7/27/2019 Onycha

1/14

Onycha

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation,searchThis article is about the incense component. For the town in Alabama, see Onycha,Alabama.

Onycha (Greek: ), along with equal parts ofstacte, galbanum, andfrankincense, wasone of the components of the consecrated Ketoret(incense) which appears in the Torahbook ofExodus (Ex.30:34-36) and was used in the Jerusalem'sSolomon's Temple. Thisformula was to be incorporated as an incense, and was not to be duplicated for non-sacreduse.[1] What the onycha of antiquity actually was cannot be determined with certainty.

The original Hebrew word used for this component of the ketoret was , shecheleth,which means "to roar; as a lion (from his characteristic roar)" or peeling off byconcussion of sound."[2] Shecheleth is related to the Syriac shehelta which is translated asa tear, distillation, or exudation.[3] In Aramaic, the root SHCHL signifies retrieve. [3]When the Torah was translated into Greek (the Septuagintversion) the Greek wordonycha , which means "fingernail" or "claw," was substituted for shecheleth.

Contents

1 Contenders for the identity of onychao 1.1 Operculumo 1.2 Labdanumo 1.3 Benzoino 1.4 Labdanum and Benzoin mixedo 1.5 Bdelliumo 1.6 Gum Tragacantho 1.7 Cloveso 1.8 Ambero 1.9 Cuttlefish boneo 1.10 Spikenard

2 See also 3 Notes

4 References

Contenders for the identity of onycha

Operculum

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onychahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#mw-navigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#mw-navigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#p-searchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha,_Alabamahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha,_Alabamahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha,_Alabamahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stactehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galbanumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galbanumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankincensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankincensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketorethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketorethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Exodushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon's_Templehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon's_Templehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon's_Templehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Onkelos_Shemot_2:10-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Onkelos_Shemot_2:10-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septuaginthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septuaginthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Contenders_for_the_identity_of_onychahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Operculumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Labdanumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Benzoinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Labdanum_and_Benzoin_mixedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Bdelliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Gum_Tragacanthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Cloveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Amberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Cuttlefish_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Spikenardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Noteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onychahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#mw-navigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#p-searchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha,_Alabamahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha,_Alabamahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stactehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galbanumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankincensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketorethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Exodushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon's_Templehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Onkelos_Shemot_2:10-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Onkelos_Shemot_2:10-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septuaginthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Contenders_for_the_identity_of_onychahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Operculumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Labdanumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Benzoinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Labdanum_and_Benzoin_mixedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Bdelliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Gum_Tragacanthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Cloveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Amberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Cuttlefish_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Spikenardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#Noteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#References

7/27/2019 Onycha

2/14

Some writers believe that onycha was the fingernail-like operculum, or closing flap, ofcertain sea snails, including Strombus lentiginosus,Murex anguliferus, Onyx marinus,and Unguis odoratus. This operculum is the upper part of a shell called by the LatinsConchylium. These opercula may be of different sizes, but their overall shape is that of aclaw, which is the origin of the name Unguis odoratus. The nameBlatta Byzantina is

occasioned by its having usually been imported from Constantinople, the ancientByzantium. In antiquity the operculum was used as an ingredient in incense. TheBaylonian Talmud recorded that onycha was rubbed with an alkali solution preparedfrom the bittervetchto remove impurities,[4] it was then soaked in the fermented berryjuice of the Capershrub,[5] or a strong white wine, in order to enhance its fragrance. Theoperculum was also commonly used as an ingredient in many East Asian incense.

Labdanum

There is some doubt as to whether the onycha of the Old Testament was actually theoperculum of a sea snail.[6] H.J. Abrahams says, "The widely held mollusk hypothesis

becomes quite perplexing if one considers that the mollusk was counted among theunclean animals in the Bible (Chapters Leviticus 11:9 and 12)."[7] Sea creatures such asthe mollusk was an abomination and even their carcasses were to be considered anabomination[8] and anyone simply touching them became unclean.[9] Rabbeinu Bachyeiinsisted that only kosher species may be used for the mishkan. The Gemara states thatonly items that one may eat may be used for the work of Heaven.[10] Nachmanides,Torah scholar and famed Jewish theologian, emphasized that the commandmentconcerning unclean animals pertained also to temple services.[11]James Strong and J.McClintoch write that it seems improbable that any such substance could have been oneof the constituent spices of the most holy perfume; not only because we know of nonebearing any powerful and agreeable odor, but specially because all marine creatures that

were not finned and scaled fishes were unclean, and as such could not have been touchedby the priests or used in the sanctuary. [12][13] There is also some doubt that a molluskwould have been referred to as a sweet spice.[14] Bahr states that the odor of the burnedshells is not pleasant.[15] Although the word onycha has been interpreted as meaning"nail" it is pointed out that nail or claw is actually an extended connotation of onyx,derived from the translucent and sometimes veined appearance of the gemstone onyxwhich antiquity often describes as a black stone.[16] Coincidentally onycha is the Greekword which was chosen to replace the original Hebrew word which was shecheleth. [16]One of the Hebrew words that shecheleth seems to be related to, , sh'chalim, refersto a large variety of plants.[17]A ancient Ugaritic text lists onycha among types ofvegetables, implying that onycha was a vegetable also.[18] The Talmud specifically states

that although onycha (shecheleth) is not from a tree, it does grow from the ground andthat it is a plant (Kerithoth 6b).[19] Condor writes Shecheleth, Exod. xxx. 34; [is]rendered by the Septuagint, onycha, and by the Arabic version, ladana . . . The root of theHebrew word means to drop or distil, and shecheleth would seem, therefore, to meansome exudation. [20] James Strong writes "the Syriac etymology of the word, namely, torun in drops, exude, distil, would lead to the idea of a resinous and odoriferous substanceof the vegetable kingdom."[12] Another writer says the context and the etymology seemto require the gum of some aromatic plant, perhaps gum-ladanum. The Hebrew word

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operculum_(gastropod)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operculum_(gastropod)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snailhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snailhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strombus_lentiginosushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Murex_anguliferus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Onyx_marinus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unguis_odoratus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Rambam_on_Maaser_Sheni_2:4-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Talmub_Babli-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_winehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-ReferenceA-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Abrahams.2C_H.J-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Abrahams.2C_H.J-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-ReferenceB-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-ReferenceC-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-ReferenceA-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operculum_(gastropod)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snailhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strombus_lentiginosushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Murex_anguliferus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Onyx_marinus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unguis_odoratus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Rambam_on_Maaser_Sheni_2:4-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Talmub_Babli-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_winehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-ReferenceA-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Abrahams.2C_H.J-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Abrahams.2C_H.J-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-ReferenceB-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-ReferenceC-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-ReferenceA-12

7/27/2019 Onycha

3/14

would seem to mean something that exuded, having odorous qualities.[21] "Shecheleth"identifies with the Syriac "shehelta" which is translated as a tear, distillation, orexudation."

According to Winifred Walker's All the Plants of the Bible, shecheleth is a form of rock

rose, Cistus ladaniferusvar. Cistus creticus, which produces a resin called labdanum.[22]

This sweet spicy ingredient has been used in perfumes and incense for thousands of yearsand grows profusely in the Middle East, specifically in Israel and Palestine. The rock roseis a bush, not a tree (the Talmud states that onycha comes from a ground plant and not atree) [23] which bears flowers widely noted for the markings upon its petals resemblinghuman fingernails. Labdanum is the gray-black resin that exudes from the branches of therock rose bush. Labdanum, after it matures, becomes black and is referred to as blackamber or black balsam.[24] Gill states that the word "shecheleth is certainly related to theHebrew word shechor (black)," denoting the color of the shecheleth used in the ketoretformula.[25] Onycha is a play on the word onyx which was a gem. The onyx mostesteemed by the ancients was the black gem.[26]The Hebrew word for onyx was shoham

and Braun traces shoham to the Arabic sachma,'blackness:' 'Of such a color,' says he,'are the Arabian [onyxes], which have a black ground-color.' This agrees essentially withCharles William King's remarks[27] 'The Arabian species,' he says, 'were formed of blackor blue strata. [28] The rock rose also has an inseparable identification with rocks becauseits existence depends upon its roots anchoring among them in areas where no otherfoliage is able to grow. After labdanum became hard it may have been put throughanother process causing it to emulate even more of the "beautiful" [29] attributes of theonyx or to refine it, "that it be pleasant." [30] When used in sacred rites resins were oftensteeped in wine to, among other things, increase their fragrance.[31]

A reference to onycha as an annual plant[23]may be confusion with its annual yield. Rock

rose usually produces labdanum annually, during the summer, to protect itself from theheat. A reference to onycha as a root[32] may be due to the practice of boiling the twigsand roots for labdanum extraction[33][34][35] or the use of cistus roots as a medicine. Theroot of the Cistus plant is a Jordanian traditional medicine. [36] The root is still used todayby the Arabs for bronchitis and also as a pectorial, demulcent, tonic, and anti-diabetic.[37]Then again the possibility exists that while the onycha of Exodus 30 was labdanum, theidentity of onycha may have been lost some time during or after the Babylonian captivity,with the operculum becoming identified as onycha during the time of the second Temple.However, as the original onycha of the book of Exodus, Abrahams says that, more thanany other substance, "labdanum fills the bill most convincingly." [38]

The flowers of the rockrose bush is described as having petals with scarlet and blackfingernail-shaped markings, thus its historically acclaimed connection with the Greek onyx.[39]Lynne writes, Onycha . . . is a rockrose which produces a gum that isknown as labdanum. The blossoms are about three inches across, white with at the baseof each petal a blotch of brilliant scarlet-rose which deepens into black. In Greek onychameans 'fingernail.' The blotch of color in each petal looks exactly like a brightly paintedred fingernail.[40] Others proclaim that the very petals of this plant are shaped like fingernails.[41][42] Again, onycha in Greek means fingernail or claw. Claws were used in

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_rosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_rosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cistus_ladaniferushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cistus_ladaniferushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cistus_creticushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labdanumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labdanumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Walker.2C_Winifred_1979-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Kerithoth_6b-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_William_Kinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Kerithoth_6b-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Kerithoth_6b-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_rosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_rosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cistus_ladaniferushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cistus_creticushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labdanumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Walker.2C_Winifred_1979-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Kerithoth_6b-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_William_Kinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Kerithoth_6b-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-42

7/27/2019 Onycha

4/14

ancient Egypt to collect labdanum. Pharaohs were pictured with this claw (a nekhakha)resting on their breasts.[43][44][45] Claws, or rakes, were used to collect the labdanum fromthe cistus bushes and smaller claws, or combs, were used to collect labdamun from thebeards of the wild goats.[46]Removing and peeling the very sticky, adhesive labdanumfrom these very temperamental animals caused them to cry out, to peel out by the

concussion of sound, or to roar out in protest. As mentioned above the originalHebrew word for onycha was , shecheleth, which comes from a root meaning "toroar" or peeling off by concussion of sound." In Aramaic, the root SHCHL signifiesretrieve. For thousands of years labdanum has been retrieved from the beards of goatsand the wool of lambs by this method. The resin was peeled off of the goats beard, lambswool, and from the lambadistrion. Interestingly the Arabic word for peel is sahala. ThePharaohs beard was made up of goats hair[47][48] which was held together and scentedby labdanum.[49][50] When the royal kingly Pharaoh spoke it was as the lion's roar, thevoice of god to the people. The Pharaoh was called the "incarnation of Atum." [51] Massywrites that, "The lion was a zootype of Atum . . . He is called the lion-faced in the Ritual .. . He is addressed as a lion god, the god in lion form." [52] Pharaohs were often depicted

as part human and part lion wearing the false beard saturated with labdanum. This beardwas inspired by the lion's mane and was part of the various sphinx depicting thePharaohs.[53] A sphinx of Pharaoh Hatsheput displays a lion's mane and the pharaoh'smanufactured beard.[54]Strong defines the root word of shecheleth as "to roar; a lion(from his characteristic roar)."[55] Labdanum was used not only as a perfume and adhesivefor the Pharaohs beard but was also used by the Egyptian art of the apothecary in anincense known as kyphi which was rolled into small balls and burned upon coals of fire.However labdanum could also be an ingredient of a powdered incense. When aged itbecomes more fragrant[56]but it also becomes very brittle[57] and hard.[58] The fresh resinis a soft, sticky, and tar-like substance that is sweet, flowery, musky, and reminiscent ofhoney or ambergris with a hint of sweet leather. Rabban Simeon, the son of Gamliel, saidthat wine was used to make onycha become hard,[59]thereby admitting that onycha wasnot a preexistingly hard mollusk shell, but that onycha was a soft resinous material suchas is labdanum. Herodotus affirms that it was much used by the Arabians in perfumes. [60]According to Pliny the Elder(23 - 79 AD), who mentions its fragrant smell, it was theextract of an herb called " ladan."[61][62] Labdanum was known as "Arabic ladan."[63]

According to the book of Exodus the Israelites were familiar with the ancient art of theapothecary (or perfumery) of the Egyptians from whom they had just been liberated.Lucas lists labdanum (along with frankincense, myrrh, galbanum, and storax) among theonly materials most certain to have been used in ancient Egypt and that labdanum "wasabundant in the countries bordering the Mediterranean with which Egypt hadintercourse. [64]He writes that in the Bible it is stated that certain merchants carriedladanum into Egypt from Gilead (Genesis, xxxvii : 25, Revised Version) and that Jacobsent ladanum to Egypt as a present to his son Joseph (Genesis, xliii : II RevisedVersion). [65] Newberry reports that the ancient Egyptians were acquainted withlabdanum as early as the 1st century.[66] Pliny states that the Ptolemies introducedlabdanum into 'the parts beyond Egypt.[67] It was known to the Greeks as early as thetimes of Herodotus (484-425 BC)[68] and Theophrastus (370 - 285 BC). It was one of theingredients in a remedy in the ancient Egyptian Materia Medica, [69] and in an ancient

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyphihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-57http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-58http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-59http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-59http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-59http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-60http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-61http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-63http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-64http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-64http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-65http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-66http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-67http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-68http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-69http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyphihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-57http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-58http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-59http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-60http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-61http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-63http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-64http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-65http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-66http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-67http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-68http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-69

7/27/2019 Onycha

5/14

Egyptian papyrus dated 1500 BC it is used along with hippopontamus fat, as a cure fordandruff.[70] Labdanum was often made into incense cakes for temple offerings as wellas used as a fixative in perfumes.[71] Lucas records an instance of ladanum having beenfound in connection with ancient Egypt [which] is a specimen of Coptic incense of theseventh century from Faras near Wadi Halfa. [72]

Martin Luther, in co-operation with Bible expert and Greek scholar Philipp Melanchton,rejected the operculum theory in favor of onycha being a plant product.[73]A commentaryfootnote in one of the older copies of the Authorized Version seems to agree saying, Theonly hint about the onycha that we can find is in the Arabic version, where we meet withladana, suggesting . . . gum-ladanum.[74]The Illustrated Dictionary of the Bible plainlydefines onycha as the gum resin obtained from . . . the rockrose, also known aslabdanum.[75]

Bochartus, a scholar of profound erudition possessing a thorough knowledge of theprincipal Oriental languages, including Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldean and Arabic, argued that

onycha was labdanum. It is claimed Bochartus proves, by many arguments, [onycha ] tobe ladanum [76][77][78]

Abrahams writes that "the Hebrew name shecheleth was translated as ladana, giving riseto labdanum."[79]The renowned Jewish scholar and writerSaadya (Sa adiah ben YosefGaon, 882-942), born in Upper Egypt (Fayum) and educated in Fustat (Old Cairo),translated the Bible into Arabic. Saadya, who was a theologian as well as the head Rabbiat the Sura Academy,[80] was equally versed in Hebrew, in Greek, and in Arabic, andknew the people and customs of the whole Arabic region intimately. Saadya's translationfor Shecheleth was the Arabic "Ladana," and ladana is our ladanum or labdanum. [19] H.J.Abrahams states that "I am sure that Shecheleth (onycha) is a plant product . . . After

diligent reflection on all these diverse options, there is little doubt in my mind thatonycha of Exodus 30:34 is labdanum. Saadya's labdanum is not only ideally suited foruse in incense, but it is also a product of the Jewish homeland." [16]

Benzoin

The internationally renowned Bible scholar Bochart stated, at one point in his research,that onycha was actually benzoin, a gum-resin from the Styrax species. [19] H.J. Abrahamsstates that the use of benzoin in the Biblical incense is not inconceivable since Syro-Arabian tribes maintained extensive trade routes prior to Hellenism. Styrax Benzoin wasavailable via import to the biblical lands during the Old Testament era. Herodotus of

Halicarnassus in the 5th century BC indicates that different kinds of styrax resins weretraded. Styrax benzoin was used by the ancient Egyptians in the art of perfumery andincense. The apothecary of Shemot (book of Exodus) would have been familiar with itsaromatic uses. S. benzoin has a history steeped in antiquity and was once employed as anincense in Egypt. All the compounds identified in benzoin resin were detected in anarchaeological organic residue from an Egyptian ceramic censer, thus proving that thisresin was used as one of the components of the mixture of organic materials burned asincense in ancient Egypt.[81]An ancient Egyptian perfume formula (1200 BC) contained

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-70http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-71http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-72http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-73http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-73http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-73http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-74http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-74http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-75http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-76http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-77http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-78http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-79http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-79http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-79http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saadyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-80http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-ReferenceB-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Abrahams.2C_H.J-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-ReferenceB-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-81http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-81http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-81http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-70http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-71http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-72http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-73http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-74http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-75http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-76http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-77http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-78http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-79http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saadyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-80http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-ReferenceB-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Abrahams.2C_H.J-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-ReferenceB-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-81

7/27/2019 Onycha

6/14

benzoin as one of its chief ingredients.[82] The name "benzoin" is probably derived fromArabic lubn jw ( , "Javan frankincense"); compare the mid-eastern terms"gum benjamin" and "benjoin". The word 'Storax' is an alteration of the Late Latin styrax.In the Orphic hymns it is or . As pointed out earlier, the original wordshecheleth was replaced with onycha by the Septuagint translation. Onycha in turn is

derived from the onyx stone meaning "fingernail". Conder writes that "the root of theHebrew word [shecheleth] means to drop or distil, and shecheleth would seem, therefore,to mean some exudation.[20] Another writer says that the Hebrew shecheleth identifieswith the Syriac shehelta which is translated as a tear or distillation and that the contextand the etymology seem to require the gum of some aromatic plant . . . The Hebrew wordwould seem to mean something that exuded, having odorous qualities.[83] The book ofEcclesiasticus lists storax as one of the ingredients when alluding to the sacred incense ofthe biblical tabernacle.[84] The Hindustanis use Benzoin to burn in their templesacircumstance strongly in favor of the hypothesis that benzoin is part of the incenseformula of Exodus.[85] The infrequent mention of benzoin by name in antiquity is quitesuspicious[according to whom?] considering its importance in ancient recipes. It stands to reason it

must have been known by another name not currently used today. References to it byname are conspicuously missing also from the Old Testament. Callcott writes It hasbeen suggested [86] that Gum Benzoin, which is not mentioned by any other name inscripture, must be onycha. Its fracture has exactly the lustre required by the name. . . Thegum is a secretion of the bark, and is of great efficacy in healing wounds. . . Such are thepretensions of the Benzoin to be looked upon as the true Onycha, which, from the text, asI have already said, must have been some fragrant vegetable gum in itself, of foreignproduction, and ranking with stacte, and myrrh, and galbanum . . . all which conditionsare fulfilled by the Gum Benzoin. [87] Dioscorides and Galen describe two kinds ofbdellium, the second of which is Benzoin, according to Hardouin and Sprengel.[88] Pererradescribes benzoin tears as "flattened pieces, some of which are angular, and the larger of

them . . . an inch in length."

[89]

He says that "externally, these pieces are shiny." Thisdescription most certainly fits well with the interpretation of "onycha" which means"fingernail." He continues to say many of the pieces "are of an amber or reddish-yellowcolour" and continues to describe parts of it as "translucent or milky, and frequentlystriped." This is a good description of the appearance of various onyx stones, from whichthe name onycha is derived. He says that many tears of Styrax benzoin "are translucent,or, in a few cases, almost transparent." [90] One type of benzoin has "numerous, white,small pieces . . . intermingled, which thereby give the broken surface a speckledappearance" which he calls "marbly." [90] As mentioned above, although the word onychahas been interpreted as meaning "nail" it is pointed out that nail or claw is actually anextended connotation of onyx, derived from the translucent and sometimes veinedappearance of the gemstone onyx. Onyx comes in a variety of colors the most prominentbeing either the black and veined striped gem or the pinkish translucent striped gem. Onerelated Styrax is black and the benzoin discussed thus far seems to be of the pinkish,translucent sort. Steeping Styrax benzoin tears in wine can enhance its fragrance as wellas its translucent qualities and "shiny" appearance, thus making it appear even more likethe onyx gem. Rambam stated that soaking onycha in wine made it beautiful. [91]Benzointears look much different than other resins and appears to be small stones rather than thevegetable product that it is.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-82http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-ReferenceC-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-83http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-84http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-85http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_wordshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_wordshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_wordshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-86http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-87http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-88http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-89http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Pereira-90http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Pereira-90http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-91http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-91http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-82http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-ReferenceC-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-83http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-84http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-85http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_wordshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-86http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-87http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-88http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-89http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Pereira-90http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Pereira-90http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-91

7/27/2019 Onycha

7/14

Rashi writes that onycha was a root from the ground. Benzoin almonds do not resemblethe resins they actually are but appear as a rough stony almonds. Not being native toPalestine they could easily have been mistaken as portions of a root since they do notseem to adequately resemble any other portion of a plant body. However it seems that theroot of benzoin was also used. The ancient Greeks and Romans used benzoin root in a

seasoning sauce for a meat boiled in sweet herbs.[92]

A Roman supper sometimes includedshellfish prepared with pepper, cinnamon, and benzoin root.[93]Benzoin root was alsoused in a recipe for seasoning goose liver. [94] Benzoin root is still used today in incenserecipes.[95] Also the resin proper is procured near the root of the tree. [96] Resin procuredfrom the tree during the first three years is referred to as head benzoin. That which isobtained during the next 7 or 8 years is known as the belly benzoin. The third type iscalled foot benzoin, and is obtained by splitting the tree and scraping the wood of thetrunk and roots.[96]This latter source contains impurities. Rambam says that onycha wasrubbed with bitter vetch to remove impurities.[4] The Talmud also appears to indicate thatonycha came from an annual plant.[23]Benzoin gum is harvested annually,[96] and notbeing native to Palestine it is possible confusion slipped in identifying its annual yield

with its life span. Different Styrax trees are often misidentified or referred to as a"bush."[97] Onycha is said to have been soaked in wine to enhance its fragrance which wasoften done with resins used for incense. [98]

The Hindustanis refer to benzoin as lobanee or luban. The Arabs refer to it asluban or luban jawi.[99][100]

The book of Eccesiasticus (Sirach) 24:15 alludes to the sacred incense speaking of apleasant odour like the best myrrh, as galbanum, and onyx, and sweet storax, and as thefume of frankincense in the tabernacle.[101] The storax of antiquity was styrax.[102]Interestingly the writer refers to "onyx" as opposed to "onycha" while referencing styrax

as part of the formula. Styrax benzoin may have been the concrete carrier for the liquidmyrrh called stacte.[103][104] Onycha may have been labdanum.[22] Since myrrh was oftenmixed with labdanum,[105][106] throughout many centuries benzoin and labdanum may haveinadvertently switched places in the formula.[107] The possibility exists that the onycha ofExodus 30 was labdanum while the onycha of the second Temple was benzoin, with bothingredients still remaining in both formulas.

Winifred Walker writes that the onycha referred to in Exodus 30 is labdanum [108]but laterin the same book states that there was also another onycha, which he also equates as acomponent of the holy incense, which may have been derived from benzoin. [109]

Labdanum and Benzoin mixed

Labdanum and benzoin was often mixed together. The reproduced scent of ambergris ispredominantly a mix of labdanum and benzoin. Ambergris was used by the ancientEgyptians as an incense.[110] For centuries, benzoin has been mixed with labdanum,particularly in the Middle East, as an incense to scent homes, places of worship, and as anair purifier.[111] This blend was used by the ancient Egyptians as an incense. Based onsome of the latest research from the Edfu temple and a recent study of ceramic dishes

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-92http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-93http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-93http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-93http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-94http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-95http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Herb_Data_New_Zealand_1926-96http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Herb_Data_New_Zealand_1926-96http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Herb_Data_New_Zealand_1926-96http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Rambam_on_Maaser_Sheni_2:4-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Kerithoth_6b-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Kerithoth_6b-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Kerithoth_6b-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Herb_Data_New_Zealand_1926-96http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-97http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-98http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-99http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-100http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-101http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-102http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-102http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-103http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-104http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Walker.2C_Winifred_1979-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-105http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-106http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-107http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-108http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-108http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-109http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-110http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-historykb.com-111http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-92http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-93http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-94http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-95http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Herb_Data_New_Zealand_1926-96http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Herb_Data_New_Zealand_1926-96http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Rambam_on_Maaser_Sheni_2:4-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Kerithoth_6b-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Herb_Data_New_Zealand_1926-96http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-97http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-98http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-99http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-100http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-101http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-102http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-103http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-104http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Walker.2C_Winifred_1979-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-105http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-106http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-107http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-108http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-109http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-110http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-historykb.com-111

7/27/2019 Onycha

8/14

used in the preparation of kyphi, it appears that labdanum mixed with benzoin was animportant part of the kyphi recipe. [111] It was also part of the formula written about byNostradamus who said it made the most supreme perfume, and the longest-lasting thatcan be made anywhere in the world and that it acted as an air purifier against disease. [112]

It is possible that onycha was this mix of labdanum and Styrax benzoin. Styrax (referred

to as storax in antiquity) is mentioned alongside of onycha in Eccesiasticus 24:15 whenalluding to the sacred incense. Either onycha and styrax were originally mixed together orstyrax was treated with labdanum or by the time of the first temple period a fifthingredient was added to the ketoret.[113]Styrax benzoin may have been the solid carrier forthe clarified liquid labdanum.

Bdellium

Commiphora wightii, syn. C. mukul: Bdellium has been seriously considered as theancient onycha. The tree, which grows in Arabia, produces a gum that was used inantiquity as an incense. It was one of the substances used in incense in ancient Egypt. As

an incense it produces a sweet, spicy smell that some consider similar, although less bitterthan, myrrh, combined with the scent of mushroom. The gum was often used as anadulterant of myrrh in the spice trade. The gum rolled into a small ball is known ashadrabolon. It is dry and shining having numerous white spots, like finger-nails in shape.[114] Dioscorides said that bdellium was "the tear of an Arabian tree." [115][116] He describesbdellium as resembling a fingernail[117] (which is the Greek meaning of onycha). Plinysays that bdellium " is shining and dry, and covered with numerous white spotsresembling the fingernails."[118][119]This is the appears to be the same bdellium referred toby Damocritus, a medical writer, who was quoted by Saracenus in his Scholia inDioscoridis, and the same bdellium referred to by Galen, as quoted by Salmasius in hisPlinianae Exercitationes. Salmasius states that bdellium is the Arab Molochil (Mukul). [120]

When used in sacred rites, bdellium was steeped in wine to increase its fragrance[114]

(Rambam says that shecheleth, or onycha, was steeped in wine to enhance its fragrance).[121] The gum exudes from the cracks in the bark of the trunk near the root (Rashi refers toonycha, or shecheleth, as a kind of root). Bdellium is referred to in the early history of theBible. Bdellium, like onyx, is the name both of an odoriferous gum and also of a gem orprecious stone. "And the gold of that land is good: there is bdellium and the onyx stone."(Gen 2:12)

Gum Tragacanth

After this gum is harvested it takes on the appearance of grotesque "fingernails." It had

been used for thousands of years as an ingredient in incense and has been seriouslyconsidered a likely candidate for onycha.

Cloves

Cloves or "zipporen" in Hebrew, have been considered as a possibility. In contemporaryHebrew the word means "nails".

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyphihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-historykb.com-111http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-112http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-113http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-113http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commiphora_wightiihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Natural_History_12.19-114http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-115http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-116http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-117http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-118http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-119http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-119http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-120http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Natural_History_12.19-114http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-121http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyphihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-historykb.com-111http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-112http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-113http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commiphora_wightiihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Natural_History_12.19-114http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-115http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-116http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-117http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-118http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-119http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-120http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-Natural_History_12.19-114http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-121

7/27/2019 Onycha

9/14

Amber

It was the opinion of K.G. Jacob that shecheleth was amber. [122]

Cuttlefish bone

Cuttlefish bone looks like large fingernails and can also be used in incense.

Spikenard

Spikenard is a well known aromatic that has been suggested.

See also

Ketoret

Labdanum Rockrose Bdellium Operculum Tragacanth

Notes

1. ^ Exodus 30:33, 37-38.2. ^ Strongs #78273. ^ ab Onkelos Shemot 2:10

4. ^ ab Rambam on Maaser Sheni 2:45. ^ Babli, Keritut:6a6. ^ Encyclopedia of Bible Plants (F Nigel Hepper 1992)7. ^ Abrahams, H.J. - Onycha, Ingredient of the Ancient Jewish Incense: An

attempt at identification, Econ. Bot. 33(2): 233-6 19798. ^ Ex. 11:10-129. ^ 11:2410. ^ Shabbos 28a11. ^ Abrahams, HJ, Pg 23412. ^ ab Cyclopaedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature,

Volume 7, by James Strong John McClintock

13. ^ Kumph, A mboinischeRaritdten-Kammer, cap. xvii, p. 48 (the Germaned. Vienna, 1706); and comp. also Sprcngel, Comment, ad Dioscor. ii, 10;Forskal, Desc.Anim. p. 143 ("Unguis odoratus"); Phiios. Transactions, xvii, 641;Johnston, Introd. to ConchoL p. 77; Gesenius, Thesaur. p. 1388

14. ^ Exodus 30:34b15. ^ Symbol, i, 42216. ^ abc Abrahams, H.J.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-122http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketorethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labdanumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockrosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bdelliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operculum_(gastropod)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragacanthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Exodushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Onkelos_Shemot_2:10_3-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Onkelos_Shemot_2:10_3-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Onkelos_Shemot_2:10_3-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Rambam_on_Maaser_Sheni_2:4_4-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Rambam_on_Maaser_Sheni_2:4_4-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Rambam_on_Maaser_Sheni_2:4_4-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Talmub_Babli_5-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-ReferenceA_12-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-ReferenceA_12-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-ReferenceA_12-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Abrahams.2C_H.J_16-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Abrahams.2C_H.J_16-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Abrahams.2C_H.J_16-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Abrahams.2C_H.J_16-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_note-122http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketorethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labdanumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockrosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bdelliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operculum_(gastropod)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragacanthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Exodushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Onkelos_Shemot_2:10_3-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Onkelos_Shemot_2:10_3-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Rambam_on_Maaser_Sheni_2:4_4-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Rambam_on_Maaser_Sheni_2:4_4-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Talmub_Babli_5-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-ReferenceA_12-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-ReferenceA_12-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Abrahams.2C_H.J_16-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Abrahams.2C_H.J_16-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Abrahams.2C_H.J_16-2

7/27/2019 Onycha

10/14

17. ^ James L. Carroll, Elizabeth Siler, "Let My Prayer Be Set Before Thee:The Burning of Incense in the Temple Cult of Ancient Israel"

18. ^ James L. Carroll, Elizabeth Siler19. ^ abc Abrahams, H.J. - Onycha, Ingredient of the ancient Jewish incense:

An attempt at identification in Econ. Bot. 33(2): 233-6 1979

20. ^a

b

Josiah Conder. The modern traveller (Volume 7)21. ^ Hagensick, Carl, Beauties of the Truth, Volume 4, Number 2, May 199322. ^ ab Walker, Winifred, "All the Plants of the Bible,"Doubleday &

Company (October 1979)23. ^ abc Kerithoth 6b24. ^ Chemical abstracts, Volume 13, By American Chemical

Society,Chemical Abstracts Service, pg.2104)25. ^ Gil Markshttp://www.gilmarks.com/1215.html26. ^ Cyclopaedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature,James

Strong, John McClintock27. ^Antique Gems, p. 9.

28. ^ Cyclopaedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature,Volume 7, by James Strong, John McClintock29. ^ Jacobs, Louis, The Jewish religion: a companion. pg. 26630. ^ Sutton, Rabbi Avraham, The Spiritual Significance of the Qetoret in

Ancient Jewish Tradition31. ^Natural History 12.19.32. ^ KI SISA - RASHI COMMENTARY, Shemos Book 2: Exodus33. ^ Age-old Resins of the Mediterranean Region and Their Uses, FN Howes

- Economic Botany34. ^ Gray, Samuel Frederick, A Supplement to the Pharmacopia and

Treatise on Pharmacology in General,pg. 20535. ^ http://www.naturalhealthcrafters.com/essentialoils/ambreine.html

(Second paragraph)36. ^ A Survey of Plants Used in Jordanian Traditional Medicine, 1995, Vol.

33, No. 4 , pp. 317-323, Suleiman Al-Khalil, Faculty of Pharmacy, University ofJordan, Amman, Jordan

37. ^ Palynological analyses of resinuous materials from the roman mummyof Grottarossa, second century A.D.: a new hypothesis about the site ofmummification L. Ciuffarella, aDipartimento di Biologia Vegetale, Universitdegli Studi di Roma `La Sapienza', P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy

38. ^ Abrahams, Onycha..., pg.23639. ^ Studia Antiqua: The Journal of the Student Society for Ancient Studies,

Fall 2002, Volume 2, Number 240. ^ Lynne, Mary, Galaxy of Scents: The Ancient Art of Perfume Making41. ^ Histrenact, Historical Reenactment Database42. ^ http://bible.ort.org/books/glosd1.asp?

ACTION=displayletter&char=79&cat=343. ^Newberry, Percy E., The Shepherds "Crook" and the So-Called "Flail"

or "Scourge" of Osiris44. ^ http://www.jstor.org/pss/3854018

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-ReferenceB_19-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-ReferenceB_19-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-ReferenceB_19-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-ReferenceB_19-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-ReferenceC_20-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-ReferenceC_20-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-ReferenceC_20-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Walker.2C_Winifred_1979_22-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Walker.2C_Winifred_1979_22-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Walker.2C_Winifred_1979_22-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Kerithoth_6b_23-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Kerithoth_6b_23-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Kerithoth_6b_23-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Kerithoth_6b_23-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gil_Markshttp://www.gilmarks.com/1215.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-35http://www.naturalhealthcrafters.com/essentialoils/ambreine.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-42http://bible.ort.org/books/glosd1.asp?ACTION=displayletter&char=79&cat=3http://bible.ort.org/books/glosd1.asp?ACTION=displayletter&char=79&cat=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-44http://www.jstor.org/pss/3854018http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-ReferenceB_19-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-ReferenceB_19-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-ReferenceB_19-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-ReferenceC_20-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-ReferenceC_20-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Walker.2C_Winifred_1979_22-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Walker.2C_Winifred_1979_22-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Kerithoth_6b_23-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Kerithoth_6b_23-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Kerithoth_6b_23-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gil_Markshttp://www.gilmarks.com/1215.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-35http://www.naturalhealthcrafters.com/essentialoils/ambreine.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-42http://bible.ort.org/books/glosd1.asp?ACTION=displayletter&char=79&cat=3http://bible.ort.org/books/glosd1.asp?ACTION=displayletter&char=79&cat=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-44http://www.jstor.org/pss/3854018

7/27/2019 Onycha

11/14

45. ^ http://labdanum-creta.blogspot.com/2006/05/crook-and-flail-in-ancient-egypt.html

46. ^ Rhind, William, A history of the vegetable kingdom: embracing thephysiology of plants

47. ^ http://www.buffaloah.com/a/archsty/egypt/illus/illus.html

48. ^Newberry, PE, The Shepherd's Crook and the So-Called" Flail" or"Scourge" of Osiris, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 1929, pg. 1049. ^Newberry, PE, The Shepherd's Crook and the So-Called" Flail" or"

Scourge" of Osiris, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 1929, pg.950. ^

http://www.bojensen.net/EssentialOilsEng/EssentialOils15/EssentialOils15.htm51. ^ Myliwiec, Karol, The twilight of ancient Egypt: first millennium

B.C.E., pg. 12.52. ^ Massey, Gerald, Ancient Egypt - The Light of the World: A Work of

Reclamation And Restitution In Twelve Books53. ^ http://www.aldokkan.com/society/pharaoh.htm

54. ^ http://www.art.com/products/p15439682-sa-i3746638/kenneth-garrett-as-a-sphinx-hatshepsut-displays-a-lions-mane-and-a-pharaohs-beard.htm55. ^ Strong's Exhaustive Concordence, Hebrew # 7827 & #782656. ^

http://www.essentiallyoils.com/Newsletters/2000/April_2000_Newsletter/april_2000_newsletter.html

57. ^ http://www.thegoodscentscompany.com/data/rs1064991.html http://classroom.all-science-fair-projects.com/science_fair_projects_encyclopedia/Labdanum

58. ^ King's American Dispensatory, 1898, by Harvey Wickes Felter, M.D.,and John Uri Lloyd, Phr. M., Ph. D

59. ^ Mendes, Abraham Pereira, Prayers for the Intermediate Days on theTabernacles

60. ^Natural History Bible; or, description all quadrupeds, birds, fishes [&c.]mentioned Sacred scriptures, THADDEUS MASON HARRIS, D.D.

61. ^Natural History Bible; or, Description of All Quadrupeds, Birds, Fishes[&c.] Mentioned in the Sacred scriptures, Collected From the Best Authorities,and Alphabetically Arranged by Thaddeus Mason Harris, D.D. of Dorchester,Massachusetts

62. ^N. H. 1. xii. c. 1763. ^ O'Dowd, Michael J., The history of medications for women: materia

medica woman, pg. 16564. ^ Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries,pp.114-115, By A. Lucas65. ^ Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries,pg.116, By A. Lucas66. ^ P.E. Newberry, in Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, xv (1929), pg.9467. ^ XII:3768. ^ Book 3, Chapters 107-82, The History of Herodotus, George Rawlinson,

ed. and tr., vol. 2 (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1885)69. ^ French Observations of Disease and Drug Use in Late Eighteenth

Century, by J ESTES - 1984 -

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-45http://labdanum-creta.blogspot.com/2006/05/crook-and-flail-in-ancient-egypt.htmlhttp://labdanum-creta.blogspot.com/2006/05/crook-and-flail-in-ancient-egypt.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-47http://www.buffaloah.com/a/archsty/egypt/illus/illus.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-50http://www.bojensen.net/EssentialOilsEng/EssentialOils15/EssentialOils15.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-53http://www.aldokkan.com/society/pharaoh.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-54http://www.art.com/products/p15439682-sa-i3746638/kenneth-garrett-as-a-sphinx-hatshepsut-displays-a-lions-mane-and-a-pharaohs-beard.htmhttp://www.art.com/products/p15439682-sa-i3746638/kenneth-garrett-as-a-sphinx-hatshepsut-displays-a-lions-mane-and-a-pharaohs-beard.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-56http://www.essentiallyoils.com/Newsletters/2000/April_2000_Newsletter/april_2000_newsletter.htmlhttp://www.essentiallyoils.com/Newsletters/2000/April_2000_Newsletter/april_2000_newsletter.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-57http://www.thegoodscentscompany.com/data/rs1064991.htmlhttp://classroom.all-science-fair-projects.com/science_fair_projects_encyclopedia/Labdanumhttp://classroom.all-science-fair-projects.com/science_fair_projects_encyclopedia/Labdanumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-58http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-59http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-60http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-61http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-63http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-64http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-65http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-66http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-67http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-68http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-69http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-45http://labdanum-creta.blogspot.com/2006/05/crook-and-flail-in-ancient-egypt.htmlhttp://labdanum-creta.blogspot.com/2006/05/crook-and-flail-in-ancient-egypt.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-47http://www.buffaloah.com/a/archsty/egypt/illus/illus.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-50http://www.bojensen.net/EssentialOilsEng/EssentialOils15/EssentialOils15.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-53http://www.aldokkan.com/society/pharaoh.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-54http://www.art.com/products/p15439682-sa-i3746638/kenneth-garrett-as-a-sphinx-hatshepsut-displays-a-lions-mane-and-a-pharaohs-beard.htmhttp://www.art.com/products/p15439682-sa-i3746638/kenneth-garrett-as-a-sphinx-hatshepsut-displays-a-lions-mane-and-a-pharaohs-beard.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-56http://www.essentiallyoils.com/Newsletters/2000/April_2000_Newsletter/april_2000_newsletter.htmlhttp://www.essentiallyoils.com/Newsletters/2000/April_2000_Newsletter/april_2000_newsletter.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-57http://www.thegoodscentscompany.com/data/rs1064991.htmlhttp://classroom.all-science-fair-projects.com/science_fair_projects_encyclopedia/Labdanumhttp://classroom.all-science-fair-projects.com/science_fair_projects_encyclopedia/Labdanumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-58http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-59http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-60http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-61http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-63http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-64http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-65http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-66http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-67http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-68http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-69

7/27/2019 Onycha

12/14

70. ^ Brooklyn Museum Archives. Records of the Department of PublicInformation. Press releases, 1939 - 1941. 01-02/1940, 025-7,Beauty Formula fromEgyptians Papyrus 1500 B.C.

71. ^ The Cosmetic and Perfume Practices of the Ancient Egyptians: Part 2-The Ingredients, by Aimee Bova

72. ^ A. Lucas, Preservative Materials used by the Ancient Egyptians inEmbalming, pp. 31-273. ^ Abrahams, JH, pg. 23474. ^ The Holy Bible: According to the Authorized Version, with Original

Notes, and the Subjects of Natural History, Costume, and Antiquities from theBest Sources . . . Volume 1, London C. Knight, 22, Ludgate Street,MDCCCXXXVI

75. ^ Illustrated Dictionary of the Bible, H. Lockyer Sr., F.F. Bruce, R.K.Harrison. I.D.B., Plants of the Bible (under onycha) online:http://www.angelfire.com/sc3/wedigmontana/Plantsp4.html#R>R -

7/27/2019 Onycha

13/14

92. ^ Soyer, Alexis, The Pantropheon: A History of Food and Its Preparationin Ancient Times

93. ^ The Eclectic Review: N.S. V. 19 1823 Jan-Jun, University of MichiganLibrary (April 27, 2009)

94. ^ Remains, Historical & Literary, Connected with the Palatine Counties of

Lancaster and Chester, Chetham Society95. ^ http://www.starbornalchemy.com/perfumeoil.html96. ^ abc Herb Data New Zealand, Benzoinum, Monograph of the U.S.D.

1926, Edited by Ivor Hughes97. ^ http://www.laspilitas.com/nature-of-california/plants/styrax-officinalis-

californica98. ^ Kerithoth 6a; Yad, Kley HaMikdash 2:599. ^ Langenheim, Jean H. (2003).Plant resins: chemistry, evolution,

ecology, and ethnobotany. Timber Press. p. 354.100. ^ The plants and drugs of Sind: Being a systematic account, with

descriptions of the indigenous flora and notices of the value and uses of their

products in commerce, medicine, and the arts, by James A Murray101. ^ http://theology101.org/bib/apo/sir024.htm#015102. ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica 1893:Incense of the Old Testament103. ^ Archaeology Along the Spice Route of Yemen by James A. Sauer and

Jeffrey A. Blakely. Araby the blest: studies in Arabian archaeology, By Daniel T.Potts

104. ^ http://www.cookingwiththebible.com/reader/Default.aspx/GR3410-4252/lore/

105. ^ Stewart, David, Healing Oils of the Bible106. ^ Merriam-Webster Dictionary, Myrrh107. ^ Tucker, A.O., Frankincense and Myrrh Economic botany, 1986108. ^ Walker, Winifred, All the Plants of the Bible, pg.158109. ^ Walker, Winifred, All the Plants of the Bible, pg.241110. ^ Brady, George Stuart; Clauser, Henry R.; Vaccari, John A. (2002).

Materials Handbook: An Encyclopedia for Managers, Technical Professionals,Purchasing and Production Managers, Technicians, and Supervisors. UnitedStates: McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 64. ISBN 9780071360760.

111. ^ abhttp://www.historykb.com/Uwe/Forum.aspx/ancient-egypt/54/Kyphi-receipe-by-V-Loret#aa1e8972ce917uwe

112. ^Nostradamus,Trait des fardemens et confitures, Part 1 Chapter XI113. ^ Taylor's edition of Calmet's great dictionary of the Holy Bible, By

Augustin Calmet, Charles Taylor, Edward Wells114. ^ ab Natural History 12.19115. ^ "De Materia Medica," i. 80116. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia,Morris Jastrow Jr. and Immanuel Benzinger117. ^ De materia medica, A, 67118. ^ Report by Dr. M. C. Cooke, on the gums, resins, oleo-resins, and

resinous Products in the India Museum, Or Produced in India, By MordecaiCubitt Cooke, John Forbes Watson

119. ^ Historia Naturalis

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-92http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-93http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-94http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-95http://www.starbornalchemy.com/perfumeoil.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Herb_Data_New_Zealand_1926_96-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Herb_Data_New_Zealand_1926_96-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Herb_Data_New_Zealand_1926_96-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Herb_Data_New_Zealand_1926_96-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-97http://www.laspilitas.com/nature-of-california/plants/styrax-officinalis-californicahttp://www.laspilitas.com/nature-of-california/plants/styrax-officinalis-californicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-98http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-99http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-100http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-101http://theology101.org/bib/apo/sir024.htm#015http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-102http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-103http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-104http://www.cookingwiththebible.com/reader/Default.aspx/GR3410-4252/lore/http://www.cookingwiththebible.com/reader/Default.aspx/GR3410-4252/lore/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-105http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-106http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-107http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-108http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-109http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-110http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780071360760http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-historykb.com_111-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-historykb.com_111-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-historykb.com_111-1http://www.historykb.com/Uwe/Forum.aspx/ancient-egypt/54/Kyphi-receipe-by-V-Loret#aa1e8972ce917uwehttp://www.historykb.com/Uwe/Forum.aspx/ancient-egypt/54/Kyphi-receipe-by-V-Loret#aa1e8972ce917uwehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-112http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-113http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Natural_History_12.19_114-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Natural_History_12.19_114-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Natural_History_12.19_114-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-115http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-116http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-117http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-118http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-119http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-92http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-93http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-94http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-95http://www.starbornalchemy.com/perfumeoil.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Herb_Data_New_Zealand_1926_96-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Herb_Data_New_Zealand_1926_96-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Herb_Data_New_Zealand_1926_96-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-97http://www.laspilitas.com/nature-of-california/plants/styrax-officinalis-californicahttp://www.laspilitas.com/nature-of-california/plants/styrax-officinalis-californicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-98http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-99http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-100http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-101http://theology101.org/bib/apo/sir024.htm#015http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-102http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-103http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-104http://www.cookingwiththebible.com/reader/Default.aspx/GR3410-4252/lore/http://www.cookingwiththebible.com/reader/Default.aspx/GR3410-4252/lore/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-105http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-106http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-107http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-108http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-109http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-110http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780071360760http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-historykb.com_111-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-historykb.com_111-1http://www.historykb.com/Uwe/Forum.aspx/ancient-egypt/54/Kyphi-receipe-by-V-Loret#aa1e8972ce917uwehttp://www.historykb.com/Uwe/Forum.aspx/ancient-egypt/54/Kyphi-receipe-by-V-Loret#aa1e8972ce917uwehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-112http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-113http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Natural_History_12.19_114-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-Natural_History_12.19_114-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-115http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-116http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-117http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-118http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-119

7/27/2019 Onycha

14/14

120. ^ Report by Dr. M. C. Cooke, on the gums, resins, oleo-resins, andresinous Products in the India Museum, Or Produced in India, By MordecaiCubitt Cooke, John Forbes Watson

121. ^ Kerithoth 6a; Yad, Kley HaMikdash 2:5122. ^ Encyclopaedia Biblica : a critical dictionary of the literary, political, and

religious history, the archaeology, geography, and natural history of the Bible,Edited by T. K. Cheyne, M.A., D.D. and J. Sutherland Black M.A., LL.D.

References

1. The operculum section incorporates content from the 1728 Cyclopaedia, apublication in the public domain.1728

2. "Onycha".Navigating the Bible II. World ORT. URL accessed 2006-05-20.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-120http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-121http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-122http://bible.ort.org/books/Torahd5.asp?action=displayid&id=2414http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-120http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-121http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onycha#cite_ref-122http://bible.ort.org/books/Torahd5.asp?action=displayid&id=2414