
> 10
0 k
Wh
= A
UD
0.5
6 pe
r kW
hC
omm
erci
al &
Gov
ernm
ent:
AU
D 0
.56
per k
Wh
2%1
5.1
2.8
Funa
futi
Vanu
atu
UN
ELC
O is
priv
ate
sect
or m
onop
oly
unde
r gov
ernm
ent c
once
ssio
n. It
is th
e ut
ility
for t
he m
ain
isla
nd o
pera
ting
on
maj
or u
rban
isla
nds
(Efa
te, e
tc.)
and
seve
ral r
ural
isla
nds.
VU
I is
the
utili
ty fo
r the
sec
ond
urba
n ce
ntre
on
Espi
ritu
Sant
o is
land
Resi
dent
ial:
< 60
kW
h =
VU
V 18
.43
per k
Wh
61–1
20 k
Wh
= V
UV
65.
59 p
er k
Wh
> 12
0 k
Wh
= V
UV
162.
60 p
er k
Wh
Busi
ness
es:
Low
vol
tage
con
nect
ion
VU
V 4
7.15
per k
Wh;
Fix
ed
char
ge V
UV
1084
per
kVA
Hig
h Vo
lt co
nnec
tion
= V
UV
37.
94 p
er k
Wh.
Fix
ed
char
ge V
UV
1355
per
kVA
25%
11.3
Por
t Vila
23.6
Por
t Vila
NA
Util
ities
: Coo
k Is
land
s: T
AU
= T
e A
pong
a U
ira, F
eder
ated
Sta
tes
of M
icro
nesi
a: C
PUC
= C
huuk
Pub
lic U
tiliti
es C
orpo
ratio
n, K
UA
= K
osra
e U
tiliti
es A
utho
rity,
PU
C =
Poh
npei
Util
ities
Cor
pora
tion
& Y
SPSC
= Y
ap
Stat
e Pu
blic
Ser
vice
Cor
pora
tion)
; Fiji
: FEA
= F
iji E
lect
ricity
Aut
horit
y; M
arsh
alls
: MEC
= M
arsh
alls
Ene
rgy
Com
pany
; KA
JUR
= K
waj
alei
n A
toll
Join
t Util
ity R
esou
rce;
Kiri
bati:
PU
B =
Pub
lic U
tiliti
es B
oard
. Nau
ru:
NU
C =
Nau
ru U
tiliti
es C
orpo
ratio
n. N
iue:
NPC
= N
iue
Pow
er C
orpo
ratio
n, P
alau
PPU
C =
Pal
au P
ublic
Util
ities
Cor
pora
tion;
PPL
= P
apua
New
Gui
nea
Pow
er L
td. S
amoa
: EPC
= E
lect
ric P
ower
Cor
pora
tion,
So
lom
on Is
land
s SI
EA =
Sol
omon
Isla
nds
Elec
tric
ity A
utho
rity,
Ton
ga: T
PL =
Ton
ga P
ower
Ltd
. Tuv
alu:
TEC
= T
uval
u El
ectr
icity
Cor
pora
tion;
Van
uatu
: UN
ELC
O =
Uni
on E
lect
rique
de
Vanu
atu.
Not
e: M
W is
Meg
awat
tN
ote*
*: D
e-ra
ted
Cap
acity
var
ies
freq
uent
ly.
Not
e*: 0
n th
e 14
th o
f Aug
ust 2
013
, the
exc
hang
e ra
te e
quiv
alen
t for
1 U
SD w
as a
s fo
llow
s:C
ook
Isla
nds
(NZD
) =
1.244
7; F
iji (
FJD
)= 1.
870
9: F
eder
ated
Sta
tes
of M
icro
nesi
a (U
SD)
= 1:
Kiri
bati
(AU
D)
= 1.0
927:
Nau
ru (
AU
D)
= 1.0
927:
Niu
e (N
ZD)
= 1.2
447:
Pal
au (
USD
) =
1: Pa
pua
New
Gui
nea
(PG
K)
= 2.
3460
: RM
I (U
SD)
= 1:
Sam
oa (
WST
) =
2.37
53: S
olom
on Is
land
s (S
BD
) =
7.119
5: T
okel
au (
NZD
) =
1.244
7: T
onga
(TO
P) =
1.85
63: V
anua
tu (
VU
V)
= 96
.348
6.N
ote
***:
Tot
al R
E in
stal
latio
ns to
dat
e at
5%
of c
apac
ity. G
ener
atio
n fig
ures
not
yet
ava
ilabl
e.
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands 13
Table 4 presents the results of a review of the electricity generation systems of the 15 PICTs14. The total genera-tion capacity for the 15 PICTs in 2012 is approximately
14 These data were compiled using key generation statistics from the CIA World Factbook, the PPA 2011 and 2012 Benchmarking Report and data from local utilities.
712 Megawatt (MW). In 2011 approximately 78% of the power generation on these islands came from genera-tors fuelled with diesel, heavy fuel oil (HFO) or light fuel oil (LFO). The remaining 22% was primarily provided by hydropower. Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Tokelau are significant outliers in terms of both total capacity
Table 4: Electricity generation statistics in 2010/2011 (Compiled from the 2012 PPA Power Benchmarking Manual and field survey)
PICTInstalled Capacity
(MW)Peak Demand1
(MW)Annual Generation
(MWh)
Cook Islands 10.36 4.9 27,763
FSM-Chuuk 2.0 4.0 9,768
FSM-Kosrae 1.5 1.1 6,504
FSM-Pohnpei 7.6 6.9 38,920
FSM-Yap 6.6 2.3 13,000
Fiji 211.2 139.6 835,169
Kiribati 5.5 5.3 21,641
Marshall Islands-Majuro 28 8.9 75,749
Marshall Islands-Ebeye 3.6 2.0 14,183
Nauru 6.04 3.3 17,103
Niue 3.25 0.54 3,168
Palau 18.9 15.4 84,860
Papua New Guinea 2922 92.94 796,610 + 1,900,0003
Samoa 37.5 18.0 111,353
Solomon Islands 25.6 13.8 83,600
Tokelau4 0.927 0.20 34,000*
Tonga 15.3 7.7 52,609
Tuvalu 5.1 1.0 11,800
Vanuatu (UNELCO) 23.9 11.3 60,360
Vanuatu (VUI)5 4.1 1.71 3,350
Total 712 349 4,201,510
Where FSM is the Federated States of Micronesia
1: Peak demand main island nation grid only, excludes notable power systems on secondary/remote islands & private generation
2: Excludes substantial generation assets dedicated to private mining activities
3: First value: PNG public utility, second value: private mining operations
4. Based on Tokelau’s new PV-based power system. The old diesel generators are now used as back-up for the PV system (see, for example, Issue 10 of the Pacific Ener-giser (January 2013), available at www.spc.int/edd/en/section-01/energy-overview/energy/198-pacific-energiser-issue-10, and also www.itpau.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/TREP-case-study.pdf. *The annual generation is estimated from inverter-level data for May 2013.
5. From the Vanuatu Utilities Regulatory Authority’s 2011 performance of Vanuatu Utilities & Infrastructure Ltd (VUI).
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands14
and generation mix, with Tokelau having transitioned to approximately 100% renewable power generation from solar PV. Omitting Papua New Guinea and Fiji, the total generation capacity in the PICTs is roughly 175 MW and consists mostly of diesel generators. Additionally, be-cause many PICTs are composed of numerous islands, the 175 MW of capacity is divided among many smaller power plants – most of which are on the main island of each PICT. To determine the characteristics of these individual power plants IRENA reviewed the Platts 2013 World Electric Power Plants (WEPP) database. The database shows that the bulk of the region’s generation capacity consists of power plants of less than 10 MW utilising several generators with capacities ranging from around 25 kilowatt (kW) to 10 MW (Table 5). Figure 2 shows a breakdown of the year-by-year and cumulative installation of the diesel generator fleet up to 2011. The figure excludes Papua New Guinea and Fiji in order to give a better representation of the typical conditions on the smaller Pacific islands.
In the Pacific it is common for populations to be con-centrated in urban areas on main islands with a single power station supplying the community’s electricity. Widespread high voltage transmission grids are uncom-mon except in Nauru and Niue. The individual power sta-tions usually have significant overcapacity to increase security of supply, although the extent of overcapacity estimated from the Platts WEPP data can be misleading for the PICTs, as many of the power generation systems are in poor condition and significantly de-rated.
The small and isolated nature of the majority of Pacific diesel power plants is a particular concern for the in-tegration of high levels of variable RE. Large intercon-nected mainland grids usually have a wide variety of generation assets they can draw on to balance out variable RE power generation. Pacific grids, however, are typically dependent on one or two diesel power sta-tions, which are often not inter-connected and will have to augment their existing generation systems with new
Table 5: WEPP Pacific island operational diesel generator statistics (2013)
PICTsCapacity
(MW)Number of
Units
Unit Size (MW) Operational Year
Min Max Oldest Newest
Cook Islands 11.04 24 0.025 2.1 1990 2009
FS of Micronesia 35.09 36 0.027 3.2 1974 2012
Fiji 67.03 39 0.06 10.15 1953 2011
Kiribati 8.90 9 0.6 1.4 1994 2005
Marshall Islands 41.90 33 0.06 6.4 1982 2003
Nauru 4.00 5 0.8 2002 2005
Niue 1.68 4 0.421 no data
Palau 18.88 17 0.1 3.4 1997 2012
Papua New Guinea 141.34 28 0.14 15 2007 2011
Samoa 16.59 15 0.045 3.5 1979 2001
Solomon Islands 37.78 44 0.04 4.2 1971 2006
Tonga 14.44 19 0.056 1.729 1972 1998
Tokelau no data
Tuvalu 3.71 30 0.045 1 1982 2001
Vanuatu 15.46 14 0.1 4.23 1994 2010
Total 418 317
Where FS of Micronesia is the Federated States of Micronesia
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands 15
technology to compensate for variable RE from solar and wind power sources without storage.
Another key concern is the advanced age of the diesel generators in the region. The average genset in the PICTs is around 20 years old. Figure 2 shows that the last major deployment of generators occurred over ten years ago. This means that many generators in the area are approaching or have exceeded the manufacturers recommended lifespan. It should be noted that compi-lation of the WEPP database does not always include direct data verification for remote areas such as the Pacific. Therefore, some of the older generators in Table 4 may no longer be in operation. However, inquiries with the PPA identified generators that have been in continu-ous use since the early 1980s.
The aged status of the many gensets in PICTs has sig-nificant implications when considering high levels of RE penetration. Older units usually lack computer control
systems and are likely to have slower ramp rates (i.e. the rate at which the system can increase or decrease its power output) and reduced fuel efficiencies when compared to more modern diesels generators. A basic review of diesel generator function and the effects of RE integration are given in one of the supporting studies for this report, title “Pacific Lighthouses: Hybrid power systems”. This case study sheds light on the particular challenges posed by the small capacity, isolation and advanced age of the Pacific islands’ diesel fleet of elec-tricity generation systems.
Energy for cooking
The traditional use of biomass for cooking remains the largest component of overall energy use throughout the PICTs, particularly in outer islands. However, there are increasing shifts to the use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and kerosene on the main islands. The use
0
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2219
6219
6319
6419
6519
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6719
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7719
7819
7919
8019
8119
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9719
9819
9920
0020
0120
0220
0320
0420
0520
0620
0720
0820
09
Num
ber &
Cap
acity
(MW
) of I
nsta
lled
Uni
ts
Year by Year Installation of Current Diesel Fleet (Excludes Fiji & PNG)
Number (Total: 253)Capacity (Total: 208.72 MW)
Average Year of Installation: 1992 Average Age: 20 years Average Unit Capacity: 0.868 MW 64 units: 10.98 MW of Capacity not shown (no data on year of installtion)
Figure 2: Year-by-year installation of diesel fleet of power generators in the PICTs up to 2011 (excludes Fiji & PNG).
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands16
Tabl
e 6:
Ove
rvie
w o
f ren
ewab
le e
nerg
y in
stal
latio
ns, s
tudi
es a
nd re
sour
ce a
sses
smen
ts in
the
PICT
s up
to 2
012
Coun
try
Gri
d-Co
nnec
ted
Sola
rM
ini G
rid
Sola
rSo
lar H
ome
Syst
emW
ind
Bioe
nerg
yH
ydro
Geo
ther
mal
Cook
Is
land
sA
ituta
ke A
NZ
Ban
k 18
kW
p,
net m
eter
ing
on R
arot
onga
w
ith s
ever
al p
rivat
e in
stal
-la
tions
tota
l of ~
380
kW
p in
20
12.
PV m
ini-g
rid s
yste
m
for R
akah
anga
bei
ng
tend
ered
and
pla
nnin
g in
-cl
udin
g st
udie
s un
derw
ay
for c
onve
rtin
g se
vera
l ot
her o
uter
isla
nd d
iese
l gr
ids
to s
olar
.
Puka
puka
inst
alla
tions
de
stro
yed
by c
yclo
ne. S
ome
hom
es o
n ot
her i
slan
ds w
ith
priv
ate
inst
alla
tions
. Ele
c-tr
ifica
tion
to re
plac
e di
esel
on
out
er is
land
s w
ith s
olar
pl
anne
d.
Win
d re
sour
ces
mon
itorin
g an
d as
sess
men
t und
erta
ken
for R
arot
onga
, Aitu
taki
and
M
anga
ia. I
n ad
ditio
n re
sour
ce
mon
itorin
g un
dert
aken
for
a fe
w o
ther
out
er is
land
s.
Man
gaia
40
kW
tria
ls, b
ut n
o lo
nger
ope
ratio
nal.
2 M
W p
ropo
sed
for R
aro-
tong
a. S
ome
priv
ate
smal
l w
ind
on n
et-m
eter
ing
in
Rar
oton
ga.
Non
e ot
her t
han
trad
ition
al
use
for c
ooki
ng a
nd c
rop
dryi
ng.
none
none
Fede
ral
Stat
es o
f M
icro
ne-
sia
Kosr
ae: 5
1.3 k
Wp
Feas
ibili
ty s
tudy
pos
itive
for
300
kW
p on
Yap
, 270
kW
p ca
paci
ty o
ver fi
ve o
uter
is-
land
s ex
pect
ed fo
r com
mis
-si
onin
g la
te O
ctob
er 2
013
.
Pohn
pei:
180
kW
pilo
t sys
-te
m in
Pal
ikir,
fund
ed J
apan
In
tern
atio
nal C
oope
ratio
n A
genc
y
Con
vers
ion
of o
uter
isla
nd
dies
el to
mos
tly s
olar
, and
ne
w m
ini-g
rid e
lect
rifica
-tio
n by
sol
ar fo
r out
er
isla
nds
sche
dule
d fo
r 20
13-1
4, u
sing
EU
fund
ing.
All
oute
r isl
ands
of Y
ap to
be
ele
ctrifi
ed b
y SH
S in
20
12-1
3 (i
f not
pro
vide
d w
ith a
min
i-grid
) w
ith E
U
fund
ing.
Add
ition
al s
yste
ms
for C
huuk
are
pla
nned
. Few
SH
S in
Fed
eral
Sta
tes
of
Mic
rone
sia
curr
ently
op-
erat
iona
l, th
ough
ove
r 40
0
inst
alle
d ov
er th
e ye
ars.
Feas
ibili
ty s
tudy
und
erw
ay
for 1
.5 M
W fo
r Yap
grid
. N
one
othe
r tha
n tr
aditi
onal
us
e fo
r coo
king
and
cro
p dr
ying
. For
mer
ly s
ome
biof
uel i
nter
est o
n Po
hnpe
i, bu
t pla
nt p
ut o
ut o
f com
-m
issi
on b
y fir
e.
Pohn
pei
plan
ning
to
reha
bilit
ate
the
1.8 M
W N
anpi
l hy
dro
and
con-
side
ring
othe
r ru
n-of
-riv
er
deve
lopm
ent.
none
Fiji
Uni
vers
ity o
f the
Sou
th
Paci
fic 4
5 kW
110
kW
at D
enar
au,
6 kW
at L
auto
ka.
FEA
: 10
kW
p cu
rren
tly o
ut
of s
ervi
ce.
260
kW
at T
urtle
Isla
nd.
Mor
e th
an 3
00
0 S
HS
have
be
en in
stal
led
thro
ugho
ut
Fiji,
with
abo
ut 12
00
inst
al-
latio
ns a
ctiv
e on
Van
ua L
evu
and
over
100
0 m
ore
to b
e in
stal
led
in 2
013
.
10 M
W g
rid c
onne
cted
20
08.
Win
d en
ergy
sur
veys
un
derw
ay.
Fiji
Suga
r Cor
pora
tion
~11 M
W d
urin
g su
gar c
rush
-in
g se
ason
.
Trop
ik W
ood
~4 M
W.
Bio
fuel
tria
ls. B
ioga
s on
fa
rms.
Tra
ditio
nal u
ses.
Tw
o pr
ivat
e su
pplie
rs o
f 5%
mix
co
conu
t bas
ed b
iodi
esel
.
127
MW
in-
stal
led
on g
rid
with
add
ition
al
avai
labl
e fo
r th
e fu
ture
, par
-tic
ular
ly s
mal
l vi
llage
sca
le
hydr
o.
none
Kiri
bati
Kiri
timat
i AN
Z B
ank
18 k
Wp.
Sche
dule
d fo
r Kiri
timat
i Is
land
s, c
onve
rsio
n of
die
-se
l grid
. Sol
ar m
ini g
rid to
be
inst
alle
d at
Che
valie
r C
olle
ge o
n A
bem
ama
usin
g Ita
lian
fund
ing.
Sc
hool
s to
be
elec
trifi
ed
unde
r ED
F 10
.
~210
0 in
stal
led,
but
not
all
pres
ently
ope
ratio
nal.
~1,7
00
LE
D li
ghtin
g ki
ts s
ched
uled
fo
r ED
F 10
inst
alla
tion.
Res
ourc
e m
easu
rem
ents
un
derw
ay w
ith a
pre
-fea
-si
bilit
y st
udy
for K
iritim
ati
com
plet
ed.
Coc
onut
oil
for b
iofu
el
tria
ls, t
radi
tiona
l use
for
cook
ing
and
dryi
ng. F
easi
-bi
lity
stud
y co
mpl
eted
for
Kiri
mat
i isl
and.
none
none
Mar
shal
l Is
land
sH
ospi
tal 2
09
kW a
nd
57 k
W a
t the
Col
lege
of t
he
Mar
shal
l Isl
ands
. 12.
5 kW
at
Uni
vers
ity o
f the
Sou
th
Paci
fic c
entr
e.
6 Sc
hool
s to
be
elec
trifi
ed
unde
r ED
F 10
.O
ver 2
00
0 in
stal
led
and
~1,5
00
mor
e co
min
g un
der
EDF
10.
Prop
osed
but
not
com
mitt
ed
for i
nsta
llatio
n on
the
Maj
uro
reef
for C
OM
. Win
d re
sour
ce
mon
itorin
g un
derw
ay in
two
oute
r isl
ands
Coc
onut
oil
for b
iofu
el,
trad
ition
al u
se fo
r coo
king
an
d dr
ying
.
none
none
Nau
ru40
kW
at t
he N
auru
Col
lege
an
d 30
kW
p on
Gov
ernm
ent
build
ings
.
Non
e60
inst
alle
d ar
ound
the
isla
nd.
Win
d re
sour
ces
mon
itorin
g an
d as
sess
men
t und
erta
ken.
Non
e bu
t tra
ditio
nal u
se.
none
none
Niu
eG
rid c
onne
cted
52
kW w
ith
180
kW
in th
e pi
pelin
e.N
one
3 kW
at a
priv
ate
hom
e.W
ind
reso
urce
s m
onito
ring
and
asse
ssm
ents
und
erta
ken.
B
eing
con
side
red
for t
he
futu
re.
Non
e at
pre
sent
oth
er th
an
trad
ition
al u
se fo
r coo
king
an
d dr
ying
.
none
none
Pala
u53
9 kW
con
nect
ed p
ublic
an
d pr
ivat
e.So
lar b
eing
con
side
red
for o
uter
isla
nd c
onve
r-si
on fr
om d
iese
l.
ND
BP
finan
cing
off
-grid
for
purc
hase
.W
ind
reso
urce
mon
itorin
g un
derw
ay.
Non
e at
pre
sent
oth
er th
an
trad
ition
al u
se fo
r coo
king
an
d dr
ying
.
Feas
ibili
ty
stud
y in
dica
tes
som
e po
ssib
il-ity
, but
ver
y hi
gh c
ost a
nd
man
y la
nd
issu
es.
none
Papu
a N
ew
Gui
nea
none
NA
N/A
Som
e sm
all C
hine
se in
stal
-la
tions
Som
e pr
ivat
e bi
omas
s ge
nera
tion
from
sug
ar a
nd
fore
stry
pro
cess
ing
co
-gen
erat
ion
221.5
MW
pub
-lic
and
priv
ate.
Su
bsta
ntia
l re-
sour
ce re
mai
ns
unta
pped
.
52.8
MW
at
Lih
ir G
old
Min
e.
Priv
ate
gen-
erat
ion.
Sam
oaFe
asib
ility
stu
dy c
ompl
eted
fo
r 40
0 k
Wp
thro
ugh
Japa
-ne
se fi
nanc
e.
Apo
lima
Isla
nd 13
kW
p (2
00
6).
A fe
w p
rivat
e in
stal
latio
ns.
Plan
is to
com
plet
e th
e la
st
few
per
cent
of e
lect
rifica
-tio
n us
ing
SHS.
Win
d re
sour
ces
mon
itorin
g un
derw
ay fo
r Upo
lu a
nd S
a-va
ii an
d re
sour
ce a
sses
smen
t un
dert
aken
for U
polu
.
Form
erly
woo
d w
aste
ge
nera
tion
but c
lose
d.
Non
e at
pre
sent
oth
er th
an
trad
ition
al u
se fo
r coo
king
an
d dr
ying
. Sm
all s
cale
co
conu
t oil
utili
satio
n by
po
wer
util
ity.
9.71
MW
con
-ne
cted
none
Solo
mon
Is
land
sno
neN
one
~80
00
inst
alle
d w
ith ~
200
0
com
ing
unde
r PEC
(Jap
an)
fund
ing.
Win
d m
onito
ring
unde
rway
in
Kira
kira
, Bua
la, R
enne
l and
Ta
ro.
Gua
dalc
anal
Pal
m O
il Fa
cilit
y fo
r ow
n pl
ant a
nd
asso
ciat
ed h
ousi
ng u
se.
Trad
ition
al u
se fo
r coo
king
an
d dr
ying
. Coc
onut
oil
for f
uel.
15 M
W b
eing
de
velo
ped
Tina
R
iver
.
Seve
ral v
illag
e sc
ale
inst
alla
-tio
ns in
stal
led,
bu
t man
y no
t op
erat
ing.
Savo
bei
ng
expl
ored
by
Ken
tor
Ener
gy
Toke
lau
All
grid
pow
er is
from
Sol
ar
(Tot
al c
apac
ity 9
27 k
Wp)
.
All
thre
e is
land
s co
n-ve
rted
to 10
0%
sol
ar g
en-
erat
ion.
App
roxi
mat
ely
300
kW
p pe
r isl
and.
none
none
Non
e at
pre
sent
oth
er th
an
trad
ition
al u
se fo
r coo
king
an
d dr
ying
. Coc
onut
oil
for
biof
uel p
lann
ed.
none
none
Tong
a1.3
MW
in a
sin
gle
arra
y ne
xt
to th
e po
wer
pla
nt. A
noth
er
1 MW
in th
e pi
pelin
e ov
er
500
kw
pro
pose
d fo
r Va
va’u
u.
Fa’fa
Res
ort I
slan
d 20
10.
Und
er c
onsi
dera
tion
to
conv
ert o
uter
isla
nd d
iese
l sy
stem
s to
sol
ar.
Ove
r 1,0
00
inst
alle
d or
be-
ing
inst
alle
d.W
ind
asse
ssm
ent u
nder
way
w
ith a
pre
-fea
sibi
lity
stud
y co
mpl
eted
Non
e at
pre
sent
oth
er th
an
trad
ition
al u
se fo
r coo
king
an
d dr
ying
. Con
side
ratio
n of
use
of w
aste
from
fore
st
prod
ucts
mill
on
‘Eua
usi
ng
a ga
sifie
r.
none
none
Tuva
luFu
nafu
ti 40
kW
p an
d Va
itupu
42
kWp.
Vaitu
pu b
oard
ing
scho
ol
min
i-grid
pro
vide
d by
Ja
pan
in 2
00
8.
200
sys
tem
s le
ft o
ver f
rom
19
90s
proj
ects
.W
ind
mon
itorin
g an
d as
sess
-m
ent u
nder
take
n fo
r Fun
afut
i N
one
at p
rese
nt o
ther
than
tr
aditi
onal
use
for c
ooki
ng
and
dryi
ng.
none
none
Vanu
atu
~5
00
inst
alla
tions
but
man
y no
t wor
king
.3
MW
grid
-con
nect
ed o
n Ef
ate.
Sm
all b
atte
ry c
harg
ing
units
off
grid
. Win
d m
onito
r-in
g un
derw
ay in
Van
ua-L
ava,
Pe
ntec
ost,
Sant
o, M
alek
ula,
To
ngoa
and
Tan
na
Exte
nsiv
e us
e of
coc
onut
oi
l for
fuel
. Tra
ditio
nal u
ses.
1.2 M
W a
t Sa
raka
ta. O
ther
si
tes
avai
labl
e bu
t und
evel
-op
ed.
Poss
ible
4
MW
to
8 M
W d
e-ve
lopm
ent
on E
fate
so
on
Not
e: k
Wp
is k
ilow
att-
peak
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands 17
Tabl
e 6:
Ove
rvie
w o
f ren
ewab
le e
nerg
y in
stal
latio
ns, s
tudi
es a
nd re
sour
ce a
sses
smen
ts in
the
PICT
s up
to 2
012
Coun
try
Gri
d-Co
nnec
ted
Sola
rM
ini G
rid
Sola
rSo
lar H
ome
Syst
emW
ind
Bioe
nerg
yH
ydro
Geo
ther
mal
Cook
Is
land
sA
ituta
ke A
NZ
Ban
k 18
kW
p,
net m
eter
ing
on R
arot
onga
w
ith s
ever
al p
rivat
e in
stal
-la
tions
tota
l of ~
380
kW
p in
20
12.
PV m
ini-g
rid s
yste
m
for R
akah
anga
bei
ng
tend
ered
and
pla
nnin
g in
-cl
udin
g st
udie
s un
derw
ay
for c
onve
rtin
g se
vera
l ot
her o
uter
isla
nd d
iese
l gr
ids
to s
olar
.
Puka
puka
inst
alla
tions
de
stro
yed
by c
yclo
ne. S
ome
hom
es o
n ot
her i
slan
ds w
ith
priv
ate
inst
alla
tions
. Ele
c-tr
ifica
tion
to re
plac
e di
esel
on
out
er is
land
s w
ith s
olar
pl
anne
d.
Win
d re
sour
ces
mon
itorin
g an
d as
sess
men
t und
erta
ken
for R
arot
onga
, Aitu
taki
and
M
anga
ia. I
n ad
ditio
n re
sour
ce
mon
itorin
g un
dert
aken
for
a fe
w o
ther
out
er is
land
s.
Man
gaia
40
kW
tria
ls, b
ut n
o lo
nger
ope
ratio
nal.
2 M
W p
ropo
sed
for R
aro-
tong
a. S
ome
priv
ate
smal
l w
ind
on n
et-m
eter
ing
in
Rar
oton
ga.
Non
e ot
her t
han
trad
ition
al
use
for c
ooki
ng a
nd c
rop
dryi
ng.
none
none
Fede
ral
Stat
es o
f M
icro
ne-
sia
Kosr
ae: 5
1.3 k
Wp
Feas
ibili
ty s
tudy
pos
itive
for
300
kW
p on
Yap
, 270
kW
p ca
paci
ty o
ver fi
ve o
uter
is-
land
s ex
pect
ed fo
r com
mis
-si
onin
g la
te O
ctob
er 2
013
.
Pohn
pei:
180
kW
pilo
t sys
-te
m in
Pal
ikir,
fund
ed J
apan
In
tern
atio
nal C
oope
ratio
n A
genc
y
Con
vers
ion
of o
uter
isla
nd
dies
el to
mos
tly s
olar
, and
ne
w m
ini-g
rid e
lect
rifica
-tio
n by
sol
ar fo
r out
er
isla
nds
sche
dule
d fo
r 20
13-1
4, u
sing
EU
fund
ing.
All
oute
r isl
ands
of Y
ap to
be
ele
ctrifi
ed b
y SH
S in
20
12-1
3 (i
f not
pro
vide
d w
ith a
min
i-grid
) w
ith E
U
fund
ing.
Add
ition
al s
yste
ms
for C
huuk
are
pla
nned
. Few
SH
S in
Fed
eral
Sta
tes
of
Mic
rone
sia
curr
ently
op-
erat
iona
l, th
ough
ove
r 40
0
inst
alle
d ov
er th
e ye
ars.
Feas
ibili
ty s
tudy
und
erw
ay
for 1
.5 M
W fo
r Yap
grid
. N
one
othe
r tha
n tr
aditi
onal
us
e fo
r coo
king
and
cro
p dr
ying
. For
mer
ly s
ome
biof
uel i
nter
est o
n Po
hnpe
i, bu
t pla
nt p
ut o
ut o
f com
-m
issi
on b
y fir
e.
Pohn
pei
plan
ning
to
reha
bilit
ate
the
1.8 M
W N
anpi
l hy
dro
and
con-
side
ring
othe
r ru
n-of
-riv
er
deve
lopm
ent.
none
Fiji
Uni
vers
ity o
f the
Sou
th
Paci
fic 4
5 kW
110
kW
at D
enar
au,
6 kW
at L
auto
ka.
FEA
: 10
kW
p cu
rren
tly o
ut
of s
ervi
ce.
260
kW
at T
urtle
Isla
nd.
Mor
e th
an 3
00
0 S
HS
have
be
en in
stal
led
thro
ugho
ut
Fiji,
with
abo
ut 12
00
inst
al-
latio
ns a
ctiv
e on
Van
ua L
evu
and
over
100
0 m
ore
to b
e in
stal
led
in 2
013
.
10 M
W g
rid c
onne
cted
20
08.
Win
d en
ergy
sur
veys
un
derw
ay.
Fiji
Suga
r Cor
pora
tion
~11 M
W d
urin
g su
gar c
rush
-in
g se
ason
.
Trop
ik W
ood
~4 M
W.
Bio
fuel
tria
ls. B
ioga
s on
fa
rms.
Tra
ditio
nal u
ses.
Tw
o pr
ivat
e su
pplie
rs o
f 5%
mix
co
conu
t bas
ed b
iodi
esel
.
127
MW
in-
stal
led
on g
rid
with
add
ition
al
avai
labl
e fo
r th
e fu
ture
, par
-tic
ular
ly s
mal
l vi
llage
sca
le
hydr
o.
none
Kiri
bati
Kiri
timat
i AN
Z B
ank
18 k
Wp.
Sche
dule
d fo
r Kiri
timat
i Is
land
s, c
onve
rsio
n of
die
-se
l grid
. Sol
ar m
ini g
rid to
be
inst
alle
d at
Che
valie
r C
olle
ge o
n A
bem
ama
usin
g Ita
lian
fund
ing.
Sc
hool
s to
be
elec
trifi
ed
unde
r ED
F 10
.
~210
0 in
stal
led,
but
not
all
pres
ently
ope
ratio
nal.
~1,7
00
LE
D li
ghtin
g ki
ts s
ched
uled
fo
r ED
F 10
inst
alla
tion.
Res
ourc
e m
easu
rem
ents
un
derw
ay w
ith a
pre
-fea
-si
bilit
y st
udy
for K
iritim
ati
com
plet
ed.
Coc
onut
oil
for b
iofu
el
tria
ls, t
radi
tiona
l use
for
cook
ing
and
dryi
ng. F
easi
-bi
lity
stud
y co
mpl
eted
for
Kiri
mat
i isl
and.
none
none
Mar
shal
l Is
land
sH
ospi
tal 2
09
kW a
nd
57 k
W a
t the
Col
lege
of t
he
Mar
shal
l Isl
ands
. 12.
5 kW
at
Uni
vers
ity o
f the
Sou
th
Paci
fic c
entr
e.
6 Sc
hool
s to
be
elec
trifi
ed
unde
r ED
F 10
.O
ver 2
00
0 in
stal
led
and
~1,5
00
mor
e co
min
g un
der
EDF
10.
Prop
osed
but
not
com
mitt
ed
for i
nsta
llatio
n on
the
Maj
uro
reef
for C
OM
. Win
d re
sour
ce
mon
itorin
g un
derw
ay in
two
oute
r isl
ands
Coc
onut
oil
for b
iofu
el,
trad
ition
al u
se fo
r coo
king
an
d dr
ying
.
none
none
Nau
ru40
kW
at t
he N
auru
Col
lege
an
d 30
kW
p on
Gov
ernm
ent
build
ings
.
Non
e60
inst
alle
d ar
ound
the
isla
nd.
Win
d re
sour
ces
mon
itorin
g an
d as
sess
men
t und
erta
ken.
Non
e bu
t tra
ditio
nal u
se.
none
none
Niu
eG
rid c
onne
cted
52
kW w
ith
180
kW
in th
e pi
pelin
e.N
one
3 kW
at a
priv
ate
hom
e.W
ind
reso
urce
s m
onito
ring
and
asse
ssm
ents
und
erta
ken.
B
eing
con
side
red
for t
he
futu
re.
Non
e at
pre
sent
oth
er th
an
trad
ition
al u
se fo
r coo
king
an
d dr
ying
.
none
none
Pala
u53
9 kW
con
nect
ed p
ublic
an
d pr
ivat
e.So
lar b
eing
con
side
red
for o
uter
isla
nd c
onve
r-si
on fr
om d
iese
l.
ND
BP
finan
cing
off
-grid
for
purc
hase
.W
ind
reso
urce
mon
itorin
g un
derw
ay.
Non
e at
pre
sent
oth
er th
an
trad
ition
al u
se fo
r coo
king
an
d dr
ying
.
Feas
ibili
ty
stud
y in
dica
tes
som
e po
ssib
il-ity
, but
ver
y hi
gh c
ost a
nd
man
y la
nd
issu
es.
none
Papu
a N
ew
Gui
nea
none
NA
N/A
Som
e sm
all C
hine
se in
stal
-la
tions
Som
e pr
ivat
e bi
omas
s ge
nera
tion
from
sug
ar a
nd
fore
stry
pro
cess
ing
co
-gen
erat
ion
221.5
MW
pub
-lic
and
priv
ate.
Su
bsta
ntia
l re-
sour
ce re
mai
ns
unta
pped
.
52.8
MW
at
Lih
ir G
old
Min
e.
Priv
ate
gen-
erat
ion.
Sam
oaFe
asib
ility
stu
dy c
ompl
eted
fo
r 40
0 k
Wp
thro
ugh
Japa
-ne
se fi
nanc
e.
Apo
lima
Isla
nd 13
kW
p (2
00
6).
A fe
w p
rivat
e in
stal
latio
ns.
Plan
is to
com
plet
e th
e la
st
few
per
cent
of e
lect
rifica
-tio
n us
ing
SHS.
Win
d re
sour
ces
mon
itorin
g un
derw
ay fo
r Upo
lu a
nd S
a-va
ii an
d re
sour
ce a
sses
smen
t un
dert
aken
for U
polu
.
Form
erly
woo
d w
aste
ge
nera
tion
but c
lose
d.
Non
e at
pre
sent
oth
er th
an
trad
ition
al u
se fo
r coo
king
an
d dr
ying
. Sm
all s
cale
co
conu
t oil
utili
satio
n by
po
wer
util
ity.
9.71
MW
con
-ne
cted
none
Solo
mon
Is
land
sno
neN
one
~80
00
inst
alle
d w
ith ~
200
0
com
ing
unde
r PEC
(Jap
an)
fund
ing.
Win
d m
onito
ring
unde
rway
in
Kira
kira
, Bua
la, R
enne
l and
Ta
ro.
Gua
dalc
anal
Pal
m O
il Fa
cilit
y fo
r ow
n pl
ant a
nd
asso
ciat
ed h
ousi
ng u
se.
Trad
ition
al u
se fo
r coo
king
an
d dr
ying
. Coc
onut
oil
for f
uel.
15 M
W b
eing
de
velo
ped
Tina
R
iver
.
Seve
ral v
illag
e sc
ale
inst
alla
-tio
ns in
stal
led,
bu
t man
y no
t op
erat
ing.
Savo
bei
ng
expl
ored
by
Ken
tor
Ener
gy
Toke
lau
All
grid
pow
er is
from
Sol
ar
(Tot
al c
apac
ity 9
27 k
Wp)
.
All
thre
e is
land
s co
n-ve
rted
to 10
0%
sol
ar g
en-
erat
ion.
App
roxi
mat
ely
300
kW
p pe
r isl
and.
none
none
Non
e at
pre
sent
oth
er th
an
trad
ition
al u
se fo
r coo
king
an
d dr
ying
. Coc
onut
oil
for
biof
uel p
lann
ed.
none
none
Tong
a1.3
MW
in a
sin
gle
arra
y ne
xt
to th
e po
wer
pla
nt. A
noth
er
1 MW
in th
e pi
pelin
e ov
er
500
kw
pro
pose
d fo
r Va
va’u
u.
Fa’fa
Res
ort I
slan
d 20
10.
Und
er c
onsi
dera
tion
to
conv
ert o
uter
isla
nd d
iese
l sy
stem
s to
sol
ar.
Ove
r 1,0
00
inst
alle
d or
be-
ing
inst
alle
d.W
ind
asse
ssm
ent u
nder
way
w
ith a
pre
-fea
sibi
lity
stud
y co
mpl
eted
Non
e at
pre
sent
oth
er th
an
trad
ition
al u
se fo
r coo
king
an
d dr
ying
. Con
side
ratio
n of
use
of w
aste
from
fore
st
prod
ucts
mill
on
‘Eua
usi
ng
a ga
sifie
r.
none
none
Tuva
luFu
nafu
ti 40
kW
p an
d Va
itupu
42
kWp.
Vaitu
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Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands18
of biogas for cooking has had varied experiences on a number of islands.
3.3 Use of renewable energyHydropower provides a major contribution to electricity generation in Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Samoa. Pres-ently there is generally limited use of biomass to offset fossil fuel consumption for power generation on islands with forestry and agricultural processing facilities where there is potential for use of biomass residues as feed-stock for energy generation. PV systems, used primarily for rural electrification, are spread across the region.
There are also a number of medium to large scale grid-connected PV installations serving urban areas. Utility scale wind farms are operational in Fiji and Vanuatu. However, the vast bulk of power generation capacity is based on internal combustion engine generators utilis-ing imported diesel, HFO and LFO. Table 6 summarises experiences with various renewable energy resources in the PICTs.
3.4 Energy policy frameworksSince the fuel price shocks of 2008 and the economic difficulties that were exacerbated as a result of it, gov-
Table 7: Renewable power goals of the Pacific Island Countries and Territories
Countries, Territories & Associated States
Renewable Electricity Generation
Renewable Electricity Targets (*Primary Energy)
Approximate % of Total % of Total Year
Cook Islands <1%50% 2015
100% 2020
Fiji 67% 90% 2015
Federal States of Micronesia <1% 30%* 2020
Kiribati <1%Official targets in the process of being approved
by the Cabinet
Republic of Marshall Islands 6% 20% 2020
Nauru <5% 50%* 2015
Niue 3% 100% 2020
Palau 3% 20%* 2020
Papua New Guinea 46% No target set to date
Samoa 32% + 10 %* 2016
Solomon Islands <1% 50%1 2015
Tokelau 95% 100% 2012
Tonga 4% 50% 2020
Tuvalu 2% 100% 2020
Vanuatu 25% 40%2 2015
65%2 2020
Source: Mostly from various national renewable energy policy documents
1: Unofficial goal
2: January 2013 draft National Energy Roadmap goals, mostly from geothermal
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands 19
ernments and utilities have placed a higher priority on increasing the use of renewable energy to generate electricity in urban areas. Almost all the PICTs have established policies and goals to increase their use of renewable energy to generate power and to reduce fuel imports. Table 7 summarises RE generation targets promulgated by the various PICTs.
The various renewable goals represent a clear political commitment to RE power generation in the region. To understand how widespread RE deployment can be achieved in the Pacific it is critical to review the potential of Pacific RE resources and determine which resources can play a major role in island power generation.
With regard to a regional energy framework, SPC, to-gether with CROP agencies, PICTs, industry representa-tives and development partners, led the development of FAESP (that was approved by the region’s leaders in 2011) aimed at achieving energy security in the Pacific islands region through a “whole of sector” and “many partners, one team” approach that pools together ef-forts from the PICTS and international and regional stakeholders into a collaborative effort. The framework identifies seven themes for action to achieve energy security in the region, namely:
● Leadership, governance, coordination and part-nerships
● Capacity development, planning, policy and reg-ulatory frameworks
● Energy production and supply (including renew-able energy)
● Energy conversion
● End-use energy consumption
● Energy data and information; and
● Financing, monitoring and evaluation.
Following the FAESP, the IPESP was developed and adopted by Pacific Energy Ministers as a 5-year regional implementation plans for the period 2011 – 2015 to real-ise the goals of FAESP. The implementation plans out-line regional activities, impacts indicators, timeframe, indicative costs and lead implementing partners for each of the seven themes defined in the FAESP. Energy Security Indicators under the broad heading of Energy Access, Energy Affordability, Energy Efficiency/Produc-tivity and Environment Quality were adopted by Pacific Energy Ministers to be used monitoring the impacts of the FAESP. SPC has published the 2009 energy security indicators as the baselines for the FAESP and its IPESP. Increased deployment of RE in the region is highlighted and the key priorities for actions include resource as-sessment, investment in RE, capacity development and higher percentage of RE in the energy mix.
An IRENA study on “Policy challenges for renewa-ble energy deployment in Pacific island countries and territories”15 assessed the policy design and implemen-tation for the successful deployment of RE in the region. It encourages policy makers in the PICTs to support the adoption of policy and regulatory frameworks to establish enabling environments to attract investments RE deployment.
15 The report is available on IRENA website: www.irena.org/ Publica-tions
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands20
Generally, solar energy is an economic resource every-where in the Pacific. Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu are the richest in geothermal, bio-mass and hydro resources. Wind resources are widely distributed, but tend to increase with distance away from the equator.
While there is abundant technical and economically viable renewable resource potential in the Pacific, re-newables still only contribute about 10% of the average base load electricity generated, with the great majority of that share coming from hydropower in Fiji and Papua New Guinea. Traditional biomass use for cooking – al-though slowly declining in favour of LPG and kerosene – still accounts for the largest share of overall energy use in rural areas throughout the Pacific. Although biofuel opportunities are greatest in Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu, almost all the PICTs have the technical potential to develop coconut oil for biofuel because much of the land, even on atolls and raised coral islands, is covered with coconut trees. However, this may not be economically viable in all cases.
Biomass, geothermal and hydro energy are suitable for base-load generation and can directly offset existing diesel generators. Solar energy and wind energy are also very important resources for reducing the amount of fuel used for power generation, but these resources are variable, with power output varying according to weather conditions. Therefore, in order to maintain power quality on the grid, integration of high shares of these resources typically requires spinning reserves or advanced controls and energy storage that can instantly pick up the load in case of clouds or calm winds.
4.1 Abundant technical and economic renewable energy resource potentials
Solar powerThus far, solar energy has been the most commonly used RE resource because it is available and cost-effective virtually everywhere in the region. A solar PV system, if correctly designed, requires minimal mainte-
nance. All the islands have an excellent solar resource, although it can vary significantly from one island to another, and even among different parts of a relatively small island, because of the cloud cover. IRENA is lead-ing the development of a Global Atlas for Solar and Wind Energy, which aims to assist planners by identify-ing the resource potentials of these resources, especially in areas where existing field data are limited. The tool will support decision-making for RE deployment at global, regional and national levels.
Wind powerThe number of islands with reliable data and assess-ment for an economic wind resource is limited. A few installations are operational e.g. in Fiji, Vanuatu, New Caledonia and French Polynesia. However, the use of wind turbines by Pacific Island utilities has been limited as a result of the following constraints:
● Island states need to understand the local wind regime sufficiently to have the confidence in the economic soundness of a wind energy installa-tion. Wind energy is site-specific, and the only way to be sure of the resource is to determine where suitable sites probably are and then put wind-measuring equipment on towers at those sites.
● Manufacturers of utility grade turbines have in-creasingly focused on larger and larger turbines for the world market. Consequently, there are few production models within the 100 kW to 300 kW range, which is the most appropriate for these islands, currently being manufactured.
● Tropical storms with winds in excess of 200 km/hour occur on most islands in the Pacific, which requires storm-resistant wind turbines.
● At the other extreme, drops in wind level neces-sitate some type of spinning reserve to pick up the load.
● In many PICTs, wind is highly seasonal. ● The presence of El Niño Southern Oscillation
adds complications. El Niño episodes – involving sustained warming of the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean decrease the strength of the Pacific trade winds, change the wind direc-tion in some areas and affect the formation, strength and paths of cyclones.
4. Renewable energy resource potential in the Pacific Islands region
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands 21
● Atoll islands have very little land, and conflicts over land ownership in most PICTs often make it very time consuming to negotiate access to land for solar and wind farms.
● The isolation of many islands, and their limited port and road infrastructure, constrain the sizes and types of wind turbines that can be imported and transported to site for installation. Available cranes tend to be small and the infrastructure network for logistical delivery of components on site is limited
Hydropower
Economically feasible hydro generation can be devel-oped on mountainous islands that have high rainfall and large enough areas for rainfall collection to generate the required volume and consistency of flow.
Fiji and Papua New Guinea have sufficient land area to support large hydro installations. Papua New Guinea has a huge potential for large hydropower, with a number of studies ongoing for large hydropower development, particularly from the Paruri River. The proposed 1.8 GW project on this river, if developed, would result in a high export of electricity from Papua New Guinea to Australia16. The Solomon Islands and Vanuatu may be large in total land area, but their individual islands are mostly not large, so for those islands hydro develop-ment is necessarily limited to smaller-scale installations useful mainly for community electrification in rural areas. Samoa, with a hydropower installed capacity of approximately 12 MW, has very good potential for small hydropower.
Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu have many possibilities for developing small hydropow-er stations with small impoundments that could serve as pumped storage for solar. In this type of installation, a solar power generator could be connected to pump the water from the outfall of the hydro plant back into the reservoir, making it available for use later. Cook Islands also has potential for such pumped storage hydropower. This is of particular interest for rural mini-grids where the peak load is in the evening, several hours after the solar PV system has ceased to generate. There is obvi-ously a loss of available energy in this approach because of the conversion of electricity to pump the water and then again in the conversion of water flow to electricity in the hydropower generation phase.
16 See, for example, www.originenergy.com.au/files/FactSheet PNGRenewableEnergyProject.pdf
Coconut oil biofuelMost of the PICTs have some potential for producing co-conut oil biofuel. Coconuts grow well in the region and are a traditional source of food, fibre and fuel. Further, the land under the coconut trees is not heavily shaded and can be successfully used for other crops. There are many economic advantages to coconut oil as, at least, a partial replacement for imported diesel fuel. The most obvious benefit is that the money spent on coconut oil supports local industry, creating local employment and reducing foreign exchange expenditures on energy. Other advantages include less environmental damage from fuel spills, lower levels of air pollution, local control over pricing and the existing familiarity with the har-vesting and processing of coconuts. Using a plant indig-enous to the region ensures resistance to adverse local conditions such as soil salinity and periodic droughts.
Pure coconut oil has been found to work well as a re-placement for diesel fuel with some types of engines and not so well with others. Experiments in a number of island countries indicate that adding up to about 15% of properly filtered coconut oil to diesel fuel has no obvi-ous detrimental effect on the larger diesel engines used for ships and power generation. Fiji now allows blend-ing to 5% coconut oil with diesel fuel to be sold without restriction, as long as the customer is informed that it is a blend of coconut and diesel oils. Customers will need time to gain confidence in diesel-coconut oil blends, es-pecially in view of earlier trials that resulted in clogged filters and in some cases possible engine damage.
There are, however, numerous problems that must be overcome before coconut oil production can be assured for local fuel supply. The main issue is to ensure the reli-ability of obtaining sufficient coconuts for oil produc-tion. In many island countries, a high percentage of trees have become aged with lowered productivity. In those cases, rehabilitation may take ten years or more.
Other biofuelsPalm oil and sweet sorghum are possible options for biofuel on a few larger islands, although it needs more processing than coconut oil to make it acceptable for unmodified engines. Other oil-producing crops have been considered, including jatropha, but there have been no trials in the region to date.
In a few islands such as in Fiji, sugar cane is a poten-tial feed stock for ethanol17 – which is widely blended
17 The Fiji Sugar Corporation is awaiting recommendations from Bra-zil on its initial feasibility study for ethanol production in the coun-try (www.fiji.gov.fj/Media-Center/Press-Releases/FIJI%E2%80% 99S-ETHANOL-PRODUCTION-AWAITS-RECOMMENDATIONS.aspx)
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands22
around the world with gasoline for vehicle transport. In Fiji and Papua New Guinea, where the facilities for growing, transporting and processing cane are already in place, the investment needed to switch to ethanol production would be much less than starting with a new feedstock. However, as with all forms of bioenergy, the nexus between food, energy, water and land use must always be properly evaluated and addressed before us-ing the resource.
BiogasBiogas provides opportunities for simple and effective household-level energy solutions for a number of PICTs, with many years of mixed experiences with the use of biogas in the region. Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Palau, Samoa, Tuvalu and the Federated States of Micronesia have modest potential and opportunities for the pro-duction of biogas from animal wastes as a renewable energy resource.
BiomassAll the mountainous islands in the Pacific have dense vegetation in their natural state. For renewable en-ergy, the total amount of biomass on an island is not as critical as the amount that (a) can be removed annually without environmental damage; and (b) is accessible enough for economical energy production.
The biomass resource most suitable for energy is waste from the agricultural and forestry industries, primarily sugar, palm oil and wood products. In Fiji, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, these industries have facilities for generating electricity from their waste. The energy produced is used to power the industrial facility and any surplus is sold for distribution through the local grid. The forest products processing facility in Tonga also is expected to be capable of producing electricity from its waste and its use for generation through bio-mass gasification is planned.
Low lying atoll and raised coral islands have less-dense, slower-growing vegetation, mostly limited to a few spe-cies of trees resistant to salt content in the ground water (e.g. coconut, breadfruit, causarina and pandanus). For these islands, biofuel from coconut oil may be useful to support base load generation, but the capacity for en-ergy production through biomass combustion or gasifi-cation is limited. There is enough biomass for traditional uses, including cooking and drying of copra or other produce, but not the large amounts needed for electric-ity production. However, if coconut oil production for biofuel is engaged on a large scale, sufficient biomass waste in the form of coconut shells and husks may be-come cost effective for generating electricity and heat.
GeothermalA useable geothermal resource is generally available for islands located in the area of the ocean where the tectonic plates overlap. For the PICTs in this report, this is an area lying generally between Vanuatu and Tonga in the south and running north, and somewhat to the west. So far, only Papua New Guinea has actually tapped this resource with a privately owned 50 MW plant at the Lihir gold mine. The Vanuatu Government recently granted an exploration license to a private company for geothermal energy on the country’s main island, Efate, with plans for new grid construction to increase rural electricity access. There are several companies currently studying geothermal potential in Fiji but the high cost of drilling is impeding progress.
Ocean energyOcean energy can be derived from tidal action, waves, algae, salinity gradients and temperature differentials between surface and deep water bodies of the ocean. Technologies for this type of energy are still in the early research, development and demonstration stages but there are ongoing developments in these technologies in various parts of the world, notably in Australia, Can-ada, China, the EU (Denmark, France, Ireland, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and the UK), Japan, Korea and the USA. Islands are surrounded by an endless supply of ocean energy in different forms, but it has yet to be proven that this energy can be tapped in a cost-effec-tive manner to produce electricity for island grids. The state of Kosrae in the Federated States of Micronesia is in the early stages of developing a 1.5 MW wave power system. If the installation proves successful, it could represent the start of a major expansion in renewable energy generation for many small island countries.
Tidal flows into and out of atoll lagoons are sometimes through narrow reef openings and may also offer mod-est power generation potential. However, good sites for tidal energy in the PICTs are rare, and for a site to be cost effective it needs to be near a load centre, which further limits the opportunities for the deployment of this technology in the region. Tidal energy may be cost effective in a few locations where there are large tidal flows passing through a narrow channel. A site in Vava’u in Tonga has considerable potential and, if developed, possibly could generate much of the electricity for the island. A proposal for a feasibility study that will include collection of necessary data and an economic analysis for the Tonga site has been prepared.
The surface water layers of oceans absorb and store a huge amount of energy in the form of heat, thus creat-ing a temperature difference between the surface and deep layers. Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) makes use of this thermal differential to provide energy
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands 23
for power generation, cooling and/or heating. For power generation the warm surface water is used to vaporise a low boiling point fluid to provide the vapour needed to drive a turbine. The cold water from the deeper lay-ers is used to condense the vapour back into a fluid. OTEC technology is unlikely to be part of mainstream generation in the PICTs for many years because of the lack of technology maturity and the high lifecycle cost expected of OTEC installations. However, the favourable factors for OTEC in the Marshal Islands (such as strong thermal stratification and the short distance from the shore to the deep ocean) have resulted in a proposal by the Organisation for the Promotion of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion and GEC Co Ltd of Japan to launch a commercial OTEC plant at Kwajalein Atoll18. Other developments of interest in OTEC include the proposed 10 MW power plant off the southern coast of China and a number of projects in French Polynesia.
The environmental impacts of ocean energy technol-ogy are not yet well understood, particularly for island environments such as the PICTs, with very little moni-toring and research to date. Such research is needed,
18 See, for example, www.marshallislandsjournal.com/Archive%203-9-12-page.html; www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=66710
considering the sensitivity and value of Pacific marine biodiversity.
4.2 Renewable energy costs and maintenance requirements
Throughout the Pacific the main rationale for using RE is to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and thereby protect the island economies from the volatility of fossil fuel prices and from the spectre of continually increas-ing fuel costs. The ultimate goal is to eliminate the use of imported fuels altogether, and a few countries, such as Tokelau, Cook Islands, Niue and Tuvalu, have set the goal to provide all their energy needs from renewable sources. However, there are many challenges, including costs and maintenance issues that lie between setting goals and achieving them.
The costs of RE options vary depending on, among others, resource availability, output capacity and tech-nological maturity. Figure 3 shows the typical range of the levelised cost of electricity from renewable sources
0
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Diesel generation
Figure 3 – Levelised cost of electricity from renewable power generation for Pacific islands (Source IRENA 2013)
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands24
(in USD/kWh) in the Pacific Islands region, with costs in some cases falling below typical island electricity prices.
The costs of hydro and geothermal installations vary widely with local conditions and ease of access to the grid. Hydropower costs also vary depending on the size and type of installation and size of impoundment, if any. In general, hydropower installations in the PICTs, although tending to cost more than similar projects in developed and larger developing countries, have proven economically attractive compared to diesel-based gen-eration.
Information on biomass combustion and gasification costs is limited for the Pacific because they are only found in private, industrial settings with no up-to-date
cost information available. Table 8 summarises the es-timated investment costs and technical staff training requirements for solar and wind technologies.
Solar powerFor most Pacific Island utilities over the next decade, an increase in solar input to the grid is likely to have the highest priority since it can be installed easily almost anywhere where there is sunshine, has low maintenance requirements, is cost effective for a wide range of sizes and is socially acceptable in rural and remote communi-ties. In addition, the output from solar PV matches the load curve for most urban grids. Once about 15% of the total energy comes from solar, however, it will be in-
Table 8: Summary of estimated costs (2012) and technical staff training requirements for solar PV and wind power in the Pacific
Technology Cost estimateRelative complexity Training needs
Off-grid solar (DC only) USD 7 – 10 per Wp
(includes battery)
Low Periodically repeated short-term training of village techni-cians has been found to be adequate.
Off-grid AC delivery for schools, health centres, government offices
USD 8 – 15 per Wp (includes battery)
Medium Medium-term training that is repeated periodically. Must understand AC and DC compo-nents and more safety prob-lems. Utility-based is best.
PV mini-grid systems for village electrification (with or without diesel back up)
USD 7 – 15 per Wp (includes battery).
For recent Tokelau 930 kWp PV system the cost estimate, including batteries, is approxi-mated USD 7 per Wp.
Medium if prop-erly designed, but can be complex.
Medium-term training that is repeated periodically if there are proper island designs. Long-term training will be needed for overly complex designs. Utility-based is best.
Grid-connected solar <100 kWp
USD 3 – 10 per Wp depending on mounting
Low Periodically repeated short-term training adequate.
Grid-connected solar >100 kWp
USD 3 – 6 per Wp Medium Periodically repeated medium-term training. Utility-based maintenance.
<1 kWp wind systems for battery charging
USD 4,000 – 10,000 per kW rating depending on design (includes battery).
Low Periodically repeated short-term training adequate.
Grid-connected wind USD 2,000 – 3000 per kWp of capacity
High Longer-term, regularly repeat-ed training required. Utility-based maintenance or external contractor.
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands 25
creasingly difficult to proceed further with solar without major storage investments, and so the development of wind and biofuel will look increasingly attractive.
CostSolar panel prices have dramatically fallen within the last three years due to the massive scale-up of so-lar manufacturing, productivity gains through more efficient manufacturing processes and over capacity requiring a reduction in manufacturer profit margins. Thus, it should be possible to have grid-connected solar installations that cost under USD 3 per installed peak watt (Wp) in 2013- down from about USD 6 per Wp in 2009- even after including the relatively high costs of shipping and installation.
Some battery types, such as lead-acid, are a mature technology and so the opportunity for any significant cost reductions in their contribution to the balance of system cost is very limited for off-grid solar PV instal-lations. They have shorter life-spans when compared with the more expensive newer long life types of stor-age, which are expected to fall in price significantly over the next few years. It is therefore logical to consider the newer types of batteries in the specification and design of new systems as they could offer better opportunities for cost reductions in balance-of-system costs over the longer term. However, this choice has to be balanced against other constraints (such as limited experience and special charging requirements) for the newer tech-nologies.
On very remote islands, the cost of power that comes from batteries charged by solar PV modules is compa-rable to the cost of power from small diesel generators; therefore, replacing those diesel generators with solar PV systems often makes economic sense. Land avail-ability is another issue for multi-megawatt solar arrays on islands. Early grid-connected solar PV in the PICTs relied mostly on government-owned land, the roofs of government buildings and/or parking lots.
The larger island utilities currently have no plans for completely replacing their multi-megawatt diesel en-gines with either solar PV and/or wind power. They can, however, strive to increase the amount and share of solar and wind energy that can be accepted by the grid through smaller storage banks that do not carry the load, but instead manage the power flows from the solar or wind systems so that they vary more slowly.
MaintenanceThe Pacific islands environment presents special main-tenance issues:
● Except for the interior of the larger islands, there is the problem of corrosion by airborne salt, and during high winds, salt spray is an issue. The moisture, salt and fine coral dust that is present in the atoll islands contribute to corrosion and can result in short circuits on electronic boards in devices not designed for the climate.
● Equipment exposed to the elements must be capable of withstanding the high winds and tur-bulent gusts associated with tropical cyclones/typhoons. Especially at risk are wind turbines and ground-mounted solar panels.
● Sealed batteries need special attention because high operating temperatures (i.e. 35°C and above) can substantially shorten their life. Open-cell batteries are generally less sensitive to high ambient temperatures than sealed batteries.
Thus far, utilities and a few private contractors have generally done a good job of operating and maintaining the grid-connected installations. When energy storage starts to be required to add more solar capacity, the systems will become more complex and technicians will likely need additional training.
In order for stand-alone solar installations to be sus-tained on the outer islands, a competent institution must operate and maintain the solar electrical systems. Where the power utility has operated and maintained these installations, the results have generally been good. Where the community or facility owners (e.g. the local Department of Education or Department of Health) have been responsible, the quality of maintenance has not been very good.
In addition, because of the cost of access, local, on-site technicians must operate and maintain off-grid solar. A train-the-trainer approach – where bi-lingual trainers, taught typically in English, train local technicians in the local language – has worked well. The most successful approach has been for the expert trainers to conduct training programmes in the country’s capital, using the same type of equipment that is to be installed on the outer islands and which must be maintained by the vil-lage technicians.
The Pacific projects that have survived well were all de-signed around the “solar utility” concept where owner-ship of the solar installations remains with the operating institution, which employs and trains all the technicians responsible for maintenance, charging users monthly fee that is sufficient to pay the cost of battery replace-ment and preventive maintenance. Though there are problems with this model – notably with fee collections and with supervision of the outer island technicians – the projects under that type of structure have worked much better than any other approach thus far tried in the islands.
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands26
Regarding maintenance of outer island systems, obser-vation on the ground shows that:
● Maintenance by users is unreliable and so should be carried out by specially trained personnel and systems should be designed not to need more than a monthly visit by local technicians.
● Community-managed systems have not been very successful at collecting tariffs and schedul-ing appropriate battery maintenance and re-placement. Therefore designs should include ex-cess panel capacity to extend battery life.
● Components used in remote islands need to be able to survive the difficult island environment and be of the highest possible quality in order to attain an acceptably low life-cycle cost.
● Technicians must be well trained for the specific installations to be maintained.
Design and installationChallenges in the design and installation of solar PV power in the Pacific include the following:
● Difficulty landing the large batteries needed for mini-grid installations on remote islands. Al-though landing materials on remote islands with-out a wharf is always difficult, it is particularly difficult to land the relatively fragile lead-acid batteries (which can be nearly 200 kilogramme (kg) for each 2 Volt cell) for village-scale mini-grids. It is therefore important to choose lighter cells that could be transported dry. This makes the case for using lighter weight and longer last-ing battery types for projects in such environ-ments.
● Land issues. Large solar arrays require assured access to large areas of land for at least 30 years. Preferably, the land should be near major loads or the power house. Such land is hard to find on many PICTs. Roof-mounted solar or solar sources built to provide shade over public parking lots has become a common way to get around that problem. The main reason for avoiding private land where possible is that in most PICTs there are often disputes over ownership, as well as ac-cess rights, to large pieces of land, and negotiat-ing terms with many claimants for the same land is typically difficult and very time consuming.
● Lack of trained manpower, especially on outer islands. Although the installation processes for outer island solar installations are not difficult, they are not familiar to local residents. Since it is very costly to import installation crews for outer island solar installations, it is necessary to train local people to assist in the installation of the systems. The trained local people will still need
to work under knowledgeable supervisors, but experience indicates that most of the work can be carried out by newly trained local workers.
● Need to design outer island installation processes that do not require power tools. Although it is possible to land a portable generator and the fuel to run it, the experience has been that the use of power tools should be minimised. On a rural island, it may take a week or longer to replenish fuel or fix a generator breakdown. Careful con-sideration needs to be given to including only installation processes that can be accomplished without power.
Some important characteristics of successful off-grid solar designs include the following:
● A conservative design. The design should use only components that have already been proven to have a low failure rate and good performance in the Pacific, and should include excess capacity in solar panels and batteries. That added capacity lowers the stress on all components and length-ens their operational life.
● Pacific-proven electronic components. Electronic equipment is particularly susceptible to problems due to corrosion and high ambient temperatures. A piece of electronic equipment in use for five years or more with few problems can be consid-ered “proven for the Pacific” and should be speci-fied over unproven products, particularly for pro-jects in remote areas or where high reliability is needed, such as for health centre electrification. As donor-funded projects do not allow a specific brand and/or product to be specified, products provided have sometimes been of a poor choice for the island environment where components with high protection ratings are required.
● A simple design. Since the technical support capacity in the islands – even on most main is-lands – is limited, complex installations will cause problems for troubleshooting and repair. While automated installations are excellent when they work properly, repairs are difficult and often take a long time to accomplish. For example, comput-erised controls that automatically start backup diesel generators when battery charge levels fall too low have been the source of many prob-lems. A design more suitable for the technical capacity in the smaller Pacific islands would use simple manual controls for all system manage-ment, including starting the engine and switch-ing between diesel and solar. While this requires constant operator attention and training for op-erators, problems can be more easily solved and repairs more easily made.
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands 27
● Use of only factory-installed connectors or high-quality bare wire connections. Hand-crimped connectors have caused many problems in the islands and should be avoided. Only factory-installed connectors and screw-type connections that work with bare wires should be used. All junction boxes should only use compression-type screw connections that can work with bare wires. The use of tinned copper wires, with connec-tion tightened at the right torque and regularly inspected, is also good practice for minimising corrosion.
● Use of generation modules that can be replicated and connected in parallel. Having many differ-ent designs for solar installations on one island makes it difficult and costly to provide proper maintenance. Personnel must then be trained in each design and spare parts must be stocked for each design as well. If instead, independent and identical generation clusters are used and installed in parallel in the numbers needed to meet different generation needs, it is possible to reach a wide range of capacities without chang-ing either spare part inventories or the training of maintenance personnel.
Wind powerWind is a significant resource that can be tapped in the Pacific Islands region, but it requires a different ap-proach for its deployment than solar. First, the power output from a wind turbine generally increases with the cube of the wind speed. A passing storm front can create huge and rapid variations in power. As with solar, short-term storage can be used to reduce the rate of change of power and the extent of the power changes. However, the much larger and faster power swings from wind turbines require more complex controls and a type of storage that can accept rapid changes in absorbing and delivering energy. Unlike solar, where there is little difference in the mode of power delivery from the instal-lations, each wind turbine has its own power delivery characteristics, so wind system control and power man-agement devices need to be designed specifically to fit each type of turbine.
Another characteristic of wind power in the islands is that wind speed varies seasonally in most of the lower
latitude countries. Months with a 6 metre/second (m/s) average wind speed can have as much as eight times the energy generation of months with 3 m/s winds mak-ing year-round management of wind power generation more complex.
Land issues also pose a problem for wind power gen-eration in the PICTs. Wind is very site-sensitive, and if access to good sites is not possible, economically rea-sonable wind generation will also not be possible.
Considering these issues, the probability of being able to add cost-effective wind generation to a grid will likely be lowest for an atoll island country near the equator, and greatest for larger islands that are above 15°latitude though a lower latitude island that has a wind concen-tration zone near an existing transmission line may allow cost-effective wind generation.
Successful deployment of wind power on islands in the PICTs will require focus on the small scale cyclone-proof designs, such as the Vergnet sub-MW systems that are widely deployed in the Pacific region (Australia, Fiji, New Caledonia and Vanuatu) and the Caribbean. These types of systems are relatively easy to mobilise and deploy and therefore very suitable for the island environments. Unfortunately, more and more established equipment manufacturers are phasing out these small scale units. General Electric and Vestas have developed large-scale cyclone-proof wind turbine designs that have been suc-cessfully deployed in the Caribbean and elsewhere, but these are generally too big for deployment on islands in the PICTs region. There is therefore a niche market opportunity for development of small-scale cyclone-resistant turbines for island regions.
Cost and maintenance
There are insufficient data and information currently available to determine the installation and maintenance costs of wind power in the PICTs. Globally, the cost of wind turbines has fallen to the order of USD 1,000 per kW or even lower (IRENA, 2013). Although the turbine system generally dominates the cost of wind installa-tions, it is clear that in island regions logistic and main-tenance cost components would be high as well.
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands28
5.1 Renewable energy resource data collection
The first step in a comprehensive power systems ap-proach is a detailed review of locally available RE re-sources. The underlying RE resources are the key driver for the configuration and power output of the system and need to be understood in detail. As has been noted previously, comprehensive, accessible RE resource data is lacking for most of the Pacific islands region even though a number of studies on RE have been compiled by various development partners/organisations. Un-fortunately, a great deal of the data from those studies have not been collated in a systematic and centralised manner. IRENA could support the PICTs in this effort through its Global Renewable Energy Islands Network (GREIN), REMAP, statistics, Global Atlas, and costs analyses activities. Furthermore, many RE resource assessment need a minimum of a few years of data to account for seasonal variations. As such island RE plan-ning should start as soon as possible with an effort to identify key RE production sites and begin data collec-tion to verify resource availability.
5.2 Renewable energy integration
In the medium- and long-term RE-based power solu-tions would be the most sustainable and cost-effective solutions for Pacific islands communities. In the transi-tion to this state, RE and diesel hybrid systems with high levels of RE integration will play a key role in the energy supply for island communities and are indeed a viable option for the PICTs to greatly offset diesel generator fuel consumption. The relatively simple design process, and operation and maintenance of low penetration solar/diesel hybrid systems means that many Pacific islands can successfully deploy limited RE projects in the near future while moving up their learning curve for higher utility scale RE integration. However raising levels of solar/wind RE integration rapidly increases the complexity and the cost of the systems needed to con-trol variable RE output and ensure grid stability. Medium and high penetration hybrid systems using solar and/or wind power may also require islands to invest in new diesel generators and will likely require upgraded grid infrastructure to access large scale RE generation sites
5. Comprehensive power systems planning approach
Table 9: NREL guidelines for low, medium and high penetration hybrid systems*
Penetration Class Operating Characteristics
Penetration
Peak Instantaneous Anual Average
Low ● Diesel(s) run full-time ● Wind power reduces net load on diesel ● All wind energy goes to primary load ● No supervisory control system
<50% <20%
Medium ● Diesel(s) run full-time ● At high wind power levels, secondary loads
dispatched to ensure sufficient diesel loading or wind generation is curtailed
● Requires relatively simple control system
50–100% 20–50%
High ● Diesel(s) may be shut down during high wind availability
● Auxiliary components required to regulate voltage and frequency
● Requires sophisticated control system
100–400% 50–150%
*: See, for example, www.akenergyauthority.org/wind/02_Wind-diesel_power_systems_basics_01-01-2008.pdf
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands 29
and be able to handle multidirectional power flows. In-vestment in smart meters and load control systems are needed if islands want to boost RE penetration through demand side management, where it is technically nec-essary, feasible and economical to do so. These addi-tional costs must be weighed against the money saved through reduced fuel consumption. Determining both the system cost and fuel savings requires a detailed knowledge of the final system configuration and power output. This requires islands to adopt a comprehen-sive power systems approach that takes into account relevant information, including the possible impacts of climate change, and a long-term RE integration plan with clear and measurable goals.
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) of the US has developed definitions for low, medium and high penetration hybrid systems based on its experi-ence with wind/diesel hybrid systems. These classifica-tions are detailed in Table 9.
To facilitate high penetration of PV or wind power in ex-isting diesel powered grids in the region policy makers need to ensure that (i) a comprehensive system model-ling is undertaken to help select the most cost effective system and identify key technical challenges, and (ii) local PV and wind expertise is developed to ascertain sustainable operation and maintenance of the result-ing complex grids and proper coordination among all stakeholders.
5.3 Grid modelling and verificationThe need to integrate RE systems into existing grids and the notable impact this can have on diesel generators and grid stability requires that islands have a thorough understanding of current grid function. This entails a detailed examination of local demand characteristics and generation assets along with an assessment of the physical and electrical grid structure.
Once this information has been collected, comprehen-sive static and dynamic modelling should be performed. Static modelling examines power system performance under a constant load and is used to locate grid losses and inefficiencies which need to be corrected so that the full value of RE production can be delivered to cus-tomers.
Dynamic modelling allows system designers to examine how possible fluctuations of RE power generation affect grid stability. In addition to detailed knowledge of the grid and attached loads, effective dynamic modelling requires knowledge of the RE resource. This allows iden-tification of the key effects of potential RE technologies
on grid stability and drives the selection of the addi-tional technology best suited to allow RE integration.
A number of software packages exist that can perform static and dynamic modelling and IRENA is in the pro-cessing of assisting Pacific islands in identifying which of these packages is best suited for the particular con-ditions on small islands. However, more important than which package is chosen is the selection of a modeller who has expert skills in the operation of small diesel based grids.
All model results need to be directly verified with onsite measurement. Due to the highly dynamic nature of small island grids a very high sampling rate for data col-lection is required and represents a substantial expense.
5.4 Energy efficiencyStatic modelling will help to identify grid related energy efficiency opportunities but all island RE planning ef-forts need to go beyond this and include a comprehen-sive examination of opportunities for increasing energy efficiency across the island. Energy efficiency efforts such as replacing inefficient electric water heaters with solar thermal ones, or eliminating the use of incandes-cent light bulbs through replacement with high effi-ciency bulbs, can lead to a notable reduction in demand, thereby allowing a smaller and less expensive RE system to cover a higher percentage of island energy demand. Many energy efficiency efforts can be readily deployed leading to immediate reductions in diesel consumption, resulting in savings that could be further invested into additional renewable power capacity.
5.5 Selecting partners with relevant experience
Detailed knowledge of RE resource availability and the results from grid modelling and verification will help to define the baseline options for an island’s hybrid power system. However even with these details established the wide variety of RE technologies and diversity of associ-ated power electronics, storage technologies and other equipment required to control RE power production results in a large number of possible system configura-tions.
Sorting out which system is most efficient, economi-cal and best fits an island’s power needs requires the expertise of a power system designer with established experience in field of hybrid systems. In addition, island specific challenges such as limited infrastructure, high
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands30
local knowledge, temperature, humidity, salinity, strong storms and other key factors need to be taken into con-sideration in the design and selection of components. This makes the selection of designers and system in-stallers with island experience and knowledge of local conditions an important factor in successful system deployment. The lack of a good pool of RE systems designers and installers that meet these requirements is currently one of the significant barriers to enhanced and accelerated deployment of RE in the PICTs.
Island RE project planners should place a high priority on identifying experienced project partners. Given the limited Pacific RE system deployment, island RE project planners need to make sure off-island experts are ac-counting for island specific challenges. IRENA is in the process of identifying key players with experience in island/isolated hybrid system to share with island RE project planners.
5.6 Robust implementation guidelines and measurable goals
The technical complexity and numerous processes re-quired to deploy RE systems that can reduce island oil
dependence can be overwhelming. RE planning efforts should take a long-term view and develop a detailed understanding of the specific steps required to achieve high levels of RE penetration. This step-by-step process needs to include clearly defined and measurable goals so that RE project planners can ascertain their progress, identify particular challenges and prepare for the up-coming phases of project implementation. This com-prehensive approach can identify which project options have a positive return on investment and guards against costly mistakes. This is particularly relevant given the limited experience with risks assessment and allocation for the development of commercial RE projects in the PICTs.
A comprehensive power systems approach is essential for widespread RE deployment in the Pacific. However, IRENA’s review of RE projects to date and consultations with local utilities and policy makers have identified a number of critical policy and financial challenges that will have to be addressed before RE power systems can be widely deployed in the Pacific. It is essential that the project planning process be expanded beyond techni-cal design and include local experts with knowledge of the Pacific’s unique policy and financial environment. To assist in this process some of the key non-technical challenges identified by IRENA are detailed in Section 8.
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands 31
6.1 Overview
Due to the physical and economic diversity of the Pacific Islands, there is a wide range of patterns of energy use for transportation. One of the barriers to the develop-ment of RE programmes for transport is the difficulty of getting accurate data for the transport sector.
Nauru and Niue have no coastal shipping as each con-sists of a single, raised coral island that limits sea trans-port to small personal boats using gasoline powered outboard engines or small inboard diesel engines. Land transport is also limited due to the small size of the is-lands and their small population. For these two islands, the greatest use of fossil fuels is for power generation.
Fiji and Papua New Guinea have large land areas and, by Pacific standards, large populations resulting in signifi-cant land transport fuel use. Fiji also has over 120 inhab-ited islands spread over a large area so sea transport is also substantial. Since Fiji and Papua New Guinea both have most of their electricity generated by hydropower, the amount of fuel for transport is far greater than that for power generation. However most of the efforts in the Pacific directed at fuel reductions have been focused on power generation because of the centralised nature of generation that makes it much easier to implement and evaluate fuel saving programmes. The highly frag-mented and diverse nature of energy use for transport has made it very difficult to create programmes that can clearly demonstrate substantial import energy savings and carbon emission reductions in the islands. However, the transportation sector is better regulated in terms of
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6. Renewable energy for the transpor tation sector in the Pacific Islands
Figure 4: Estimates of fossil fuel imports and its use for transport and power generation (from SPC)
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands32
standards to be met, for annual road, air or sea worthi-ness certificates are issued.
The data collected in the Pacific for fuel use in trans-portation is mostly very general and not very useful for targeting programmes. Point of sale fuel data are not readily accessible in most of the island countries. In a few cases, such as Kiribati, a government oil company does both importation and distribution of petroleum products and in those cases, good data is possible to obtain. Often fuel use for transportation in the islands is assumed to be the total of petrol imports (which is almost exclusively used for transport by automobiles and boats with outboard motors) and the difference between total diesel fuel imports and diesel fuel used for power generation. While this assumption is reason-able for island countries that have little industrial use for diesel fuel, it does not differentiate between land and sea transport. In some countries, kerosene is used do-mestically for cooking and outer island lighting comes from jet fuel imports making estimates of domestic jet fuel use less accurate. Figure 4, obtained from SPC, graphically depicts the relationship between retained fuel import quantities and fuel used for power genera-tion and transport.
6.2 Enhancing opportunities for renewables for transportation in the Pacific Islands
In the near term, replacing the use of fossil fuels with RE sources in the transportation sector in the Pacific region will require the development of an alcohol production capacity to replace a part of petrol imports and increas-ing biodiesel and fuel quality coconut oil production ca-pacity to replace imported diesel fuel for powering ships and vehicles. No immediate replacement of imported fuel used for air transport by RE appears to be practical though for the longer term, it is possible that turbine powered aircraft may be fuelled by aviation certified biofuels imported mainly for international air carriers.
Incentives to promote replacement of existing ships, land transport vehicles and aircraft with more fuel ef-ficient types can make a very significant difference to GHG emissions and fuel import costs. Reducing the quantity of fuel required through more efficient vehicles also will allow the limited local biofuel production that is practical in most of the island nations to increase its per-centage of the total transport fuel supply for the islands.
Other ways to explore and promote sustainable use of renewables for transportation in the region include:
Modular coconut oil production facilitiesThe traditional model for coconut oil production in the Pacific is for outer island residents to produce copra that is shipped to the main island for conversion to coconut oil. That business model has problems due to high fuel costs resulting in increased shipping costs. Furthermore, shipping companies tend to reduce the frequency of visits to outer islands and often vary departures to fit times when the ship can sail with a full load. Without a reliable and consistent shipping schedule it is difficult for copra producers to maintain the quality of product necessary for biofuel production. By having local coco-nut oil production facilities within the coconut harvest-ing area, copra can be almost immediately converted to high quality oil which can be stored for long periods without serious loss of quality. Furthermore, the cost of shipping the oil is much less than for shipping the copra needed to make that oil at the main island mill. For these reasons, most recent project designs that include pro-ducing biofuel grade coconut oil have proposed using small modular mills located on the coconut producing islands with shipment of the resulting oil, rather than copra, to the main island. Fiji is currently experimenting with this model and it has also been proposed for trial in the Solomon Islands.
Once the coconut oil is produced on the outer islands and shipped to the main island it can be further refined to meet fuel standards and then either used directly in engines designed for coconut oil use, blended with diesel fuel or kerosene for use in unmodified engines or sent for further processing to make biodiesel.
The number of mills that would be put in place on each outer island would need to be related to the coconut production of the island. By making the mills modular and identical, spare parts stocks and the requirement for maintenance training would be minimised. As the mod-ular mills would be trailer mounted or containerised, they could be moved to locations within the coconut producing areas that are currently active. Should one of the modular mills break down, the others could operate additional hours until the failed unit returns to service.
Containerised plants for biodiesel production from coconut oilIn order to provide the widest market for locally pro-duced biofuel, the sustainable conversion of locally grown vegetable oil, such as coconut oil, to biodiesel is needed. Large engines used for power generation and ships may be able to use a dual tank system, whereby the engine burns pure coconut oil when at high loading and switches to diesel fuel at low loading. However, such operation is not practical for land transport. Although biodiesel can be used as a direct replacement for diesel
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands 33
fuel, coconut oil generally is only practical if blended or if the engines are known to be able to use straight coconut oil without problems. Fiji is currently allowing a 5% coconut oil and 95% diesel fuel blend to be sold as a direct replacement for pure diesel oil. Higher percent-ages may result in rapid fuel filter clogging and possibly carbon build up within engine combustion chambers so cannot be used without caution and monitoring.
The production of biodiesel from coconut oil is not a complex process. There are small containerised chemi-cal plants that directly convert any suitable feedstock (including coconut oil) into biodiesel. The inputs to the process are vegetable oil, such as coconut oil, sodium hydroxide (lye) and methanol. The outputs include a quantity of biodiesel approximately equal to the quan-tity of oil input to the process, glycerine and mulch that is suitable for animal feed or fertiliser.
Combined grid-connected solar and electric vehiclesAnother opportunity concept is to consider the viability of electric vehicles and charging station and how they could be integrated to the grid. In this case consid-eration needs to be given to how to control the vehicle charging rate in step with solar power output, the ratio of vehicles to solar capacity needed for optimal perfor-mance, the costs and benefits of such an approach and a determination of the key variables that most strongly affect the economics of the concept.
Electric motorcycles with solar chargingThe use of electric motorcycles supported by solar charging centres is another concept for promoting the
use of renewables for transportation, particularly in ur-ban areas with short travel distances. Such motorcycle charging and renting centres could provide income generation activities and employment for young people, particularly in those PICTs with high tourist volumes.
Dual tank freighter trialThe conversion of a small to medium sized inter-island cargo ship to dual fuel use with tanks for both diesel fuel and coconut oil could be a viable concept for re-ducing the current high fossil fuel consumption rates in inter-island transport. In this configuration, conventional diesel engines that are continuously operated at near rated power have been shown to be able to use straight coconut oil without damage, provided the coconut oil is preheated to keep it is viscosity acceptable. The ship would thus be able to use straight coconut oil during its standard cruise conditions – the time when the bulk of fuel is used in a voyage – and shift to diesel fuel for low power conditions for both manoeuvring and when at anchor.
Kite-assist inter-island sea transportAnother example of improving shipping costs would be to consider the use of kites to tap wind energy for as-sisted sailing of ships for long inter-island travel.
Renewable energy-powered boats for intra-lagoon transportBoats for intra-lagoon transport powered by combina-tion of solar PV and micro wind turbines could reduce fossil fuel consumption for transportation while increas-ing the share of renewables in the sector.
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands34
The Pacific Islands region presents unique opportuni-ties, supported by strong policy drives and targets for enhanced deployment of renewable energy technolo-gies and transition to a sustainable renewables-based energy future. However, there are a number of key challenges that must be overcome if the growing mo-mentum for renewables in the region must be sustained to achieve the transition. This section outlines these challenges for specific areas as aspects of renewables deployment.
7.1 Solar, wind and wave energy
Lack of uniform standards and guidelinesClear, uniform standards and guidelines are needed to safely connect private solar and wind generation to the small utilities of the Pacific. Although the southern island countries mostly use the Australian/New Zea-land electricity system standards, their standards for grid connection are not geared to small grids, nor do they consider the environmental and technical capac-ity problems of the Pacific. The Sustainable Energy Industries Association of the Pacific Islands (SEIAPI) in collaboration with the PPA is attempting to develop the first Pacific island RE standards and guidelines, but they suffer from limited technical capacity and resources.
Lack of net-metering policiesIncluding small private grid-connected solar and wind installations in the generation mix offers a number of benefits. Dispersing solar and wind generation over a large geographic area tends to reduce the speed and amount of total power variation from those sources, which in turn allows more energy input from solar and wind without the need for storage and complex con-trols. Also, if the private sector invests in solar or wind, the public sector is relieved of that financing burden.
However, most of the island utilities do not have a net-metering policy, and several are not pursuing the con-cept, largely because of a lack of understanding of the effects of net metering on utility income and on their quality of power. Assistance to those utilities, perhaps
through grid-modelling technology, would help them understand the likely effects and financial ramifications of net metering.
Thus far, net-metering policies have been implemented in some of the PICTs, notably the Cook Islands and Palau. In the Cook Islands, there are concerns that the net-metering policy may allow growth of private grid-connected solar too rapidly, resulting in grid stability problems, but net-metering has been quite successful in increasing the interest of private investors to support grid-connected solar. In Palau, a net-metering law was passed in 2012 laying out the approach for net meter-ing to be used by the Palau Public Utilities Corporation (PPUC), although grid-connected solar has been al-lowed to be connected to the PPUC grid on a system-by-system basis for at least four years.
Lack of templates for necessary agreementsAlthough there is some experience in the Pacific with power purchase agreements and Independent Power Producers (IPPs) for diesel, biomass and hydropower, thus far there has not been much for solar, wind or wave power that applies to the small utilities of the Pacific. In developing agreements for solar, wind and wave power, there needs to be legal and technical assistance to de-velop approaches that minimise the risk for both the utility receiving power and the private party providing power.
Bioenergy development: coconut oil productionMost studies relating to coconut oil for biofuel produc-tion have assumed that coconuts would be gathered by individual farmers and transported to a central mill. However, it is increasingly clear that for coconut oil to become an economically viable biofuel resource for widespread use in the Pacific, there are a number of cost advantages for using multiple, relatively small-scale oil production facilities instead of a single, large one as discussed in Section 6.2.1 above. In particular, coconut transport costs can be dramatically reduced and the overall reliability of oil supply increased. If a modular processing facility that includes all aspects of coconut
7. Challenges in implementing renewable energy systems in the Pacific Islands
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands 35
processing and oil production were designed, devel-oped, tested and standardised for the Pacific Islands region use, the cost of coconut oil production could be reduced and many small businesses and farmers could participate.
A second barrier to using coconut oil for biofuel is the lack of oil-testing facilities in the islands. For end users, it is vital that the islands have a standard testing process that shows the level of acceptability of an oil sample quickly and at a reasonable price. The University of the South Pacific recently installed an oil-testing facility in Suva in collaboration with the Government of Fiji19. For coconut oil to constitute a major portion of fuel needed for power generation there needs to be a sustainable supply at a stable price.
A third barrier is the result of the wide swings in the international coconut oil and copra markets. Mills are eager for the oil to be used locally for biofuel when international prices are low, but they restrict the supply of oil locally when international markets are higher than the diesel fuel landed price, which is generally the maxi-mum price that utilities are willing to pay for biofuel. Since the utilities are the major user of diesel fuel on the islands, maintaining a large amount of diesel fuel in stor-age or not being able to optimise fuel shipment quantity and timing can substantially increase the utility’s cost of fuel and therefore the cost of generation during periods when mills prefer to produce for export rather than use as biofuel.
7.2 All renewable energy technologies
IncentivesPrice incentives have dramatically accelerated private investment in RE in Europe and Asia. The primary in-centive used has been for governments to implement a “feed-in-tariff” for RE that provides sellers with ad-ditional income per kWh generated above the price in power purchase and IPP agreements. This added value for RE production may be paid for through increased tariffs on fossil fuel-generated electricity (as is done in Germany) or through the development of a special fund for RE and energy efficiency paid for by a small tax on all fossil fuel sales (as is done in Thailand).
Risk abatement approaches may include loan guaran-tees, subsidies for investments, concessionary loans and other means to reduce the total investment re-quired. This has already been done on a small scale in Palau, where the National Development Bank of Palau provides a loan subsidy for residential grid-connected
19 See, for example, www.usp.ac.fj/news/story.php?id=932
solar that allows the cost of energy generated by the solar system to be equated with the residential tariff. In Palau, the subsidy funds were provided through a donor.
Capacity development
A major barrier to the successful implementation of RE has been the capacity available on the islands for the technical support needed to operate and maintain RE systems. This is particularly a problem for off-grid in-stallations on rural islands. Although training is usually carried out at the time of installation, there has been little done to maintain that capacity over time. Refresher training of long-term staff and the initial training of new staff has not been carried out for most outer island pro-jects. The primary reason for not maintaining technical capacity has been the lack of trainers in the countries to provide the training. External trainers – provided by regional agencies and donor institutions – have not been very effective because most outer island residents do not have sufficient English language capability. A solution appears to be to develop the necessary training skills in teachers at national trade schools and technical colleges, as well as providing the schools with the train-ing equipment needed for instruction. Through such technical institutions, train-the-trainers courses can be run, in the local language, wherever needed.
Need for action plans and resources
Although most of the PICTs have declared a goal for RE development (or for fuel import reduction), few have any clear plans for achieving the goals. The only coun-tries that have made any significant progress towards their goals have been those with a clear action plan and predetermined projects that fit that plan.
Energy efficiency
Energy efficiency measures are as critical as RE de-ployment for reducing the use of fossil fuel in the Pacific region. Recently, the PPA completed a study of technical and non-technical station, transmission & distribution losses, from 20 Pacific utilities and found that just supply-side efficiency improvements could provide import reductions equivalent to more than 5% of the energy delivered at base load levels. Residential energy efficiency benefits of 10%, commercial energy efficiency benefits of 15% and government energy ef-ficiency benefits of 20% are achievable in most of the island countries for a total investment that is much less than the investment needed for the equivalent energy production from diesel systems.
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands36
From its inception, IRENA has acknowledged the ex-ceptional status of islands and placed a special focus on assisting these communities. The opening declaration of the Agency’s Statute specifically notes the “…the huge potential of renewable energy in providing… access to energy for isolated and remote regions and islands”20. Statute Article IV, which defines the activities that IRE-NA will engage in to support the uptake of renewables, mandates that the Agency bears “…in mind the special needs of the developing countries, and remote and iso-lated regions and islands”21.
One of the first activities of IRENA following its official launch in April of 2011 was a workshop on “Accelerated Renewable Energy Development with Emphasis on Pacific Islands”. This workshop took place in Sydney, Australia from the 26th to 28th of October 2011 and brought together key policy makers from numerous PICTs. Discussions focused on identifying key technical, policy, economic and social barriers to the deployment of renewable energy and developing an understanding of how IRENA can assist the PICTs in overcoming these challenges. IRENA organised a Pacific Leaders Meeting in January 2012 in Abu Dhabi22, UAE, which brought together 11 PICTs, which agreed to support and coop-erate in the implementation of the proposed IRENA activities for the Pacific region including an RRA for Kiribati; capacity-building initiatives; strategic planning for regional RE deployment; and increased collaboration with existing regional organisations and key stakehold-ers such as the SPC and the PPA.
8.1 Country studiesIRENA has carried out 15 specific studies on identify-ing the key concepts, challenges and best practices needed to increase RE uptake in the following PICTs: Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Republic of Fiji, Kiribati, Republic of the Marshall Islands, Republic of Nauru, Niue, Republic of Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Kingdom of Tonga, Tokelau,
20 IRENA Statute, Opening Declaration, Page 2
21 IRENA Statute, Article IV Activities, Page 7
22 The summary and proceedings of the Abu Dhabi Pacific Leaders Meeting are available at: www.irena.org/News/Description.aspx?NType=NWS&PriMenuID=16&catid=84&mnu=cat&News_ID=168
Tuvalu and the Republic of Vanuatu. The studies could support various national and regional initiatives by providing baseline information and understanding for a framework to assist the PICTs in developing their nation-al RE roadmaps or strategies, and to identify integrated and cost-effective pathways for accelerating the transi-tion to a secure and sustainable RE supply. The reports highlight best practices and lessons from the transition to RE in some PICTs that could benefit other islands and regions. The key messages arising from the studies are:
(i) Although the Pacific islands region is varied in terms of its RE resources distribution, solar pho-tovoltaic (PV), bioenergy and, to a lesser extent, wind energy are the RE technologies with the greatest technical and economic potential for near-term deployment in the region.
(ii) An integrated approach that promotes a bal-anced implementation with strong emphasis on both RE and energy efficiency, and incorporates, among other measures, a detailed resource as-sessment, land availability, grid assessment, ener-gy storage and capacity development, is required to arrive at the most optimal solution in terms of feasibility, cost, social acceptance and phasing.
(iii) Due to the variability of solar PV and wind pow-er, their integration into diesel generator based power requires the use of a variety of enabling technologies.
(iv) The spatial constraints of islands requires that for successful large-scale deployment of RE, the energy, water and land-use nexus must be as-sessed carefully with stakeholder involvement in the planning process.
(v) The current dominance of public and develop-ment assistance financing for RE projects in the developing economies of the Pacific islands re-gion limits the opportunities to enhance investor confidence through demonstration of the com-mercial attractiveness of existing projects.
(vi) For the larger PICTs where there is potential for return on investment, private sector investments supported by an enabling regulatory environ-ment, as well as incentives, are needed to facili-tate an increased share of RE in the energy mix of island communities.
(vii) Islands need to improve their working together – for example on common legal tools, training and regulations – in order to create economies
8. IRENA’s activities in the Pacific Islands
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands 37
of scale, in achieving a high share of RE whilst reducing high dependence on volatile and ex-pensive fossil fuels for power generation.
(viii) In the medium-and long-term RE-based power solutions would be the most sustainable and cost-effective solutions for Pacific Islands com-munities. In the transition to this state RE and diesel hybrid systems with high levels of RE integration and energy efficiency measures will play a key role in the energy supply for island communities and are, indeed, a viable option for the PICTs.
(ix) The “many partners, one team” approach needs to be put into practice through increased coordi-nation between development partners, donors, regional institutions and national authorities and institution.
(x) RE based transport options (such as electric cars and sustainable biofuels) can directly and posi-tively impact island power generation systems. As such an RE based transport system should be an important consideration in the long-term planning of the PICTs.
IRENA has strengthened its engagement with the Pacif-ic region since 2011, in close collaboration with existing regional organisations and key stakeholders, achieving further progress in the following key areas:
8.2 Assessment of grid stabilityIn the transition to renewable energy to achieve a more sustainable and secure energy future in the Pacific, the issue of grid stability becomes critically important as a higher share of variable renewable energy sources are integrated to the existing grid systems. When the inputs to grids vary, the resulting variation in frequency and voltage may affect the power quality, even resulting in blackouts. To better understand how much the island grids can absorb renewable energy without affecting power quality, it is critical to simulate the behaviour of frequency and voltage variability and to identify the threshold point where the variability starts to affect the efficiency of diesel engines, thus requiring additional power control systems and mechanism. The power sector and policy makers therefore need to understand well the threshold to which a grid can sustain the pen-etration of such variable renewable energy without affecting the power quality. The issue of grid stability is particularly critical in islands where the grids are small and vulnerable to variable power inputs. Integrating high shares of renewable energy into island grids is one of the critical challenges in the Pacific region. The opera-tion of grids with high shares of variable renewables and
the transition to such island power systems operation require careful analysis, planning and design.
IRENA, in collaboration with the PPA, convened its first workshop on the subject in July 2012 at the margin of the PPA 21st Annual Conference in Port Vila, Vanuatu. Over 35 experts and Pacific utilities gathered to discuss ways to introduce higher shares of variable renewables, such as solar and wind, into island grids while retaining grid stability. The workshop involved presentations of case studies and discussions on RE integration chal-lenges in the Pacific islands, storage systems for integra-tion, and grid assessments and modelling. Participants recommended that IRENA and other stakeholders in the region continue to support the utilities in the PICTs in their efforts to acquire the capability and technical confidence in energy planning and grid operation to integrate an increasing share of renewable energy. Fur-ther information and details of this event are available at: www.irena.org/menu/index.aspx?mnu=Subcat&PriMenuID=30&CatID=79&SubcatID=200.
Following the above request for support, IRENA carried out a modelling study for the Palau Utilities Corporation, followed by a workshop and training on grid stability for the northern Pacific utilities in April 2013. The second step of the study is to develop a standard methodology for assessing the dynamic effects of variable renewa-bles on frequency and voltage of the grid system, and development of technical and operating solutions to deal with such effects. Data have been collected for various technical options such as inverters, fly wheels and batteries that can be deployed to enhance system performance. The next step will be to work with PICTs members and other development partners to develop capacity for dynamic modelling of specific islands’ grids to assess future system performance with new grid components and rising shares of variable renewables. This work is being done in cooperation with PPA. In this context IRENA has a currently has support programme for 10 grid stability studies in the PICTs to 2015. The strategies and solutions provided will have to be tailor-made for each PICT as the renewable energy resources, energy generation equipment and infrastructure vary from country to country in the region. Further informa-tion and details of the Palau training and workshop are available at: www.irena.org/menu/index.aspx?mnu=Subcat&PriMenuID=30&CatID=79&SubcatID=325.
8.3 Hybrid power systemsThe use of diesel generators to power small and iso-lated electricity grids is especially prevalent in the PICTs region. As such, hybrid RE-diesel systems will be needed in the transition period to a renewable energy-
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands38
based power system. Such systems use a wide variety of enabling technologies to overcome the difficulties associated with RE resource variability and allow RE generation to be smoothly integrated into diesel power systems. The IRENA study on hybrid power systems for the Pacific, focussed on identifying the key concepts, challenges and best practices strategies to prevent low generator loading (as low as 30% of rated capacity), thus allowing higher levels of variable RE onto the grid in the Pacific islands context, demonstrated with a case study of the Tongatapu diesel and solar PV hybrid pow-er system in Tonga. The study also compiled a database that covers the make, model, age and specifications of all diesel generators in the region. The hybrid power systems for the Pacific report is available in the USB disk accompanying this report as well as on the IRENA publications website at www.irena.org/Publications.
8.4 Electricity storage and renewables for island power
In 2012 IRENA completed a comprehensive study on electricity storage options for islands. The report for this work was launched at the High-Level Ministerial Conference in Barbados on SE4ALLin SIDS. The report analysed the role that electricity storage can offer in meeting the challenges of variable electricity demand and supply, associated with renewable energy, and as-sessed smaller systems suitable for use with islands and remote electricity systems. IRENA’s work on grids and Storage will be further refined and expanded to two separate roadmaps, one focusing on transmission and distribution and the other on various types of electric-ity storage technologies. The 2012 report on electricity storage options for island power is available at the IRE-NA publications website at www.irena.org/Publications.
8.5 Ocean energyOcean energy technology is one of the emerging tech-nologies with the potential to become substantive in the renewable energy sector, particularly in niche locations such as islands and coastal areas. The various types of ocean energy include wave, tidal, marine current, salin-ity gradient, and ocean thermal gradient energy. Unlike some other renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar power, ocean energy is less variable. However, it is still in the early development and demonstration phases with very few at the deployment stage. Patents play a key role in the development and deployment of ocean energy technologies and so patent information is useful for policy makers seeking to promote innova-
tion in ocean energy technology deployment as well as technology developers and private sector investors. IRENA is carrying out studies that include technol-ogy briefs on ocean energy technologies, starting with Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC), wave, tidal and salinity gradient. These technology briefs are being supplemented with a study to support policy makers and investors in assessing the potential investment and strategic development of ocean energy technolo-gies. The study will provide accurate and up-to-date information on current development trends and market status of ocean energy technologies and will assess the opportunities and barriers against the promotion and deployment of ocean energy technologies and possible solutions to overcome those barriers.
8.6 REMAP 2030: Assisting energy planning in island roadmaps
IRENA’s REMAP 2030 is the global framework for pro-moting a doubling of the share of renewables in the global energy mix by 2030 as one of three inter-related objectives the UN SE4ALLinitiative. IRENA can assist its PICTs members with energy planning for their nation RE roadmaps as part of the REMAP project. IRENA is involved in the Tonga Energy Roadmap (TERM) and, together with GIZ and the SPC, is assisting Nauru in the development of its energy roadmap. The IRENA REMAP report can be downloaded free from www.irena.org/Publications.
8.7 Renewables Readiness Assessment
In order to assess how a country can increase readiness and overcome the main barriers to the deployment of RE technologies, the RRA was conducted in Kiribati jointly by the Ministry of Public Works and Utilities of Kiribati and IRENA as a case study in the Pacific. A workshop on the RRA was held in October 2012. More information on the RRA is available on IRENA publications website. As a result of the RRA Kiribati five concrete actions needed to enable the development and scale-up of renewable energy in Kiribati have been identified; their successful implementation would lead to the need for a long-term roadmap through which the goal of being energy inde-pendent could be realised in Kiribati. IRENA’s RRAs can be downloaded free from www.irena.org/Publications.
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands 39
8.8 Establishment of the IRENA Global Renewable Energy Islands Network (GREIN)
With the aim of pooling knowledge and exchanging ideas and experiences between islands, IRENA’s GREIN was established in January 2013, in line with the Malta Communiqué on Accelerating RE Uptake for Islands; issued following the meeting of Ministers and other participants from 48 countries that gathered in St. Julian’s, Malta on 6-7 September 2012. The communi-qué called on IRENA to establish a ‘Global Renewable Energy Islands Network’ (GREIN) as a platform for pooling knowledge, sharing best practices, and seeking innovative solutions for accelerated uptake of clean and cost-effective RE technologies on islands. Under the GREIN, island nations and countries with islands are in-vited to join various interest clusters that would support their transition to renewables, one of which aims at the development of national roadmaps.
The most popular GREIN clusters so far – grid integra-tion and technology roadmaps – were launched at the margin of the Auckland summit in March 2013. A num-ber of pacific island countries have registered in these clusters and they participated in the Auckland event. The cluster leaders were elected and immediate actions for the clusters were agreed. Further information on the launch of GREIN at the Auckland Summit is available at: http://www.irena.org/menu/index.aspx?mnu=Subcat&PriMenuID=30&CatID=79&SubcatID=326.
8.9 Capacity-building initiativeIRENA is embarking on a capacity-building initiative to improve the enabling environment conducive for IPPs participation in the renewable power sector. The initiative targets policy makers, utilities and regulators, and aims to enhance their capacities to develop the necessary legal and regulatory frameworks, and finan-cial, technical, and market conditions. The initiative also includes a component that targets higher education institutions.
A survey is currently being conducted to investigate the needed renewable energy skills particularly in relation to private sector engagement and suggest how the higher education sector could meet this demand. Discussions are underway with University of the South Pacific, PPA, SEIAPI and the VOCTEC program for strengthening and extending the existing programs to certification that meets industry standards. IRENA is also develop-ing capacity in the region for harmonised installation
of grid-connected solar PV systems through training workshops and dissemination of guidelines
8.10 IRENA Global AtlasIRENA is leading the development of a Global Atlas for Solar and Wind Energy project which aims to assist planners by identifying the resource potentials of solar and wind resources, especially in areas where existing data is insufficient. This tool will be extended to other resources and will support decision-making for renew-able energy deployment at global, regional and national levels.
8.11 IRENA renewable energy country profiles for the Pacific
In 2012 IRENA completed its renewable energy country profiles for the Pacific. These profiles evaluate the latest developments in the field of renewables at country and global levels. Each profile combines IRENA’s analyses with the latest available country data and additional information from a variety of sources, including mem-ber states. The resulting reports provide a brief but comprehensive picture of the situation with regards to renewable energy, including energy supply, electrical generation and grid capacity, and energy access. Energy policies, targets and projects are also considered, along with each country’s investment climate and endow-ment with renewable energy resources. Through this roadmap support framework, IRENA aims to continue to support its member states in the PICTs with timely and value-added data for policy support for enhanced deployment of renewables in the region. The Pacific country renewable energy profiles are available for download at www.irena.org/Publications.
8.12 Policy challenges for renewable energy deployment in the Pacific Islands
Many countries have introduced targets and plans to promote RE deployment. However, policy design and implementation often lags behind. This is particularly the case in the PICTs. IRENA has carried out a study on RE policy making in the Pacific SIDS aimed at promoting measures that can support the successful deployment of RE policies through systematic identification of the existing challenges and opportunities, and recommen-
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands40
dations to policy makers on designing and implement-ing RE policies.
8.13 Harmonisation of RE standardsIRENA work on standardisation of RE includes the pacific region and the aim of this work is to ensure ap-propriate and effective integration of RE into national grids through harmonised standards. In collaboration with PPA, SPC North REP and SEIAPI, IRENA supports the roll out of RE standards for on/off grid solar installa-tions in the region. In April 2013, the first workshop and training on standards was convened at Palau for policy makers and engineers of the Northern pacific utilities. The workshop for the Southern Pacific Utilities is sched-uled for the second half of 2013. Further information and a summary report on the workshop are available at: http://www.irena.org/menu/index.aspx?mnu=Subcat&PriMenuID=30&CatID=79&SubcatID=325.
8.14 Assessment of RE technologies suitable for the Pacific
In order to deploy RE technologies that are suited to the conditions of the Pacific, information on possible tech-nology solutions has been collected and analysed. They include electricity storage options for islands, desalina-tion powered by renewable energy, small wind power, and wave power.
An integrated resource management approach for en-ergy, land use, and water resources nexus is crucial to improve energy, water and food security in the PICTs which are vulnerable to resource scarcity. A case study has been developed for the Kiribati main island of Tarawa. The modelling suggests that water supply from desalination may need to be expanded significantly, which can result in a substantial increase in electricity demand for the island. The potential for coconut oil use in diesel generators has been assessed. The analysis suggests that a partial substitution of diesel would be feasible, but land and low coconut tree yields limit the expansion of this option. Based on these findings the
study suggests alternative renewable energy pathways to deal with resource scarcity. Similar assessments of resource potentials and technologies are given in the individual IRENA reports for each of 15 PICTs studied as part of this roadmap support document and are avail-able in the USB disk accompanying this report as well as on the IRENA publications website at www.irena.org/Publications.
8.15 Assessment of the use of more renewable energy in the transportation sector
The major share of fossil fuels in the Pacific is used in the transportation sector. Assessment of the possible RE technology applications for shipping and land transport in the region has started by reviewing recent technology developments in other parts of the world. The lack of detailed accurate oil product statistics in the region acts as a major barrier to the development of an informed strategy for the increased use of renewables for trans-portation in the region. Discussions are ongoing with a number of development partners on how the statistical data can be improved.
8.16 IRENA Abu Dhabi Fund for Development project facility
Mobilising finance is one of the greatest challenges for scaling up the use of renewable energy in developing countries. The United Arab Emirates has offered a com-mitment from the Abu Dhabi Fund for Development (ADFD) of up to USD 350 million to support financing of renewable energy projects in developing countries endorsed by IRENA. The IRENA/ADFD project facility is currently evaluating projects from various countries, including countries in the Pacific Islands region, for the first round of funding from the fund. For further infor-mation, please see: http://irena.org/adfd/
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands 41
Drawn from the above assessments, the 16 separate supporting studies (published as 15 PICTs country re-ports and a report on RE-diesel hybrid power systems for the PICTs), there are some key priority actions which the Pacific islands region as a whole and individually are encouraged to consider for achieving energy security through the accelerated deployment of RE. The regional approach is critical for pooling resources and engaging with stakeholders together in a coordinated manner; the national approach is important for ownership, lead-ership and resources allocation and monitoring of the implementation of a RE roadmap action plan. The RE resource potential varies across the PICTs. Therefore national and even island specific roadmaps or strate-gies are needed, noting that a roadmap or strategy developed without involvement of all key stakeholders and not accompanied by a realistic and resourced action plan for implementation risks failure.
The PICTs have the FAESP priorities to take into account when planning their own national energy strategies or energy roadmaps and action plans. Aligning with the current regional energy vision, FAESP, and the various national targets and policies, the following key recom-mendations for action are encouraged:
● Strengthen institutional frameworks in the en-ergy sector: In many cases renewables transition planning takes place outside the group of energy ministries and utilities. Such an approach should be avoided as it reduces the chances of success significantly.
● The cooperation between the PPA, SPC and Uni-versity of the South Pacific should be strength-ened to develop a critical mass for the Pacific islands transition planning.
● Strengthen strategic energy planning, combining renewable energy deployment with energy effi-ciency promotion and implementation.
● Strengthen policy and regulatory frameworks as the essential enabler for enhanced RE deploy-ment.
● Strengthen the collection and management of energy data. This will assist in the development of robust energy information, notably for the transport sector.
● Assess the cost of RE solutions for island com-munities and provide information on technology availability and options.
● Assess and monitor RE resource potentials. The RE potential varies widely across PICTs, thereby necessitating the need for regional and island-specific RE strategies.
● Assess grid stability for high shares of RE inte-gration. It will be important to consider careful design and deployment of hybrid diesel–renew-able systems with high shares of renewable in the immediate term. This requires modelling and assessment of grids for different levels of RE pen-etration, supported by a step by step approach to realise the transition to renewables.
● Harmonise technical standards for implementa-tion of RE technologies: This should facilitate effective system operation with reduced failure of components. With most RE projects in the PICTs arising from development assistance there a wide range of RE equipment of different makes being installed. This complicates operation and maintenance greatly. SIDS-DOCK23 could help to overcome such problems provided funds are truly managed as a programme and not cut into many small projects with different decision mak-ers.
● Undertake capacity development for RE at vari-ous levels from education to policy makers.
● Coordinate various RE projects and financing. This and a database of best practice cases for sharing of knowledge should facilitate an ef-ficient and uniform strategy for successful RE deployment in the region.
23 A mechanism to connect the energy sector in SIDS with the global market for finance, sustainable energy technologies and with the European Union (EU) and the United States (US) carbon markets, and able to trade the avoided carbon emissions in those markets.
9. Conclusion: Key priority actions for enhanced renewable energy deployment in the Pacific Islands and possible IRENA roles
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands42
● Develop bankable renewable projects. The qual-ity of project proposals needs to be improved across the region. The IRENA project navigator can help towards bankability of project propos-als. The fact that virtually all renewable power projects are funded from grants or soft loans en-dangers sustainability and is detrimental for the development of the RE sector. For renewables projects, more so than for diesel generators, it is critical that projects include a sustainable busi-ness model where investment cost are readily
recuperated. This is particularly so if productive uses energy are prioritized in such models.
The above priority actions are summarised in Table 10 with indicative key players and possible roles for IRENA in supporting PICTs members in their efforts to develop roadmaps or strategies and the accompanying action plans for increasing the share of renewables in their en-ergy mix in the transition to a renewables-based energy future for sustainable economic prosperity.
IRENA’s work on islands has expanded as of early 2013 to other island regions, with the aim of accelerating the
Table 10: Indicative roles for IRENA in the development of national RE roadmaps and action plans for the PICTs
Key Action Plans Indicative Key Players Role of IRENA Timeline
Strengthen institutional frameworks in the energy sector
● SPC ● Country policy makers
Capacity Building Medium term
Strengthen strategic energy planning
● SPC ● Country policy makers
Scenario modelling Immediate to medium term
Strengthen policy and regulatory frameworks
● SPC ● Country policy makers
Policy advise Immediate to medium term
Strengthen the collection and management of energy data
● SPC ● Country policy makers ● PPA
Costing Alliance; REDAFImmediate to medium term
Assess and monitor re-newable energy resource potentials
● SPC ● Country policy makers
Global Atlas Immediate to long term
Assess grid stability for high shares of RE integration
● Island utilities ● PPA
Development of capacity for dynamic modelling of grid stability
Immediate to long term
Harmonise technical stand-ards for implementation of RE technologies
● Island utilities ● Country policy makers ● PPA ● SPC ● SEIAPI
Harmonisation of RE standards and certification systems for national and regional deployment of RE
Immediate to long term
Undertake capacity develop-ment for renewable energy at various levels
● Country policy makers ● University of South
Pacific ● SPC
Country support and capacity building
Long-term
Coordinate various RE pro-jects and financing
● Country policy makers ● SPC ● Development partners
IRENA/ADFD Project Facility
Immediate to long term
Develop bankable renewable projects
● Country policy makers ● Private sector investors
Project NavigatorImmediate to medium term
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands 43
effectiveness of the transition to renewable-based ener-gy systems for such communities. However, the agency continues its work on Pacific Islands Countries and Ter-ritories in response to requests from its members. To this effect, in 2013 IRENA is extending its work on grid stability to cover 15 countries to 2015. The agency will also be focussing on other grid related technologies and enablers for increased shares of renewables in the Pacific Islands region, including extension of our previ-ous work on storage options for island power. Ocean energy technologies provide a potential opportunity of high impact in the deployment of renewables in island regions. The technologies are still in the development and early deployment stages. IRENA is working on eval-uating the status of these technologies and their market outlook for deployment in the context of remote islands,
particularly with regards to ocean thermal energy con-version (OTEC) for power generation, cooling and heat-ing. In the subsequent work programmes, IRENA will continue to work on areas of relevance and interest to countries in the region as they mobilise efforts towards achieving their various renewable energy targets.
It is hoped that the IRENA Pacific Lighthouses series of reports will serve as a basis for better understand-ing of current energy conditions in the Pacific Islands region and to facilitate the continued assessment of the challenges and opportunities for the deployment of renewable energy in island environments. Therefore, the reports constitute an IRENA input for the Third Interna-tional Conference on Small Island Developing States to be held in Samoa, 1–4 September 2014.
Pacific l ighthouses – Renewable Energy Roadmapping for Is lands44
In the preparation of this report, primary sources were used where possible. Some were obtained through writ-ten questionnaires, some through interviews and some through email correspondence. For data which primary sources were not available, the following secondary and tertiary sources were checked with each source typically providing useful part of the overall picture.
Publication ReferencesAsian Development Bank (2011), Finding Balance: Benchmarking Performance of State-Owned Enterpris-es in Fiji, Marshall Islands, Samoa, Solomon Islands and Tonga.Asian Development Bank (2012), Newsletter: Pacific Economic Monitor.AusAID (2009), Pacific Economic Survey, Engaging with the World.Castalia/Asian Development Bank (2010), Enhancing Effective Regulation of Water and Energy Infrastructure and Utility Services, (Small Island Country Component) Interim Pacific Report.Cloin, J. (2007), Liquid Biofuels in Pacific Island Coun-tries, SOPAC (South Pacific Applied Geoscience Com-mission).Barnes & McKenzie (2007), Baseline Study on Opportu-nities under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), Forum Secretariat – SMEC.IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency) (2013), “Doubling the Global Share of Renewable En-ergy: A Roadmap to 2030”, www.irena.org/Publications.IRENA (2013), “International Off-grid Renewable Energy Conference 2012: Key Findings and Recommendations”, www.irena.org/Publications.IRENA (2013), “International Standardisation in the Field of Renewable Energy”, www.irena.org/Publications.IRENA (2013), “Kiribati Renewables Readiness Assess-ment 2012”, www.irena.org/Publications.IRENA (2013), “Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2012: An Overview”, www.irena.org/Publications.IRENA (2013), “Renewables Readiness Assessment: De-sign to Action”. www.irena.org/Publications.IRENA (2012), “Electricity Storage and Renewables for Island Power: A Guide for Decision Makers”, www.irena.org/Publications.IRENA (2012), “Policy Challenges for Renewable Energy Deployment in Pacific Island Countries and Territories”, www.irena.org/Publications.IRENA (2012), “Renewable Energy Country Profiles for the Pacific”, September 2012 edition, www.irena.org/Publications.
Pacific Power Association (2011), Performance Bench-marking for Pacific Power Utilities.
Pacific Power Association-KEMA (2010), Quantification of Energy Efficiency in the Utilities of the US Affiliate States (excluding US Virgin Islands).
Pacific Power Association-KEMA (2012), Quantification of the Power System Energy Losses in Southern Pacific Utilities.
Pacific Regional Infrastructure Facility (2011), Pacific Infrastructure Performance Indicators.
Johnston, P. (2008), Expanding and Updating the Pacif-ic Islands Renewable Energy Project, Reports and Data, UNDP (United Nations Development Programme)/GEF (Global Environmental Facility)/SPREP (Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme)/PIREP (Pacific Islands Renewable Energy Project), World Bank.
Resources and Logistics-EU (2011), “Support to the Energy Sector in 5 Pacific Island States, REP-5”, Final Evaluation Report, Vol. 1, Main Report.
SPC (Secretariat of the Pacific Community) (2011), To-wards an Energy Secure Pacific, Framework for Action on Energy Security in the Pacific.
Levantis, T., et al. (2006), Are Pacific countries coping with surging oil prices? AusAID.
United States Central Intelligence Agency (2012), The World Factbook 2012-2013.
Wade, H. (2005), Pacific Regional Energy Assessment 2004, Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme/Pacific Islands Renewable Energy Project
World Bank, (2006), A Review of Obstacles and Oppor-tunities for Improving Performance in the Pacific Islands, World Bank East Asia and Pacific Region, Pacific Islands Country Management Unit.
Internet Reference SourcesSecretariat of the Pacific Community, Pacific Regional Information System, Statistics for Development Pro-gramme (2012), www.spc.int/nmdi/MdiHome.aspx
Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Pro-gramme, Pacific Regional Energy Assessment: Country Reports (PIREP) (2012), www.sprep.org/Pacific-Environ-ment-Information-Network/country-profiles-directory
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References
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