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TITLE PAGE

EFFECT OF MINDMAPPING TEACHING STRATEGY ON STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT, INTEREST AND RETENTION

IN SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL CHEMISTRY

BY

OKEKE OGBONNAYA JAMESPG/Ph.D/06/40694

A DOCTORAL DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION,

FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,NSUKKA

IN FULFILMENT OF REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

EDUCATION.

MARCH, 2011.

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APPROVAL PAGE

This dissertation has been approved for the department of science Education, faculty of Education, University of Nigeria Nsukka.

By

…………………………….. ……………………… Supervisor Date

…………………………….. ……………………… Head of Department Date

…………………………….. ……………………… External Examiner Date

…………………………….. ……………………… Internal Date

…………………………….. ……………………… Dean of faculty Date

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CERTIFICATION

Okeke Ogbonnaya James, a post graduate student of the department

of Science Education, faculty of Education, University of Nigeria,

Nsukka, with registration number PG/Ph.D/06/40694, here by certify

that the research reported here for award of Doctoral Degree in science

Education is original. The work embodied in this dissertation has not

been submitted in part or full for any other diploma or degree of

University of Nigeria, Nsukka or any University.

………………………………… ………………………………

Okeke Ogbonnaya James Professor D.N. Ezeh

Researcher Supervisor

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DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my wife Okeke, Anthonia Nwalorundu.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

To God is the glory. My unquantifiable gratitude goes to my mentor

and able supervisor Prof D.N Ezeh for his continuous and

consistent corrections in this work. I have sincere appreciation for

Prof. U.M. Nzewi, Prof. J. U. Ibiam, Prof. (Mrs.) U.N.V. Agwagah,

Prof. Z.C.Njoku, Dr. (Mrs.) E. C Umeano Dr A. O. Ovute, Dr (Mrs.)

F. O. Ezeudu and Dr. B. C. Madu for their individual corrections

and some pieces of advice given to me on this project.

My gratitude also goes again to Prof. U.M. Nzewi, Prof. F.A.

Okwo, Dr D.U. Ngwoke and Prof. Z.C Njoku who helped and

validated the instruments of this project. Equally wonderful are Dr

(Mrs) C R Nwagbo the Head, Department of Sciece Education and

Dr.K.O Usman the Science Education Departmental PG

representative then who invited me for proposal presentation at the

appropriate time and date. Finally, my thanks go to Miss Okeke

Chioma Brownie for typesetting this project.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents page

Title page …………………………………………………………… (i)

Approval page……………………………………………………... (ii)

Certification……………………………………………………….... (iii)

Dedication………………………………………………………….. (iv)

Acknowledgement…………………………………………………. (vi)

Table of content……………………………………………………. (vii)

List of Tables………………………………………………………. (viii)

List of Figures………………………………………………………. (ix)

Abstract…………………………………………………………….. (x)

Chapter one: Introduction

Background of the study ………………………………….……………1

Statement of the Problem ………………………………….………….12

Purpose of the Study………………………………………….………..13

Significance of study ……………………………………….………….14

Scope of the study ………………………………...............................17

Research Questions …………………………………………………..18

Research Hypotheses ……………………………………………......19

Chapter Two: Review of Related Literature

Conceptual Framework……………………………………………21

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Similarity of human information process and mind mapping

process…………………………………………...............................21

Constructivism …………………………………………………….....28

Constructive teaching and mind mapping process…………….....36

Mind mapping definition, origin and laws…………………………..39

Ausubel’s learning theory and mind mapping process……………47

Empirical studies …………………………………………………...50

Strategies of teaching chemistry …………………………………...50

Students’ gender and achievement in chemistry …………….......54

Students’ gender and interest in chemistry ……………………….56

Status achievement and retention in chemistry …………………..59

Students’ disposition to chemistry ………………………………….61

Summary of literature review ……………………………………….66

Chapter Three: Research Method

Research design …………………………………………………….69

Area of study …………………………………………………………70

Population of study ………………………………………………….70

Sample and sampling technique …………………………………..70

Instrument for data collection ………………………………………71

Development of instruments………………………………………72

Face Validation of instruments …………………………………..74

Content validation of instruments…………………………………75

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Trial testing of instruments ……………………………………….76

Reliability of instrument …………………………………………..76

Validation of the lesson plans ……………………………………77

Experimental procedure and administration of instruments …..77

Control of extraneous variables…………………………………..79

Initial group differences …………………………………………..79

Teacher variable …………………………………………………..79

Instructional situation variable …………………………………...80

Effect of pre-test on post-test……………………………………..80

Subject interaction ………………………………………………...80

Training of teachers ……………………………………………….81

Hawthome Effect ………………………………………………….82

Novelty effect ……………………………………………………...82

Method of data collection …………………………………………83

Method of data analysis …………………………………………..83

Decision rule ………………………………………………………83

Chapter Four: Results

Research question answers and hypotheses testing …………84

Summary of the results ………………………………………….99

Chapter Five:Discussion of Results, conclusions, implications

and recommendations.

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Discussion of results ……………………………………………99

Conclusions ……………………………………………………..107

Implications of the study ……………………………................107

Limitations of the study ………………………………………...108

Recommendations ……………………………………………...109

Suggestions for further studies…………………………………109

Summary of the Study…………………………………………..110

References ………………………………………………………115

Appendix A ………………………………………………………130

Appendix B……………………………………………………….131

Appendix C ………………………………………………………132

Appendix D ……………………………………………………….139

Appendix E ……………………………………………………….140

Appendix F ……………………………………………………….142

Appendix G ………………………………………………………143

Appendix H ………………………………………………………144

Appendix I ………………………………………………………..145

Appendix J ………………………………………………………147

Appendix K ………………………………………………………155

Appendix L ………………………………………………………166

Appendix M ………………………………………………….......174

List of tables: Table Description:

x

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Abstract

Poor trends of academic achievements in secondary school chemistry have been reported consistently by researchers for over 20years now. The reports were obtained through the West African Examination Council (WAEC) in Nigeria. The poor achievements have largely been blamed on teaching methods. This is an indication that the conventional teaching method has not delivered effectively. In view of the noted inconsistency in performance of students in chemistry, there was need to reform teaching using mind mapping teaching strategy (MMTS). Academic performance of students depends mostly on their interest and how much they retained during teaching. Hence, there was need to teach students using MMTS with the dependent variables. MMTS is a constructive graphic organizer that uses the right and the left hemispheres of the brain to generate ideas. The ideas generated are classified by the associations of the cortical skills of the right and the left hemispheres of the brain. Therefore, this study determined the effect of MMTS on students’ interest, retention and achievement in senior secondary school chemistry. The performance of students taught using MMTS (experimental) was compared with students taught without it as control. In order to give the study a sense of direction and carried it out effectively, six research questions were raised and answered while nine null hypotheses were formulated and tested. A quasi experimental, non equivalent, non randomized pre-test post test research design was adopted. The population of the study was 4,698 SS2 chemistry students in Enugu education zone in 2008/2009 academic session. The sample was 194 SS2 chemistry students drawn through multistage sampling technique. Two instruments Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT) and Chemistry Interest Inventory (CII) were developed by the researcher and validated by two university experts in measurement and evaluation and two university experts in chemistry education. The instruments were trial tested at two secondary schools in Enugu urban while the study proper was conducted in four secondary schools in Enugu Education zone in Enugu State. The internal consistency of the CAT and the CII were obtained using Kuder Richardson formula 20(KR-20) and Chronbach alpha procedure. Reliability coefficients of 0.8359 and 0.7214 were obtained for the CAT and the CII respectively. Mean and standard deviation scores were used to answer the six research questions while the nine null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). Results showed that MMTS was more effective in facilitating students’ interest, retention and achievement in chemistry than the control group. Gender was a significant factor on students’ academic achievement and retention but was not on interest in chemistry when taught using MMTS. Furthermore, the results revealed a significant interaction effect of gender and treatment on achievement and interest but not on retention. Based on the findings, some conclusions were drawn and recommendations made. It was effective teaching and learning using MMTS. The strategy promoted the acquisition of scientific skills, technological skills and even entrepreneurial skills. The study recommended adequate training of teachers on the use of MMTS instructional model for Nigerian secondary schools.

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CHAPTER ONEINTRODUCTION

Background of the StudyThe importance of science and technology on the overall

development of any nation is acknowledged worldwide. Some eminent scholars have attested to this importance. For example, Greenbury and Mallow (1982) posited that any nation with scientifically uneducated citizenry cannot be expected to make any reasonable socio-economic and political decisions. Jegede (1983) observed that the current development in science and technology has greatly affected the lives of the average citizen that to be ignorant on the basis of this development is to live an empty, meaningless and hence unrealistic life. Furthermore, Bajah (1992) supported Jegede and noted that the valuable role of science in the technological development of any nation is never in dispute. Finally, Fafunwa (1997) summarized it all when he stated that we are living in a world where science and technology have become an integral part of the world’s culture, and any country that over looked this significant statement does so at its own peril. Therefore, a solid background in the basic sciences is very critical if Nigeria has to attain the required science and technological development height.

The importance of science is anchored on chemistry as one of the core basic sciences for scientific and technological development. Chemistry as a course is one of the basic requirements for some technological courses everywhere. That maybe why Okeke (2005) reported that chemistry is undoubtedly described as one of the pivot subjects for technological development. These descriptions and assertions indicate the significant position accorded to chemistry as a veritable tool for sustainable science and technological

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development. Chemistry has contributed immensely to the betterment of the human condition in engineering plastics, paint, antibiotics portable energy, cooking, cleaning, medicine, drug and environmental issues (www.unilorin.edu.ng/ejournal).

Despite all the importance of chemistry as a key science subject, results revealed that poor achievements have consistently been reported in external examinations (West Africa Examination Council, WAEC, 2001 – 2010) and Chief examiners report of ( NECO, 2006). Chemistry being one of the basic science subjects in which students perform very poorly may be due to many factors – such as mathematical aspects of chemistry, poor teaching methods and strategies, students’ negative disposition and lack of interest in the subject, Anaekwe (1997) and Njoku (1997).

Table 1: Students’ performance in West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) chemistry (May/June 2001-2010)

Year

Total sat

Number and percentages of grades obtained

Total Credit

Total pass Fail

1 – 6 7 – 8 92

001301,

740109,

39736.25%

8167927.06%

88,88743.27%

2002

262, 824

904, 8834.42%

7748029.47%

11066433.82%

2003

288, 324

143, 839

50.94

68,84524.26%

94,85632.55%

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%2

004327,

503124,

00937.86%

65,49925.52%

61,61921.84%

05

349, 936

178, 27450.947%

6642318.71%

47,91327.28%

2006

380, 104

170, 670

44.50%

86,42322.73%

11,44830.11%

2007

391,160

165,26542.25%

74,75119.11%

151,14438.64%

2008

401,723

178,16444.35%

93,64223.31%

129,91732.34%

2009

403,528

158,46539.27%

94,99023.54%

150,07237.19%

2010

411,356

150,14536.50%

91,44422.23%

169,76641.27%

Source: WASSCE Annual Report from 2001 – 2010

A close look at Table 1 shows that the pass rate at credit level decreases gradually as the failure rate increases correspondingly (or inversely proportional) in 2001,2002 and 2004. In 2006,2007,2008,2009 and 2010 the pass rate at credit level fluctuates below average (50%) as the failure rate increases and fluctuates below average respectively also. This is poor trend of performance. The pass rate at credit level in 2003 and 2005 were 50.94% and 50.94% respectively

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while their corresponding absolute failure rate (grade 9) were 32.55% and 27.28%. Therefore, the students’ pass rate at credit level was only in 2 out of 10 years on the average in 2003 and 2005. This shows a poor trend of performance. Also, Ifeakor (2005) had earlier reported a poor trend of performance in chemistry from 1991 to 2000 respectively (WAEC, Annual Reports from 1991 – 2000).The major stakeholders of chemistry education are worried about the development. In view of the noted development in students’ trends of poor performance in chemistry, there is need to try some other teaching methods. Some researchers have been investigating for possible ways of improving students’ poor performance in chemistry (Njoku, 1997; Ifeakor, 2003; Ifeakor, 2005 and Okeke, 2005). Achievement in science continues to be poor as reported earlier by (Ezeh, 1992 & Ali, 1994) prior to 2001. Some researchers had ealiear suggested that teachers’ incompetence was a major contributing factor (Menis and Frazer, 1992). Other research findings (Anaekwe, 1997; Ifeakor, 2003and Ifeakor 2005) attributed the low achievement in secondary school chemistry to teachers’ non utilization of appropriate teaching methods. Furthermore, it has been specifically noted that the use of ineffective teacher centered- strategies like lecture teaching method account for the highest poor performance (Ifeakor, 2000 and Okeke, 2005). Some of these researchers remarked that most teachers in Nigerian secondary schools still believe that the most effective means of communicating to students’ is through the conventional “talk and chalk” method of teaching. This strategy is called lecture teaching method

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(LTM). According to Okoli (2006) the lecture teaching method is a method in which the teacher presents a verbal discourse mainly on a particular subject, theme or concept to the learners. The teacher delivers preplanned lessons to the students with little or no instructional aide that involves students’ activity. Secondary school teachers very often teach subjects by lecture teaching method (LTM) in the guise of conventional teaching method (CTM).This may be because the method is about the easiest to deliver. That may be why majority of them often use this method without recourse to constructive teaching methods that promote the acquisition of scientific skills, technological skills and even entrepreneurial skills. In Nigeria, conventional teaching method indicates a method that is formal and has been in use for long. Conventional teaching method is usually nicknamed by teachers as traditional teaching method. Sometimes questions and answers may be included. Showing of teaching aids may be involved. Hands on activities of the teacher and students are seldom involved. Practical and practices may also be included in conventional teaching method (CTM).

Chemistry teachers have been teaching their students using CTM over the years (2001-2010). Yet WAEC annual reports for the years revealed that students’ pass rate at credit level in chemistry were poor and fluctuating consistently below average. The results were only average in two years 2003 and 2005 out of 10 years. This is an indication that the use of CTM in teaching chemistry has not delivered effectively. The situation therefore calls for exploration of other teaching methods found effective in some other fields

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and countries (Ezeudu, 1991; Nast, 2006; Buzan and Buzan, 2006). Opara (1997) proposed that teachers should use teaching strategies that are constructive in nature and which should involve learners’ active participation and promote skill acquisition. Such strategies should be able to generate interest among students in the learning process. Linda and Collins (1991) investigated the effect of concept mapping on the critical thinking in nursing students. They found out that there was significant difference in mean pretest scores and mean posttest scores in achievement of subjects. The mean posttest scores were higher than the mean pretest scores. Mind mapping teaching strategy (MMTS) may affect a difference also in pretest and posttest scores of this study.

Buzan (1991) stated that mind mapping teaching strategy (MMTS) is a constructive and classification graphic organizer of ideas which uses the cortical skills to unlock the brain potentials. Buzan and Buzan (2006) stated that a mind map is a powerful graphic organizer of ideas, which provides a universal key to unlock the potential of the individual brain. It harnesses the full range of cortical skills, words, image, number, logic, rhythm, colour and spatial awareness in a single uniquely powerful manner. In doing so it gives the learner the freedom to roam the infinite expanses of his or her brain. This study therefore explored how MMTS would help male and female chemistry students roam the infinite expanses of their brain.

Gender is the fact of being male or female. It is one of the independent variables of this study. The influence of gender on the dependent variables of this study was explored. Research reports in the area of gender influence on achievement, interest and retention in classroom management were inconsistent. Some studies reported significant influence on achievement, interest and retention

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of subjects. The result of some other studies indicated no significant influence on the dependent variables. However, some attempts have been made to account for gender influence on achievement, interest and retention of students. Some studies attributed the gender groups’ influential differences to the socialization process in child upbringing. Anesthesia, (1976) attributed the superiority of females over males in languages to the amount and nature of contacts which the girls had with their mothers who were the principal models or sources of early language training for the children. Another school of thought suggested that the difference in achievement, interest and retention of the gender groups is biological in nature. For instance, Fennema and Sherma (1977) argued that the spatial and verbal abilities were respectively identified as being related to the developments in right and left hemispheres of the brain. Males are said to use the right hemispheres more than the females for spatial reasoning. Hence, the males dominate in the science and technology courses. Females on the other hand make more use of the left hemispheres of the brain than the males. Therefore, they perform better than the males in verbal tasks. Mind mapping uses the cortical skills in the right and the left hemispheres of the brain uniquely to generate ideas and classify them. Thus combining the innate abilities of both sexes for individual use! This study investigated the gender group that generates ideas more based on the composition of the cortical skills of the right and the left hemispheres of the brain in males and females. However, some studies reported that there was no genetically gender difference between the males and the females (Williams, 1989; Bajah and Bazimo 1989 and Ezeliora, 2004). According to Williams (1989) there is no biological proof to show that males are superior to females in academic achievement. Okeke (2001) also added that the perceived gender difference was not innate but due to gender stereotype in the curriculum and instruction content which are a reflection of such in the society in favor of the males. Njoku (2006) adduced some reasons for relative

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poor performance of girls when compared to boys in science subjects at secondary school level. Some of these reasons are distraction of girls from single minded academic pursuit due to multiple roles at home, masculine image of science at secondary schools and gender biases in the Science and Technology curricular and instructions, gender biased child rearing practices which impede girls’ readiness for scientific and technological studies. The masculine image of science and technology is the pervasive stereotype. Masculine image of science was socially constructed through many years of neglect of the female interest in science and technology education and training. It has inadvertently led to gender biases against the females in Science and Technology curriculum instruction (Njoku, 2005). Anaekwe (1997) used interaction patterns to evaluate students’ achievement in chemistry. He found out that there was significant difference in the mean achievement score of boys and girls in chemistry in favor of boys. Similarly Ifeakor (2003) used peer assessment to evaluate mean achievement score of students in chemistry. She found out that there was significant difference in mean achievement score of males and females in favor of males. Conversely Ezeudu (1995) and Njoku (1997) reported that there was no significant difference in the mean achievement score of males and females in secondary school chemistry. These researchers used different strategies in teaching secondary school chemistry and found significant or not significant differential gender influence in their studies. Therefore, research findings have shown contradictory evidence in achievement, interest and retention of students in chemistry influenced by gender. This trend of differences in gender groups’ achievement, interest and retention in chemistry has indicated that teaching methods and strategies such as MMTS influences differently on students’ academic achievement interest and retention by gender. Therefore, it is worthwhile to evaluate the effect of mind mapping teaching strategy (MMTS) on students’

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academic achievement, interest and retention using gender as an independent variable.

Interest could be defined as an activity one enjoys and devotes his/her time in studying or doing. Interest could also be seen as a feeling one has in the cause of wanting to know or learn more about something or somebody. Interest differs from ones personal attitude which refers to the manner of behaving towards somebody or something. The Longman contemporary English dictionary, the Living Dictionary defines interest as that which if you have in something or in someone, you would want to know or learn more about them (www.long.com/dictionaries Ltd). Furthermore, Chauhan (1987) described interest as an activity that drives or motivates the individual for action. Unfortunately there are strong indications of gender biases that pervade Science and Technology curricula used in Nigerian secondary schools (Erinosha, 1997; Njoku, 2000 & Olagunju, 2001). These biases are in terms of choice of drawing or pictures of illustrations of science and technology activities, language of expressions used in Science and Technology books, teachers’ choice of activities used in science teaching etc. Females’ interest and daily experiences are rarely considered for inclusion in the Science and Technology books (Njoku, 2000). Therefore, the researcher tenders that females interest in the study of science and technology is ambition impeded. Gender biases against females in curriculum is not ameliorated by science and technology teachers’ interaction patterns in terms of selection of learning activities, illustrations, questioning, assistance to learners, performance expectations, reward and punishment. Science teachers tend to be biased against due to masculine image of Science and Technology. These strong biases constitute the exclusion of females from Science and Technology education and may account for observed differences in interest by gender (Njoku, 2005). Ezeudu (1995) reported that influence of gender on interest in organic chemistry was not significant. This finding is in support of (Nworgu, 1998 and Obodo, 1997)

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in which they reported that the experimental and control groups had equal changes in interest in science and mathematics. However, the findings were in disagreement with that of Chidolue (1983) and Balogun (1985). Chidolue (1983) reported that females showed more interest than males in Chemistry while Balogun (1985) reported that more boys than girls tend to opt for all the basic sciences at SSCE examinations. Therefore, the status of students’ interest in chemistry is inconclusive. Teaching with MMTS may contribute effectively to the inconclusive students’ interest in their learning.

Closely related to achievement and interest is retention because a knowledge retained can be recalled when needed (Maltin, 1998). Retention is a process of transferring information from short term memory to long term memory. Information that is interesting will be retained when it has reached the long term memory. Retention comes in before recall. It is recall that reveals how much the students have retained during teaching and learning. Long term memory is associated with the brain hemispheres. Buzan (2001) stated that mind mapping processing is closely related to the associations of the right and left hemispheres of the human brain to generate ideas. This study may provide evidence for the gender group that has stronger memory associations when taught chemistry using minds mapping teaching strategy. Boys or girls may retain more or less chemistry concepts and principles when taught using mind mapping teaching strategy. They may also retain equally when taught using MMTS. Gender may or may not influence students’ retention when taught using MMTS. Tyler (1965) reported that girls retain more than boys in the sciences. Nworgu (1986) also reported that female students retained more than their male counterparts in sciences. Conversely, Obodo (1990) reported that boys and girls retain equally in sciences and mathematics. Anaekwe (1997) also indicated that boys retain more than girls in Chemistry. These researchers used different strategies in teaching their students science and yet

xxii

found divergent retention status by gender in their studies. Therefore, there is yet no consensus report on the retention of students in sciences.

Statement of the ProblemThere is a growing concern about which strategy or

method of teaching in our secondary schools should be able to reverse deteriorating trends in students’ poor achievement in their study of chemistry. Some suggestions have been made regarding the identification of science teaching methods and strategies which motivate students better to learn and achieve superior results in their study of chemistry. Researchers have indicated that teachers use ineffective teaching methods and strategies in teaching secondary school chemistry which among other factors have contributed to deteriorating students’ achievement in chemistry. The situation, therefore calls for the use of other teaching strategies which have been found effective in some other subject areas and countries. One of such teaching technique is the use of mind mapping teaching strategy (MMTS). Mind mapping teaching strategy (MMTS) may produce the desired effective teaching of senior secondary chemistry such that students’ retention improves.

Many studies have been conducted in the area of gender related difference in academic achievement, interest, and retention in secondary school chemistry. It has been noted that males perform better than, show more interest in and retained chemistry more than females. Other studies reported female superiority in chemistry achievement, interest and retention. No gender differences in students’ academic achievement, interest and retention in chemistry have also been reported. These contradictory evidences in academic achievement, interest and retention in chemistry have resulted in the need to verify the effect of MMTS and gender influence on the dependent variables of this study. Therefore, the problem of this study posed as a question is: Would mean achievement score, mean interest score and

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mean retention score of senior secondary chemistry students taught using MMTS be improved and enhanced?

Purpose of the StudyThe study investigated the effect of MMTS on academic

achievement, interest and retention using selected chemistry units of senior secondary school curriculum. Specifically, the study (i); investigated the difference in mean achievement score of students taught using MMTS and those taught without it (ii); ascertained the difference that exists in mean achievement score of male and female students taught using MMTS. (iii); determined the difference in mean interest score of students taught using MMTS and those taught without it.(iv); determined the difference in mean interest score of male and female students taught using MMTS. (v); determined the difference in mean retention score of students taught using MMTS and those taught without it.(vi); ascertained the difference that exists in mean retention score of male and female students taught using MMTS. (vii); determined the interaction effect of gender and treatment on mean achievement score of students taught using MMTS and those taught without it. (viii); ascertained the interaction effect of gender and treatment on mean interest score of students taught using MMTS and those taught without it (ix); determined the interaction effect of gender and treatment on mean retention score of the students taught using MMTS and those taught without it.

Significance of the Study Some suggestions have been made regarding the

identification of teaching strategies that motivate students better to learn and achieve superior results in their study of chemistry. It is hoped that the findings of this study when published may provide some answers to some of these problems that hinder effective learning and teaching. This study could provide insight into how students who show low interest as well as negative disposition to learning chemistry can be motivated. This is because mind mapping processing involves the use of pictures, drawing, painting, portrait and

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use of photographs to catch attention. Their instructional purposes include arousing interest, use of gaining attention and even make abstract information more concrete. It is hoped that these insights would provide useful information on how learning techniques in secondary schools may affect students in their study of chemistry. Mind mapping of the concepts and principles of chemistry might generate interest and facilitate better achievement and retention for the students. The drawing, painting of maps and pictorial adjunct mode would interest them in their lives and active participation. This study explored the effect of MMTS on students’ achievement, interest and retention in chemistry. The findings could reveal whether MMTS enhances or inhibits students’ achievement, interest and retention in chemistry. If students’ achievement, interest and retention are enhanced, they would achieve better in internal and external examinations like WAEC, NECO and JAMB examinations when they sit for them. Based on that, the study may be significant in deciding whether to adopt or reject MMTS as a model for chemistry instruction in secondary schools for students. Similarly the result of this study may be significant to chemistry teachers in order to ascertain whether to separate instructional models of MMTS for male and female students. This study may provide insight into how secondary chemistry teachers can motivate students who show low interest and negative disposition in chemistry if published. Furthermore, the result of this study may provide empirical evidence in respect of mind mapping teaching strategy in meaningful teaching of senior secondary chemistry for the teachers if the study is published. Also the study may confirm the need for the introduction of an additional innovative teaching strategy to the pedagogy of chemistry for teachers. The finding may provide information with which educational administrators could organize workshops, seminars and conferences for teachers if published. Such in-service training program would acquaint teachers with this alternative strategy for teaching chemistry

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or otherwise. It could also add to the number of instructional strategies at their disposal. This will make the teaching of chemistry more interesting and thus improve teachers’ effectiveness if the study is published. The finding of this study could also be of immense benefit to teacher training institutions such as Colleges of Education, Faculties of Education, and Institutes of Education in Nigerian Universities if the result of the study is published. The chemistry method courses would be enriched by the use of mind mapping strategy if the result is published. Finally, the result of this study could provide empirical evidence of the efficacy of the mind map model in rates of chemical reactions, chemical equilibrium and energy of chemical reactions in chemistry. This may form the basis for further research in chemistry education. The study would also provide theoretical evidence of mind mapping theories and procedures for further researches and researchers if published.

Scope of the StudyThe study was carried out with SS2 chemistry students in

Enugu Education Zone of Enugu State. The study investigated the effect of MMTS on academic achievement, interest and retention in the selected three units of SS 2 chemistry curriculum. The units are rates of chemical reactions, energy and chemical reactions and chemical equilibrium reactions in core chemistry curriculum (FME, 1985).The units were selected as the content of instruction for SS 2 because the units were listed as among students’ difficult areas in SS2 chemistry as suggested by some researchers.

Research QuestionsThe following research questions were raised and

answered at p<0.05 level of significance.1. What is the difference in mean achievement score of

students taught using MMTS and those taught without it? 2. What is the difference in mean achievement score of

male and female students taught using MMTS?

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3. What is the difference in mean interest score of students taught using MMTS and those taught without it?

4. What is the difference in mean interest score of male and female students taught using MMTS?

5. What is the difference in mean retention score of students taught using MMTS and those taught without it?

6. What is the difference in mean retention score of male and female students taught using MMTS?

Research HypothesesThe following null hypotheses were formulated and tested

at P≤ 0.05level of significance.H01: There is no significant difference in the mean

achievement score of students taught using MMTS and those taught without it.

H02: Gender does not significantly influence the mean achievement score of students taught using MMTS.

H03: There is no significant difference in the mean interest score of students taught using MMTS and those taught without it.

H04:Gender does not significantly influence the mean interest score of students taught using MMTS.

H05: There is no significant difference in the mean retention score of students taught using MMTS and those taught without it.

H06: Gender does not significantly influence the mean retention score of students taught using MMTS.

H07:The interaction effect of gender and treatment on mean achievement score of students taught using MMTS and those taught without it is not significant.

H08: The interaction effect of gender and treatment on mean interest score of

students taught using MMTS and those taught without it is not

significant.

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H09: The interaction effect of gender and treatment on mean retention score of

students taught using MMTS and those taught without it is not

significant.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In this chapter, literature relating to the research topic was reviewed and organized under two broad sections: conceptual framework and empirical studies. They were outlined below.

1. Conceptual Framework. Similarity of human brain information processing and

mind mapping processing.

Constructivism.

Constructive teaching and mind mapping processing.

Nature and definition of mind mapping.

Ausubel’s learning theory and mind mapping

processing.

2. Empirical Studies. Strategies of teaching chemistry.

Students’ gender and achievement in chemistry.

Students’ gender and interest in chemistry.

Status of achievement and retention in chemistry.

Executive control

SensoryRegistration

Short-termMemory

Long-termMemory

VisualStimuli

Or AuditoryStimuli

AttentionPattern

RecognitionStimuliSources

Data lost from the system

Reponses to the selectedStimuli

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Students’ disposition in chemistry.

Summary of literature Review Conceptual FrameworkSimilarity of human brain information processing

and mind mapping Cognitive theory seeks to understand internal processes

of human learning; how information as stimuli is received, processed, stored in and retrieved from memory. Most models of information processing can be traced to Atkinson and Schiffrrin (1998) who offered a multi-store, multistage concept of memory. According to them when information is received by human information processing system, it must undergo a series of transformations until it can be permanently stored in the memory. This process according to Driscoll (2000) is called information processing. It is also known as multi-store and multistage model of information processing. The multi-store and multistage information processing explains how information is processed by the three basic stages of memory: (a) Sensory memory (b) short-term memory and (c) long-term memory (Driscoll, 2000). The entire process is monitored by executive control, (Gredler, 2001). The executive control process shows that this information processing system is linear, organized, dynamic and active. According to this model of human memory, information processing consists of three stages: sensory memory, short-term (working) memory and long-term memory (Gredler, 2001)

.Fig. 1: Information Processing Model:

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Source: Atkinson&Schiffrrin model of information processing.

In sensory memory, vast array physical signals first impinge on the sensory system, primary visual and auditory, from the stimuli sources. When the receptors are activated by the stimuli, the information is then transmitted to the central nervous system, where stimuli are briefly registered, and selected for future processing. This is known as selective perception. Then, after the information is selected, it is transformed into recognizable patterns and retained briefly in short-term memory. In the short-term memory (Atkinson and Schiffrrin, 1998) the information is further processed. It is in the short-term memory or working memory that the information is rehearsed, manipulated, transformed, interpreted and integrated with previously learned concepts (prior knowledge) stored in the long-term memory. If information is not meaningfully retained or rehearsed in the working memory, it will disappear from working memory in about 30 seconds (Gagne, 2007 and Sweller, 2003). In other words unattended information drops out of the system while the information meaningfully retained or rehearsed is encoded into some meaningfully form and transferred to the long-term memory for permanent storage (Driscoll 2000). In the long-term memory, the information processed and encoded is permanently stored. Driscoll (2000) described it is a permanent storehouse of information in an inactive state of previously learned concepts. Unlike the short-term memory, the long-term memory has unlimited capacity and information in it is not subject to decay (Smith and Ragan, 1999). The information stored in long-term memory is not randomly scattered in the storehouse but is organized so that information stored can be retrieved. The recall of information is related to the ways in which specific knowledge items are presented, and the organization of bodies of knowledge in the long-term memory which is related to the ways the information is processed or constructed (i.e. the level or quality of information processing) and the number of times

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the information is processed or reconstructed in the long-term memory (Gredler, 2001).

The Implications of Human Information processing for this study are that the memory is an active organized processor of information and teaching also is an active process of information processing. Information processing can be manipulated and its result can be enhanced by the way the information in form of stimulus is presented to the sensory registers, working memory and activating prior knowledge in the long-term memory. Teaching strategy such as mind mapping teaching strategy (MMTS) could be used to facilitate information processing to achieve better learning outcomes.

(Smith and Ragan, 1999) defined learning as the set of cognitive processes that transforms the stimulation from the environment into the several phases of information processing necessary for acquiring a new capacity. Learning occurs when the stimulus is selected, processed, encoded and retrieved. Various teaching methods can facilitate this process so that better results of learning outcomes can be achieved. Ausubel (2002) mentioned two kinds of learning in his assimilation theory of learning, meaningful and rote learning. In meaningful learning, learning consciously and explicitly tie new knowledge to relevant concept or prepositions already possessed Fisher (2001) and Okebukola (1990)

Meaningful learning occurs when a learner connects and

constructs new knowledge to a pre-existing cognitive

framework (Snead, 2000). Rote learning is verbatim involving

externally dictated stimulus response association as stated by

(Clibum, 1986) and Ausubel (2002) believes that three

conditions must exist for meaningful learning to occur. (a),

the learner must sense a relationship among the concepts to

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be learned. (b), the learner must possess specific relevant

ideas (mind) to which this new material can be related and.

(c) the learner must actually intend to relate these

constructed new ideas (mind map) to ideas already possessed

(prior -knowledge) which he has. One of the main reasons

why mind mapping is so effective is how it enhances the skills

within our brain. The brain has been the subject of research

for many years, however, it is only in the last 15 or so years

that most of the exciting developments in brain research have

described it as being more powerful than the most powerful

computer, however, it is now estimated that we only use

about 1% of the potential of the brain in our everyday

activities. Within the millions of nerve cells in our brain, we

have infinite potential waiting to be used contrary to popular

belief. We can increase our skills with age as we create

thousands of new nerve cells in our brain every day (Buzan &

Buzan, 2006). Mind map uses the right and left hemispheres

of the brain to help generate ideas.

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The cerebral cortex (cerebrum) of our brain (thinking cap)

consists of left and right side of the brain. The left side of the

brain mainly focuses on the cortical words, logic, lists,

analysis and numbers (WLLAN), whereas the right side of our

brain focuses on such cortical words like rhythm,

imagination, color, images, dimension and day dreaming

(RICIDDD) (Buzan and Barry, 2005).This is where mind map

becomes so exciting by using color, images and key words

within a mind map linking and associating. We are in effect

using both sides of the brain to enhance our learning

creativity and clarity of our thinking, to acquire scientific

skills, technological skills and even entrepreneurial skills

(Appendix K)

ConstructivismIn the past two centuries, constructivists’ ideas were not

widely valued due to the perception that children’s plays were seen as aimless and of little importance. Jean Piaget did not agree with these traditional views, however, he saw play as an important and necessary part of the student’s cognitive development, and has provided scientific evidence for his views. Today, constructivist theories are influenced throughout much of the formal and the informal learning sector. Some historical figures that influenced constructivism are listed below. They were Giambaltista Vico, Immanuela Kant, John Dewey, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygostsky, Jerome Brunner, Herbert Simon, Paul Watziawick, Ernest Voncilouserfiebl, Edgan Moerin, and Porphyry and now Buzan T. Formalization of the theory of constructivism is generally attributed to Jean Piaget, who articulated

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mechanism by which knowledge is internalized by learners. He suggested that through process of accommodation and assimilation, individuals construct new experience into an already existing framework without changing that framework. Therefore, constructivism is applied to both learning theory and epistemology – both to how people learn and to the nature of knowledge.

Many educators such as (Dogru and Kalender, 2007) believed that the best way to learn is by having students construct their own knowledge instead of having someone construct it for them. Constructivist learning theory explains this belief. This theory states that learning is an active process of constructing meaning from different experiences. In other words students will learn best by trying to make sense of something on their own with the teacher as a guide to help them along the way. Since all sensory input is organized by the person receiving the stimuli, it cannot always be directly transferred from the teacher to the student. This means that a teacher cannot “pour” information into students’ brain and always expect to process it and apply it correctly later. For example, the researcher tenders that you may think of a time when you were taught something in a lecture class. Then, contrast that against a time when you have to prepare to teach someone else something. You will probably agree that you learned the material better when you were preparing to teach the material. This is because you constructed the knowledge for yourself.

Glasson and Lalik (2003) suggested a list of different methods of teaching. The percentages listed below represent the average amount of information that is retained through that particular teaching method.

Note the method that produces the highest retention rate.1. Lecture method = 5%2. Reading method = 10%3. Audio method = 20%4. Demonstration method = 30%5. Discussion group method = 60%

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6. Practice by doing method = 75%7. Teach others/immediate use of learning method =

90% (Glasson and lalik, 2003) The researcher therefore, remarked that a

person’s prior knowledge may help or hurt the construction of meaning. People’s prior knowledge comes from their past experiences, culture and their environment. Generally, prior knowledge is good, but sometimes misconceptions and wrong information may be a hindrance. Sometimes, time must be spent correcting prior knowledge before learning can occur. Constructivism refers to idea that learners construct knowledge for themselves – each learner individually and socially constructs meaning as he or she learns. Constructing meaning is learning, there is no other kind. Therefore, Vygotsky (2008) reported that Learning is an active process in which the learner uses sensory input and constructs meaning out of it i.e. learning is not the passive acceptance of knowledge which exists “out there” but that learning involves the learner’s engaging the world. People learn to learn as they construct meaning. Learning consists both of constructing meaning and reconstructing system of meaning. The construction of constructing meaning is mental. It happens in the mind.

Constructive teaching strategy is based on the constructivist learning theory, which holds that learning should build upon knowledge that a student already has, and that learning is more effective when a student is actively involved in the construction of knowledge, rather than when they are passively listening to a lecture from a teacher. John Dewey and Piaget researched on children development in education. Their theories are now encompassed in those dealing with progressive education. The constructivist learning theory states that children learn best when they construct a personal understanding based on experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences (Vygotsky, 2008). According to Vygotsky (2008) the characteristics of a

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constructivist classroom should make the learners to be actively involved. The environment should be democratic. The activities are interactive and students’ centered. The teacher facilitates a process of learning in which students are encouraged to be responsible and autonomous. Further, in the constructivist classroom, students work primarily in groups and learning and knowledge are interactive and dynamic. There is a great focus and emphasis on social and communication skills, as well as collaboration and exchange of ideas. This is contrary to the traditional classroom in which students work primarily alone, learning is achieved through repetition and subjects are strictly adhered to and guided by textbooks. Constructivism is a more recent and acceptable view of how knowledge is acquired in science (Iloputaife, 2001) which holds that: scientific knowledge (concept and theories) are personally constructed and reconstructed by the learner based on his prior experience. Learners bring new ideas, which affect any new information they receive. What a student learns therefore, results from interaction between what is brought to the learning environment (by the learner) and what he experienced while in it. This results in restructuring and reconstructing of existing conceptions. Some of the implications of this view (constructivism) include what a learner already knows (prior knowledge) is important in science instruction.

The learner has to be actively involved in the process of knowledge construction and reconstruction. For the learner to be involved, there are four conditions listed by Hewson and Hewson (2004) which are necessary: (i.e. intelligibility understanding the concept), (plausibility how and consistent), dissatisfaction with pre-existing conceptions and fruitfulness (applications in new situations).

Constructivism is a paradigm in education which holds that the learner is an active processor of his own ideas and understanding. He cannot be taught but can also be created in the learner from experiences directed by the teacher. The experiences will be linking the new ideas with

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the existing memory. This is fundamental to understanding (Iloputaife, 2001). It follows that learning both informally by day-to-day experiences and formally in science classes can vividly be seen as a personal act of construction. It is through knowing about children’s views that educators are able to anticipate sources of confusion for children and be able to plan appropriate experiences that will lead to scientific knowledge (Posner et al 1982).

Similarly some researchers like Mayer (2004) nicknamed the constructive teaching/learning process as “Active “teaching/learning. He stated that active teaching/learning is the teaching and learning that shifts the focus from the teacher and delivery of the course content to the students and the active engagement with materials. According to Mayer (2004), active learning is an umbrella term that refers to several models of instruction that focus the responsibility of learning on learners. So active learning is the opportunity to take more interactive relationship with the subject matter of a course, encouraging them to generate rather than simply to receive knowledge. Here teachers facilitate rather than dictates students learning. Mayer (2004) showed that active learning is an exceptionally effective teaching technique regardless of the subject matter. When active learning is compared to lecture method, students learn more materials, retain the information longer and enjoy the class more with active teaching/learning. Green, Ritchie & Volki (2000) posited that constructivism is a model of how learning takes place rather than a theory of how rationality develops. Therefore, a more meaningful learning requires a threshold of shared construction of knowledge, which the present study is concerned about. Constructivism indicates that each learner must put together ideas and structures that have meanings. Constructivism tells us that we learn by fitting new understanding and knowledge into prior knowledge (Osuafor, 1999). However, teaching for construction rather than transmission suggests that teaching

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ought to facilitate negotiation and interpretation based on learner’s prior knowledge.

To the constructivist, learning takes place when individual students have been able to make sense of what the teacher says not because the teacher made the sense for the students. To the constructivist, students develop ways of interpreting the world around them, which are not the result of formal school science learning. Further, school experience can combine with these personal views to produce new and unexpected explanation. Constructivists have proposed that school science should begin with children’s own constructions of reality. Teachers should encourage students to make their own ideas explicit, present students with events which challenge these ideas. Encourage the generation of interpretive models and provide opportunities for students to use the new ideas in range of situations. The constructivist believed that knowledge is constructed based on what “works” and what is ‘good.’ In that particular context the psychology views learning as an idea of mental constructions or schemes. Learners to interpret new physical phenomena use such schemes actively and construct these schemes.

Driver (1988) stated that learning involves the learner in bringing existing schemes to bear on physical concepts in an attempt to understand them. This implies that what is learnt depends not only on the features of the physical concepts presented but also on the schemes the learner has available. Therefore, learning process is an interaction between mental schemes of the learners and features in the learning environment. Students should construct their meanings from their experiences. Cognitive psychology recognizes learning through construction of knowledge in teaching, which the present study is all about.

Constructive teaching and mind mapping processAny internally or externally mediated cognitive process

that facilitates the transfer of information to be taught from short-term memory to long-term memory can be defined as a teaching strategy (Bruning, 1993). Learning/teaching

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strategies are used to construct, rehearse, organize and elaborate information to make it more meaningful. Some commonly used strategies include all forms of advance graphic organizers, underlining, analyzing key points, repetition, outlining, categorization, concept mapping, mental imaging, queuing, forming analogues, inserting questions, paraphrasing, note taking method, providing instructional objectives prior to instruction (Novak 1998) and mind mapping ( Buzan and Buzan, 2006).

All of these strategies are not equally effective in facilitating achievement of different learning objectives. In other words, which learning strategy is appropriate depends upon many other factors such as learning objectives to be achieved, individual differences of the learners, level or extent of prior knowledge of the learner, learning resources, process of the learning, conditions and environment, teaching/learning methods etc. Researchers in education have shown that a number of factors influence students attainment of objectives of instruction. Some of the factors have to do with students, teachers, socio-economic status of the parents, resources available for teaching and learning, instructional methods and instructional strategies adopted by the teacher and even more (Ausubel, 2002; Odubunmi, 1983; Ali, 1994; Ezeh,1992; Okeke,1986; Nworgu, 1990 and Mkpa, 1997).

Recent instructional techniques adopted by science educators tend to show more concern for the development of methods and strategies that could facilitate learning more effectively (Mkpa, 1997; Ezeh, 1992 and Buzan, 2001; 2005 and 2006). Most research findings in education tend to indicate that instructional method adopted by the teacher can influence the cognitive and effective outcomes of the students (Mkpa, (1997); Ali & Anaekwe (1997); Ezeh, (1992); and Balogun (1992). Ausubel (1986) hypothesized that instruction can be organized in such a way that all students in a class can achieve at high level which is accomplished only by best students. Fafunwa (1997) emphasized those feasible and

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practical instructional methods that could improve cognitive and affective outcomes in sciences classrooms need to be sought for. Similarly some Nigerian educators & researchers such as Ali (1996) and Egbugara (1983) emphasized the need for re-examination of instructional practices in our educational institutions especially at secondary school level. To this end, researchers have been and are still being carried out by many others and educators with the aim of adopting or developing some of the existing instructional methods for the improvement of learning in our secondary schools.

Furthermore, elaboration of information is specifically useful in enhancing memory when similarities, differences, relationship and associations among items are being emphasized. In other words, elaboration of information helps the synthesizing of information (Maltin, 1998). Various learning methods can affect the learning result by constructing and elaborating on the information being processed. Mind mapping teaching strategy (MMTS) with different degrees of construction and elaboration would instigate different levels of information process and therefore would bring about different enhanced learning results. Therefore, the researcher tenders that mind mapping teaching strategy is one of the constructivist teaching method. If MMTS is adopted and applied strictly to learning situations in our secondary schools could enhance students mean achievement score, mean interest score, and mean retention score in secondary school Chemistry. This is the focus of this study.

Definition and nature of mapping

A mind map is a diagram used to represent words, ideas, tasks or other items linked to and arranged radial around a central key word or idea (Buzan, 1991). (Buzan & Vanda, 2005) reported that mind map is needed to generate, visualize, structure and classify ideas, and as an aid in study, organization, problem solving, decision making, and writing . It is an image-centered diagram of information. Mind map

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presents the connections in a radial, non-linear graphical manner. Hence it encourages brainstorming approach to any given intrinsically appropriate role for theoretical or conceptual framework to work with. To create your first mind map you will need a large white plain sheet of paper and some colored pens. A mind map uses 4 key characteristics to form 1st, Central image of the subjects’ topic is formed. 2nd, main themes

radiate from the central image.3rd, Branches hold the key words on the central image. 4th, Smaller branches form a connected structure from main branches.

Once you have tried your first mind map take another topic or even prepare a mind map about yourself, your hobbies, interests, where you live, what key things you did last year etc. Practicing as much as possible will help you become more familiar with the mind mapping process. A mind map is based on radial or star structures. Hermann and Bovo (2005) stated that people have been using image centered radial graphic organization techniques referred to as mental or generic mind maps for centuries in areas such as engineering, psychology and education although the claim to the origin of the mind map has been made by a British popular psychologist and author (Buzan, 1991). The mind map continues to be used in various forms and for various applications including learning in education (where it is often taught as webbing. Planning and in engineering diagramming. Buzan (2001) suggested that mind maps have many applications in personal family, educational business situations, including note taking, brain storming where in ideas are inserted into the map radial around the central node, without the implication or sequential arrangement, and where in grouping and organizing is reserved for later stages, summarizing, revising and general clarifying of thought. Buzan and Vanda (2005) further suggested that one could listen to a lecture and take down notes using mind map for the most important points or key words. A mind map is similar to a road map to help you on your journey. It provides

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an overview or overall picture of a particular subject and helps you plan your route or choices. The mind map stores large amount of information efficiently, but the exciting part or form is discovering that the final mind map is not only easy to read and look at, but also uses the potential of the brain in a very exciting way. It helps develop new brain skills, which are overlooked by traditional teaching method (Buzan, 2001).

Similarly Okwo (2002) stated that the activity mode of pictures, drawings and photographs facilitates instructions and mind map encompasses the above activities and similarly facilitates instructions. Buzan and Vanda (2005) stated that one of the main reasons why mind mapping is so effective is how it enhances the acquisition of scientific skills, technological skills and even entrepreneurial skills within our brain. One can also use mind maps as a mnemonic technique or to sort out a complicated idea. Mind maps are promoted as a way to collaborate in color or pen creativity sessions. The researcher therefore suggested that mind maps can be drawn by hand, either as ‘rough notes’ for example, during a lesson or taking minutes of meeting.

Williams (2000) declared in his encyclopedia that software and technique research have concluded that managers and students find the technique of mind mapping to be useful, being better able to retain information and ideas than by using traditional ‘linear’ note taking (lecture) method. Buzan and Buzan (2006) suggested using the following foundation structures for mind mapping guidelines. The guidelines are stated in steps as shown. First, start in the centre of a piece or plain paper or cardboard with an image of the topic using at least 3 colors. Second, use images, symbols, codes and dimensions throughout your mind mapping. Third, select key words and print using upper or lower case letters. Fourth, each word or image must be alone and sitting on its own line. Fifth, the lines are connected starting from the central image. Sixth the central lines are thicker, organic and flowing becoming thinner as key radiate out from the centre. Seventh, make the lines same length as

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the word/image. Use colors your code throughout the mind map. Eight, develop your own style of mind mapping. Ninth, use emphasis and show association in your mind map. Tenth, keep the mind map clear by using radial hierarchy, numerical order or outlines to embrace your branches (Buzan, 2001). Buzan(2001) also hypothesized that the mind utilizes the full range of left and right cortical skills, balances the brain, taps into the alleged 99% of your used mental, as well intuition which he called “supper logic. However, scholarly research suggested that such may actually be a marketing hype based on misconception about the brain and the cerebral hemispheres. Hemispheric specialization theory has been identified as pseudo scientific when applied to mind mapping and concept mapping (Williams, 2000). He argued that there are benefits to be gained by applying a wide range of graphic organizers, and it follows that mind mapping specifically, is not equally suited to all learning tasks. Buzan and Buzan (2006) stated that the Mind Mapping laws are designed to help you more rapidly gain access to your intelligence by giving you specific techniques that are brain-compatible. By following the laws, your memory and creativity will be enormously enhanced.

Origin of mind mappingMind mapping concept was developed in the 70’s by Tony

Buzan. It all started when he was 7 years old. Buzan was puzzled by the differences in ability of his classmates and after many years of research, questioning and exploring, he developed mind mapping which he called ‘Use your head’. This mind mapping book was produced as television series and a book with BBC (British broadcasting cooperation) in 1974. He has since developed powerful graphic techniques which are used by individuals worldwide in schools, universities and businesses. His mind map work has since been published in over 100 countries and in 30 languages in his quest for helping millions of people to use their brain more effectively to improve memory, reading skills and become genius in their own way. He has also developed

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numerous minds mapping software’s. In the year 2000, Tony Buzan described the start of the new century as the ‘millennium of the Mind and the century of the brain’. Buzan T is now World authority on the brain, memory, creativity and speed reading.

Mind mapping Laws Law One. A Mind Map commences in the center of a

page within a multi-colored image or symbol. Reasons: It commences in the center because this reflects the many-hooked nature of the brain’s thinking processes, and allows more space and freedom for developing ideas from the central core. Use image and color because the old adage, “a picture is worth a thousand words” applies here in both memory and creativity. Law Two. Main themes are attached to the central image on main lines using large capital letters.

Reasons: Main themes are attached because the brain works by association and if the lines are attached, the ideas will internally be similarly “attached”. The lines are thicker and the printing larger to reflect the importance of these ideas. Law Three. Lines are connected to lines. Reasons: The connected structure of the Mind Map reflects the associative nature of the brain. Law Four. Words are printed. Reasons: Printing the words may take slightly longer in execution, but the immediate “photographic feedback” and comparative clarity of the printed word give enormous advantage. Law Five: Words are printed on lines. Reasons: Printing the words on the line gives them connection and association to the basic structure of the Mind Map. People often find that if they can reconstruct the general skeleton of the Mind Map, the words immediately “pop in” to place. Law Six: Single key word per line is allowed.

Reasons: Each key word has its own million- range of possibilities for association. Placing the key word alone on a line gives the brain more freedom to branch out from that word. Phrases trap the individual word, and reduce the possibilities for creativity and the clarity of memory.

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Law Seven: Use of color throughout the Mind Map. Reasons: Color is a major stimulator of all forms and especially enhances creativity and memory. It also appeals to aesthetic sensitivities which increase the brain’s pleasure in building the Mind Map, and its interest in returning to, reviewing and using it. Law Eight: Images throughout the Mind Map must be used. Reasons: It is appropriate for brain training: “Learn the science of Art.” The use of images can raise memory performance to near perfect multiplies, creative thinking effectiveness by as much as ten times and improves problem solving and communications, etc. It also, over time, increases the individual’s perceptual capabilities and skills. Law Nine. Use codes and symbols throughout the mind map. Reasons: Personalized codes using various shapes such as colors and arrows add a “fourth dimension” to a Mind Map. They greatly enhance the Mind Mapping ability to analyze, define, structure, organize and reason.

Buzan and Barry (2005) suggested that the following list highlights just some of the uses of mind map. They are taking notes in meetings, generating ideas and thinking creatively, planning projects, organizing, processes, tracking progress, preparing a presentation or essay/report, Learning/studying, note taking, review, recall and exam preparing, Scheduling, Analysis, Decision making, prioritizing, clarification and preparing key documentation for reports or projects. Would MMTS be useful to SS2 chemistry students when they are taught using it?

Ausubel’s learning theory and mind mapping processing

The fundamental idea of Ausubel’s learning theory is anchored on acquisition of new knowledge is dependent on what the learner already knows. Construction of knowledge begins with our observation and recognition of events and objects which we know or possess. Ausubel’s assimilation theory of learning suggests that people learn better if they can find meaning in the leaning process. They can learn well if they have something that gears their interest in the

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learning process. This is learning how to learn. There are materials or ideas that could illicit interest and promote learning which David Ausubel described as advance organizer. Some examples of advance organizers are concept mapping, mind mapping and web diagrams etc. Concept mapping is the mapping of a concept or group of concepts in a hierarchical arrangement or order. Conversely, mind mapping is the idea mapping of a concept or group of concepts in a star or tree structure. It involves brainstorming and the use of colors, pictures, portrait and photographs unlike concept mapping. Therefore concept mapping and mind mapping are the same advance organizers but with different structural arrangements. The researcher therefore tenders that mind mapping and concept mapping is not the same. They are similar graphic organizers. Meaningful learning is achieving deep understanding of complex ideas that are relevant to students’ lives (Jonassen, 1996). In order to learn meaningfully an individual must relate new knowledge to prior knowledge. The new knowledge must interact with learner’s previous knowledge and structure. Mind mapping teaching strategy (MMTS) fits into the two types of motivational teaching techniques. Extrinsic motivation refers to motivation to engage in an activity as means to an end, whereas intrinsic motivation is motivation to engage in an activity for its own sake (Pintrich and Schunk, 1996). Mind mapping technique involves the two (i.e. hands- on-minds on activities) which arouses interest and sustains learning. The researcher posits that mind mapping process could enhance the acquisition of scientific skills, technological skills and even entrepreneurial skills because it motivates the user. Motivation is a force that energizes, sustains and directs behavior towards a goal (Wade, 1992; Schunk, 1990). Researchers have found a strong positive correlation between motivation and achievement as well as interest (Pintrich and Schunk, 1996; Wang, Hearted and Walberg, 1993).

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Constructive teaching strategies are motivational. Cheek (1993) viewed constructivism as a process where learners actively touch knowledge, connect it to previously assimilated knowledge and make it theirs by constructing their own interpretations. Similarly, Cobb (1994) saw constructed from previous knowledge irrespective of how one is taught and emphasizes learning with understanding. Also Brooks and Brooks (1999) viewed it as theory of learning that describes the central role that learners ever transforming mental schemes play in their cognitive growth. Learning is therefore a process whereby students themselves are the primary actors while the teacher guides says constructivism.

Empirical studiesStrategies of teaching chemistryEzeudu (1995) carried out a study titled effect of concept

mapping on students’ achievement, interest and retention in selected units of organic chemistry using a sample of 411 students who were selected through a multistage sampling technique. Two instruments chemistry achievement and retention test in organic chemistry (ARTOC) with 30 items and organic chemistry interest inventory (OCII) with 20 items were used in the study. Content validity was done on the ARTOC and face validity was done on OCII. The reliability of ARTOC using Kuder Richardson’s formula 20 was 0.86 while that of OCII was 0.79 using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. It was found after due control of extraneous variable and data analysis that concept mapping had a significant effect on students’ overall achievement, retention and interest in organic chemistry. Concept mapping was more effective than the conventional methods in terms of students’ achievement, retention and interest in organic chemistry. There was a significant difference in retention between students exposed to concept mapping and students exposed to conventional method. Concept mapping was superior to conventional method in enhancing retention and interest in organic chemistry concept. Gender was consistently insignificant relative to achievement, retention and interest. So both male

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and female students performed, retained and showed interest in organic chemistry. Significant interaction due to concept mapping and gender was found with respect to achievement but not with interest and retention.

In a related study, Ali and Anaekwe (1997) carried out a study titled effect of students’ interaction pattern on students’ achievement in chemistry. The purpose of the study was to empirically examine the extent to which the SIP could facilitate achievement in chemistry. In carrying out the research the extent to which the effect of the SIP would depend on gender was also explored. The sample consisted of 373 SSI students drawn from two (1 – all male and 1-all female), out of the seven government owned secondary schools in Awka urban. The schools that had up to four intact classes were purposively selected. Two instruments were used for the study. They were four variations (cooperative, competitive, individualistic, control) of lesson plan based on the two units of study (separation technique and particulate nature of matter). The second one was a 40-item, 5-options multiple choice objective test in chemistry. An internal consistency estimate of 0.94 was computed for the test instruments. The instruments were developed and validated by the researchers. A number of steps were also taken to control some variables extraneous to the study. One of such steps was the use of analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) to control for the initial group differences and regression of scores. Data analysis was carried out using a 4 x 2 (SIP x Gender) Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) in which the pretest scores were used as covariates. Post hoc multiple comparison test was also carried out using the Scheffee test. Result showed that SIP had significant effect on achievement in chemistry. Gender is a significant factor on students’ achievement is chemistry. Also SIP and Gender interaction effect on students’ achievement in chemistry was significant.

Okeke (2005) investigated the effect of students’ prior knowledge of instructional objectives on their achievement in chemistry. A sample of 184 SS2 chemistry students was

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selected through multistage sampling technique and intact classes were then used. The sample of 184 chemistry students used comprised of 90 males and 94 females from 4 secondary schools in Awgu Educational Zone. The design of the study was pretest – posttest non randomized quasi experimental research. The instrument for data collection was chemistry achievement test (CAT). The CAT is a 40 item multiple choice achievement test. The CAT was developed and validated by the researcher. The internal consistency obtained for the CAT was 0.80. Data analysis revealed that the 4 research questions were answered using mean and standard deviation while the 3 hypotheses were tested using ANCOVA analysis. Result indicated that chemistry students taught with prior knowledge of instructional objectives group achieved higher than those taught without prior knowledge of instructional objectives i.e. Students in the experimental group achieved better than students in the control group. Males in the experimental and control groups achieved better than females in the experimental and control groups. There is no significant interaction effect of strategy and gender on students mean achievement in chemistry.

The science process skills (SPS) are cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills which scientists employ in problem identification and solution. Science process skills involves providing students opportunity to interact with materials within an environment through observing, classifying, measuring, questioning, hypothesizing, collecting and interpreting data, accurate reporting, predicting and inferring. The researcher posits that the acquisition of science process skills is enhanced by acquiring laboratory skills. The acquisition of science process skills through laboratory activities is synonymous to science process skills acquired through constructivist’s activities. This is true because both encourage hands-on-minds-on scientific activities under the guidance of science teachers. Therefore, the researcher tenders that MMTS is an innovative teaching technique. It would promote learning through science

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process skills as well as the acquisition of entrepreneurial skills if carefully used by teachers in teaching sciences especially Chemistry.

Students’ gender and achievement in chemistryFalade (1982) carried out a study on “the construction

and validation on a formative achievement test on chemical formulae for senior secondary class three chemistry students”. The researcher administered the validated instrument to the students. After data analysis of the study, he found out that sex has no significant effect on students’ performance.

In another study Joseph (1996) sampled gender differences in senior secondary school chemistry performance in Akwaibom State. Two null hypotheses guided the study. A sample of 380 SS 3 students was used in three different secondary schools for the study. The schools were selected through stratified random sampling. The instrument used was chemistry achievement test (CAT) which was administered to the students. The result revealed a significant gender difference in favor of males. This trend may be attributed to the fact that females regard science subject as intellectually complex and task oriented.

Ifeakor (2005) evaluated the effects of commercially produced computer assisted instruction package (CPCAIP) on students’ achievement and interest in chemistry. The study also sought the effect of CPCAIP and gender on students’ academic achievement and interest in chemistry. The performance of students taught with CPCAIP was compared with those of students taught with conventional teaching method (CTM). Six research questions and six hypotheses guided the study. The design of the study is the pretest-posttest quasi experimental non randomized control group type involving 4 intact classes. The sample size was 140 SSI chemistry students from two private secondary schools drown randomly using balloting from 31 private secondary schools in Onitsha North and South Local Government Area of Anambra State. Two instruments chemistry achievement test

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(CAT) and chemistry interest inventory (CII) were developed, validated and used for trial testing and collecting data. The data obtained were analyzed using mean and standard deviation to answer research questions while hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance using ANCOVA f-statistics. The result of the analysis indicated among others that gender was a significant factor in the students overall cognitive achievement in chemistry in favor of males.

Falade (1982) carried out a study on the construction and validation of a formation achievement test on chemical formula in chemistry for senior secondary three chemistry students. The study was aimed at determining the effects of sex on students’ achievement in chemistry. Two instruments chemistry achievement test (CAT) and chemistry interest inventory (CII) were developed, validated and used for trial testing and collection of data. The result indicated that sex was a significant factor in the overall cognitive academic achievement in favor of males

The researcher has reported that chemistry students in secondary schools performed poorly over the years (WAEC, 2001-2010). Some other studies have been conducted in the area of gender and academic achievement in chemistry. Research findings on academic achievement due to gender are contradictory. Some of the studies revealed significant gender-related differences in students’ cognitive achievement in chemistry. In general, there are three categories of results from studies on gender-related differences in science achievement that are available. The first category is that in which there is significant gender difference in chemistry achievement score in favor of the boys. The second category is that in which there is significant difference in chemistry achievement score in favor of the girls. The third group is that in which no gender difference in chemistry achievement score is neither detected in favor of the boys nor the girls. Studies reviewed above do not seem to provide a clear picture on gender differences in achievement scores in general. Indeed, the review of literature conducted in this

lii

section indicated an inconclusive and inconsistent trend in gender achievement in the sciences and chemistry in particular. In view of the noted inconsistency, there is need to evaluate this issue of gender and its related differences in achievement using an innovative teaching strategy mind mapping teaching strategy (MMTS).

Students’ gender and interest in chemistryMany studies have been conducted on the students’

gender interest in chemistry. Anaekwe (1997) conducted a research on the effect of students interaction patterns (SIP) on studens’ interest in chemistry including other dependent variables. He reported that there is a significant effect of SIP on students’ interest in chemistry. Also, Ifeakor (1999) studied the effects of assessment techniques on student’s interest in chemistry and reported a significant effect on students’ interest towards chemistry. In a related study Ezeh (1992) noted that teaching strategies have been known to influence students’ interest in science. There is no consensus view on the contributive factors that affect Nigerian students’ disposition in chemistry and chemistry related careers. Truly, interest is very important to understand the individual learner and to guide students’ future activities (Ifeakor, 2003).

It should be noted that science in general and chemistry in particular offers prospective career opportunity to students and as such, some students could have vocational interest in chemistry and chemistry related career i.e. positive disposition. This underscores the need for strategies and methods that enhance students’ interest in chemistry classroom.

In another related study Chidolue (1983) researched into the apparent lack of interest shown by female students towards physics and chemistry. She reported that female students’ aversion of mathematics and general lack of interest in sciences that require calculations by them is due to various laws and formulae to be committed to memory. The researcher therefore tenders that many secondary school

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Chemistry teachers do not relate these laws, formulae and convert them into activity based type for the students. Consequently the students instead of acquiring problem solving skills, they attempt committing the laws to memory.

Furthermore Ezeh (1992) noted that teaching strategies have been known to influence students’ interest in science. Therefore, there is no consensus of views on the contributive factors that affect Nigerian students’ interest in science especially in chemistry. According to Balogun (1985), Okebukola and Jegede (1989), Nigerian students generally have interest in all the basic sciences. However the researcher proposes that Nigerian students find science difficult because of the uninteresting mode of presentation. The study of science especially Chemistry is activity based. Activity based teaching requires that the teacher does while the students by simulation do same over and over by themselves and learning would have taken place. In fact interest is very important to understand the individual learner and to guide his/her further activities. It should be noted that chemistry offers prospective carrier opportunity to students and as such many students could have vocational interest in chemistry and chemistry related careers. This therefore underscores the need for teaching strategy that could enhance interest in chemistry classroom. The use of MMTS may invoke students’ interest in chemistry. The students may prefer being taught chemistry using MMTS or without it. This should serve as a litmus test!

Status of achievement and retention in ChemistryResearchers have revealed that innovative teaching

strategies generally confer significant positive achievement in topics of students’ interest and retention in their studies. There are three categories of gender achievement, interest and retention reported in some studies. The first category was those who found significant difference in academic achievement and retention in favor of males. The second category were those who found significant difference in achievement and retention in favor of females while the third

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category were those who found no significant difference in favor of either of the sexes.

Nworgu, (1990) evaluated the effect of resource material type relative to students’ cognitive achievement, interest and retention in integrated science which is related to Chemistry. The design of the study is pretest posttest quasi experimental research. Research questions were asked and answered using mean and standard deviation while the hypotheses were formulated and tested using ANCOVA analysis. The author reported a significant effect of resource material in favor of males and females while there was no significant difference in the mean retention of males and females.

Ezeudu (1995) in her study titled effect of concept mapping on students’ achievement, interest and retention in organic Chemistry. The design of the study was pretest posttest quasi experimental research. The author used mean and standard deviation to answer the research questions while the hypotheses were tested using ANCOVA analysis. Results obtained indicated that there was a significant difference in the overall achievement and retention between students exposed to concept mapping against students exposed to conventional methods. Gender was consistently insignificant relative to achievement and retention.

Anaekwe (1997) researched on the effect of students’ interaction patterns (SIP) on students’ achievement, interest and retention in chemistry. The design of the study was pretest posttest quasi experimental research. Mean and standard deviation were used to answer research questions while hypotheses were tested with ANCOVA analysis. The researcher reported a significant effect of SIP on students’ achievement in favor of females and insignificant effect of retention in favor of males.

In addition Ezeh (1992) studied the effect of advance organizer on students’ achievement, interest and retention in integrated science. He used 356 JSS student in their intact classes, who were randomly drawn from five secondary

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schools in Isiuzo local Government Area of Enugu state. Two instruments were used. ANCOVA was used for data analysis. The result showed that advance organizer had significant effect on the students’ mean achievement score and retention score were not significant.

Therefore, from the reports reviewed above. It may not be out of place to presume that the so called conventional teaching method (CTM) has not adequately delivered the goods. Perhaps the innovative teaching technique MMTS could be of greater help in facilitating students’ achievement, interest and retention in secondary school chemistry. Hence there is the need to evaluate the effect of MMTS on students’ academic achievement, interest and retention in chemistry of senior secondary schools.

Students’ disposition in chemistryResearch reports revealed that students have negative

conceptualization in the nature, structure, language of communication in chemistry (Okebukola, 1990, Okeke, 2005). The basic unit of thinking and comprehension is concept. It is generally accepted that one of the basic processes in the development of human intelligence seems to be concept acquisition. Roop (2002) stated that concepts are the essential modus operandi of higher mental processes of problem solving and reasoning. Roop (2002) described concepts as the premises, the foundation and structural steel of thinking. From the foregoing there are needs to be understood and communicated. Therefore it is only reasonable to make conceptual construction of learning the focus of chemistry instruction in our schools. Indeed it has been shown that poor performance on chemistry concept construction of learning appears less a function of deficiencies in the acquisition of scientific information than of inabilities to comprehend, interpret correctly and apply scientific concepts in novel situations (Adeniyi, 1997; Okebukola, 1990). In spite of the central role that concepts play in the construction and understanding of chemical knowledge, research has shown that students find chemistry

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concepts difficult to learn (Ivowi, 1984) The difficulty of students in understanding basic concepts of chemistry, for example the atomic model of chemistry can be assumed to be due to method of presentation and probably other factors Anaekwe (1997).

Another major source of difficulty that students encounter in addition to nature and structure of chemistry is the language of chemistry. Scientists and chemistry educators have been using shorthand notation for many years. There is no doubt that the use of symbol and signs bring efficiency, but provided that the writer (teacher) and the reader (leaner) understand the symbols and notation in the same way. For example the notation 2Cl means to chemistry teachers’ two individual atoms of chlorine, while Cl2 means a molecule of chlorine in which two atoms are held firmly together by force known as covalent bond. We often forget that the novice is not very familiar with the ideas of structure and bonding and the difference between atoms and molecules is not obvious to him. The chemistry language as used in the classroom right from the beginning adds to the difficulty that students have with new abstract concepts. Several authors have reported on difficulties that beginning chemistry students have in interpreting correctly chemical language. Okeke (2005) reported that many students do not even differentiate clearly between symbols such as H, H2 and H+ and they attach to these symbols incorrect meaning. Therefore the researcher tenders that many students do not differentiate the equality (=) and arrow (®) meanings in balancing chemical equations. Njoku (1997) reported that many students even after studying chemistry do not understand the role of formulae. Some think that formulae are just mere abbreviations for names rather than a shorthand way to represent composition and structure.

According to Njoku (1997) ill-equipped or sometimes no equipped laboratory is one of the factors that could lead to students poor result in science subject especially chemistry. Also the opinion of the missionaries and

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colonial masters had for us over science as a discipline had adverse effect over the teaching and academic achievement as a whole. To support this Abdullahi (1982) stated that students poor achievement in science subject during the colonial era was the alien content of the science curricula, the emphasis is on rote learning of irrelevant definitions, laws and theories, non exposure of students to practical due to the lack of science teaching facilities and qualified teachers, foreign examination boards and the worst was poor teaching methods and strategies. Today the story is not different as the poor achievement in science subjects especially in chemistry persisted. Efforts made to encourage the teaching and learning of science by the independent Nigerian administrators was near futile. Okebukola and Jegede (1989) tested the hypothesis that students engaged in concept mapping activities on a co-operative basis will achieved meaningful learning better than students working individually on concept mapping task. The sample consisted of 145 students (84 boys and 61 girls). Mean, standard deviation and ANCOVA were used for data analysis. The result revealed that co-operative teaching was superior to individual mode. They therefore concluded that concept mapping strategy appears to be a promising strategy for arresting the declining performance in science. Will similar mind mapping teaching strategy do the same in chemistry? The study seeks to find out. Also Jegede et al (1990) found in a study of biology learning that “there was a tendency for the concept mapping strategy to significantly reduce anxiety towards biology achievement in males”. They suggested that anxiety which has been found to effect learning (Novak and Godwin,1996; Okebukola and Jegede, 1989), certainly showed that pressures, which exert considerable influence on learner’s intellectual competence and performances is anxiety. They therefore concluded that concept maps confer on the learners the advantage of shaking off from the pressure, which would otherwise impede meaningful learning. Would mind map confer the same effect in as much

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as they are similar? This study may supply the answer when completed. Many factors like methods of teaching, abstract nature of the subject, students’ interest, and career job opportunities of the subject etc can influence the academic performance of students towards any subject. Negative conceptualization has been indicated as a result of deteriorating achievements in chemistry over the years. It is also an indication that students’ dispositions towards chemistry over these years were generally very poor i.e. negatively disposed. Students were taught by their teachers using their own conventional teaching methods and reports revealed deteriorating achievement (WAEC, annual report 2001 to 2010). The researcher therefore proposes the use of constructivists’ teaching strategy, MMTS to verify how it would affect academic achievement, interest and retention in senior secondary school chemistry. Chidolue (1983) researched into the apparent lack of interest shown by female students toward physics and chemistry. He observed that student’s aversion for mathematics in them and general lack of interest in sciences is due to various laws and principles to be committed to memory. The use of MMTS may lead to positive disposition and increment in students’ interest in chemistry. Students may prefer being taught chemistry with MMTS or without it.

Summary of the Literature ReviewCognitive theory seeks to understand internal processes

of human learning. How information as stimuli are received, processed, constructed, stored in and retrieved from memory. The memory is an active processor of information. Teaching is an active process of information processing. Teaching strategies such as MMTS could be used to facilitate information processing to achieve better results outcome as it is said to be memory enhancing. Constructivism theorized that the best way to teach students is to guide them construct their own knowledge instead of having someone construct it for them. Constructive teaching strategy is any internally or externally mediated cognitive process that facilitates the

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transfer of information to be taught from short memory to long term memory. Teaching strategies can be used to construct, organize, rehearse and elaborate information to be more meaningful. One of such teaching strategies is MMTS. A mind map is a diagram used to represent ideas, words, tasks and other items linked to and arranged in radials around a central keyword or topic. This is needed to generate, visualize, structure and classify ideas, and as an aid in teaching, organizing, studying, problem solving and decision making. Mind mapping has rules or laws designed to help all of us gain access to our intelligence by giving us specifics that are brain compatibles. Following these rules may make our memory and creativity more enormously enhanced. Furthermore mind mapping teaching strategy is closely related to constructive teaching method. Constructive learning theory is also related to Ausubel’s learning theory in recognition of prior knowledge and presence of motivational objects in classrooms. Several strategies of teaching chemistry were reviewed. The conclusion was that constructive (active) teaching strategies that encourage hands-on-mind-on activities are unique. MMTS and other similar teaching strategies could generate interest among chemistry students and as well may enhance academic achievement and retention. Some other research studies with same dependent variables of academic achievement, interest and retention in chemistry were reviewed. It was found out that there was no consensus report on academic achievement, interest and retention in chemistry of the gender groups. This was ascribed mainly to poor teaching methods and strategies adopted by individual teachers (Anaekwe, 1997) plus other factors. Furthermore, students’ disposition in chemistry depends on many other factors including teaching strategies adopted by chemistry teachers. Review showed that some students may have vocational interest in chemistry and chemistry related careers i.e. positive disposition. Therefore, the researcher considered it worthwhile to explore effect of teaching students using

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MMTS and the dependent variables of academic achievement, interest and retention in senior secondary school chemistry.

CHAPTER THREE

RESRERCH METHODThis chapter presented the research design, area of the study, population of the study, sample and sampling technique. It also discussed the experimental procedure, control of extraneous variable, instrument for data collection, reliability of instrument, method of data collection, method of

data analysis and decision rule.Research designThis study adopted quasi experimental non equivalent

pretest-posttest non randomized control group design. Intact classes were then used for the study. Subjects were not randomly assigned to groups rather intact classes were

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assigned to experimental and control groups. The choice of this design was because it offers maximum control over extraneous variables. Also the researcher was not in a position to assign subjects randomly to treatment conditions then. The reason was to avoid disruption of normal school periods assigning subjects randomly to treatment conditions. The design was symbolically represented below.

Table 2: Design. Design Achiev

ementInteres

tRetentio

n Experiment

al group (M

MTS)

O1 X O2 O3 X O4 O5

Control group ( CTM)

O1 C O2 O3 C O4 O5

X = treatment using MMTS (experimental) O3 = pretest of CII

C = CTM (control) O 4 = posttest of CII

O1 = pretest of CAT O 5 = post posttest (retention)

O2 =posttest of CAT

Area of the studyThis study was carried out in Enugu Education zone of

Enugu State. Enugu Educational Zone is made up of three Local Government Areas namely: Enugu North, Enugu East and Isiuzo Local Government Areas. The researcher used Enugu Education Zone in orde

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r to ensure that all the students in the MMTS and the CTM groups share common socio cultural environment.

Population of the study All the senior secondary two chemistry students in Enugu

Education zone made up the population. The figure was 4,698 as indicated in the Post Primary School Management Board (PPSMB) statistical unit of Enugu Education Zone, 1st term 2008/2009 academic session. They were 23 state secondary schools in all made up of 11 single sex (4 male and 7 female) schools and 12 co-educational schools.

Sample and sampling technique The sample of this study is 194 SS2 chemistry students

(95 boys and 99 girls) in the four sampled schools. The students offered chemistry as one of their SS2 subjects. The sampling technique was multi–stage sampling. 1st, 2 LGA out of 3 in the Education zone were sampled out by random sampling (balloting). 2nd, 11 single sex schools were purposively sampled out from 23 secondary schools in the zone because they had only two streams of chemistry classes and gender is an independent variable of this study. 3rd, the single sex schools were stratified. Out of 4male schools 2 were sampled and out of 7 female schools 2 were sampled by random sampling (balloting). 4th, Out of the two streams from each school one class was assigned treatment (MMTS) and the other control (CTM) by random sampling (toss of coin). The distribution of the research subjects in their intact classes of this study is shown inTable3 below.

Table 3: Distribution of Subjects in their various intact classes in the schools of study by gender

S

/

N

SCHOOLS G

ENDE

R

MMT

S

(EXPERIMENT

AL)

GROUP

C

TM

(CONTR

OL)

GR

OUP

T

OTAL

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1 Girls Sec. Sch. Abakpa

Enugu G

irls

24 25 4

9

2 Girls Sec Sch. Emene

EnuguG

irls

26 245

0

3 Nike Grammar Sch.

EnuguB

oys

25 23 4

8

4 St. Patrick’s Sec. Sch.

Emene Enugu.B

oys

23 24 4

7

Total 98 96 1

94

Instrument for data collectionTwo instruments were developed by the researcher for

data collection. They are the chemistry achievement test (CAT) and the chemistry interest inventory (CII). The chemistry achievement test (CAT) was for collection of pretest achievement score, posttest achievement score and retention test score. The chemistry interest inventory (CII) was for collection of pretest interest score and posttest interest score.

Development of instrument Achievement test is the same as retention test except that

retention test was administered two weeks after post test to check for subjects’ retention. The CAT is made up two sections, section A and section B. Section A contains personal data. Section B contains instructions for answering the questions and the items. The CAT is a 40 item, 4 options multiple choice objective test based on the content of the study in SS2 chemistry curriculum as shown in table 5 below. The table contains specification used in selecting the items.

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The instrument contains four options A-D for each of the 40 items selected out of the initial pool of 50 items. After validation, ten items were declared invalid by the experts (Appendix H). The table of specification below has 5 subunits of content of the study which was subdivided from 3 main units as specified earlier (FME, 1985).

Table 4: Table of Specification for Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT)

Content Lower order 60%

Higher order

objectives 40%

Total 100%

Rates of chemical reactions and factors affecting the 20%

5 3 8

Energy changes in chemical reactions

20%

5 3 8

Endothermic and exothermic reactions

20%

5 3 8

Equilibrium in chemical reactions

20%

5 3 8

Free energy change, enthalpy and entropy changes in chemical reactions

20%

5 3 8

100%

25

15 40

The number of weeks each topic lasted in the Post Primary School Management Board (PPSMB) common scheme of work for secondary schools formed the basis of the weighting of the contents. The weighting for the objective

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level was based on the proportion of lower and higher order performance objectives in the units of the study. Lower order objectives include levels of intellectual function objectives such as knowledge, Comprehension and application. Higher order objectives include analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Each unit has 5 questions of lower order or 60% of the total and 3 questions of higher order or 40%of the total. Therefore, the total of lower order questions is 25 while higher order questions are 15. The sum total = 25 + 15 = 40 questions (see Appendix C) of equal item representation of the content in line with predefined objectives. The reliability of the test is 0.82. The psychometric indices were determined as follows (a) item discrimination (ID) (b) item facility (P) and (c) distracter index (DI) .These helped the researcher to build the final CAT package that was used. The key for acceptance is given as Item facility (P) 0.30 to 0.70 Discrimination index (D) 0.30 to o.10

Distracter index (DI) options are with positive indices. The CII is made up of section A and Section B. Section A contains personal information. Section B contains the items and instructions for ticking the chosen responses of each item. The CII is a 30-item interest inventory developed by the researcher. It has a 4-point scale response. The responses are Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree and Strongly Disagree. The respondents were expected to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement on a number of statements (positive and negative) equal cues about the units of study in senior secondary Chemistry. The instrument is non-dichotomously scored and there are 15 of positively and 15 negatively directed items. The scale and scoring pattern were shown below. The instrument is shown at appendix D. The reliability coefficient of the test instrument was 0.7214

For positive items For Negative

Items

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Strongly Agree = 4 Strongly Agree = 1Agree = 3 Agree =

2Disagree = 2 Disagree = 3Strongly Disagree = 1 Strongly Disagree = 4 Face validation of instruments The CAT was face validated by two senior academic staff

in Measurement and Evaluation and two in Chemistry Education from the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The instruments were validated in terms of clarity of instructions; correct wording of items and appropriateness and adequacy of the items in addressing the purpose and problems of the study. The critical appraisal and comments of the experts were used for reforming the items. (Appendix H). The CII was also face validated by two senior academic staff in Measurement and Evaluation and two in Chemistry Education in the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The critical appraisal and comment of the experts were used for reforming the items. (Appendix H).

Content validation of instruments To ensure content validity of the CAT, a table of

specification for Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT) was developed by the researcher (Table4) and validated by the experts with specification of curriculum developers. Two senior academic staff each in Measurement and Evaluation and in Chemistry Education of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka validated the CAT items. They determined how effective in selecting questions considering the percentage allocation of the various levels of the content units that were covered according to Blooms taxonomy. They also ensured equal number of items for each topic or unit was reflected according to the curriculum content of the units (FME, 1985). Also included are emphases on curriculum in generating questions of the items, content and number of questions generated from each topic or unit (see table 4). Similarly the CII was content validated by two senior academic staff in

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Chemistry Education and two in Measurement and Evaluation. The experts ensured that the statement items are opinion response oriented. The 4 point scale was in order and well represented. The CII items have equal positive and equal negative cued items. The scales correspond to appropriate responses they are supposed to measure. Also they ensured that the instrument is none dichotomously scored.

Trial testing of instrumentsThe CAT instrument was trial tested using forty (40) SS2

chemistry students of the College of Immaculate Conception (CIC) and 40 students of the Holy Rosary College in Enugu. The CAT was administered to 40 students of the schools by their Chemistry teachers. The CII instrument was also trial-tested using twenty six (26) SS2 chemistry students of the college of Immaculate Conception (CIC) and twenty six (26) SS2 chemistry students of the Holy Rosary College (HRC) Enugu. An hour was allowed for the test. The papers were marked, scores collated and collected. The choice of the above schools for the pilot testing was because these schools were considered equivalent to the schools of the study proper.

Reliability of the instrumentsThe student’s responses in the CAT were used to calculate

the reliability coefficient of the CAT using Kuder Richardson’s formular-20(K-R20) procedure. Also the students’ responses in the CII were used to calculate the reliability coefficient of the CII using Chronbach alpha procedure. The reliability coefficients for the CAT and the CII obtained were 0.8359 (See Appendix G) and 0.7214(See appendix H) respectively.

Validation of the lesson plansThe lesson plans were validated by two university experts

in Chemistry Education and two in Measurement and Evaluation of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Also two experienced secondary school chemistry teachers from two secondary schools helped to validate the lesson plan for CTM.

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They were specifically requested to examine the extent to which the lesson plans covered the units of study under the following:(i) The lesson objectives were clearly stated.

(ii) The objectives were appropriate to the student’s level.

(iii) Appropriate instructional methods were specified.

(iv) Appropriate instructional materials were specified.

(v) Students’ activities were adequately represented.

Experimental procedure and administration of the instruments

The study involved two groups of subjects. The groups were the experimental (MMTS) and control (CTM) groups. On the first day of the experiment the CAT and the CII were administered by their regular chemistry teachers as pretest to the groups in their intact classes. One hour was allowed for the pretest. The teachers invigilated their students in both the experimental and control groups. At the end of the test the question papers and answers were collected from the students by the teachers. The reason for retrieving the question papers was to ensure that the students did not reserve the same content for the posttest. The pretest achievement papers were marked. Scores were collated, collected and handed over to the researcher. The initial administration was aimed at establishing the same entry behavior for the experimental and control groups. It also served as basis for equating the experimental and control groups by establishing them on the same level of their respective achievements from the onset. The administration of the instruments started at the same lesson period because PPSMB Enugu Education zone has a common timetable for core subjects and sciences for effective supervision.

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Teaching commenced on the next chemistry period by their regular teachers for 5 weeks. After 5 weeks of teaching, posttest was administered to the subjects by the chemistry teachers. One hour was allowed for the test. The test was marked by the teachers. Scores were collated, collected by them and handed over to the researcher. The aim of the posttest was to find out if there was any gain in knowledge that may have arisen from the treatment. Two weeks after, retention test was administered by the teachers. One hour was allowed for the test. This was to check subjects’ retention in chemistry concepts and principles taught and examined as Posttest and after two weeks. The test was marked by the teachers. Scores were collated, collected by them and handed over to the researcher.

Control of extraneous variablesSome of the extraneous variables controlled in this study

were:1. Initial group differencesRandomization is a procedure for controlling initial group

differences in experimental studies. However, this was not done in the present study because the process would have disrupted normal school period then. Instead, intact classes were used as well as analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) in data analysis to control the initial group differences and reduce error variance.

2. Teacher variables When different teachers are involved in an experiment,

the problem of teacher variable arises. Since different teachers possess different standards in terms of knowledge of the content, the researcher prepared same lesson plans on the topics of chemistry for teachers of the MMTS group different for teachers of the CTM group. The researcher also organized two weeks intensive workshop/seminar for the 4 teachers that were involved on the use of MMTS lesson plans. They were drilled on how to teach using MMTS lesson plans.

3. Instructional situation variable

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Homogeneity of instruction across groups was ensured. The researcher provided the instructional procedures and guide lines that were involved. The MMTS and CTM subjects were taught within the regular periods allotted to chemistry in the schools common timetable in Enugu Education zone.

4. Effect of pre-test on post-test In order to minimize the influence of memory effect due to

either remembrance or forgetfulness, the time lag between pre-test and post-test and posttest and retention test was five weeks and two weeks respectively. The periods were considered to be neither too short nor too long. They were relatively durations which should serve well and minimize the effect of maturation and history. The pretest items were arranged and produced in white question papers before they were rearranged and used as yellow question papers in the post-test and further rearranged as white again in the retention test.

5. Subjects’ interaction The researcher was aware of the possible interaction between

the students of MMTS and CTM groups being in the same school compound. Consequently, the teachers were instructed to give no notes or assignment to students so that exchange of ideas outside the classroom by the students was reduced. The chemistry teachers were instructed to minimize subject interaction by ensuring that they were in the two SS2 classes before teaching commenced. This reduced students wandering or loitering. Cleaning the chalk board as soon as the lessons were over was emphasized and ensured.

6. Training of teachers There was 2 weeks training/workshop for the 4 teachers that

were chosen for the MMTS package from the 4 selected schools. On the first day of the training the chemistry teachers arrived at the appointed time in one of the selected schools located at the center. The researcher presented copies of the MMTS lesson plans to the teachers. The researcher read the MMTS lesson plans of the three units to their hearing. Discussion sessions and questions were asked.

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Answers were given by the researcher who coordinated. They were informed that the MMTS lesson plans, date of teaching and time of each test must be strictly adhered to. No evaluation should be given and the chalk board must be cleaned after each lesson. Discussion of the mind mapping procedures of each of the three units of chemistry was carried out. The researcher sent copies of CTM lesson plans to the 4 regular teachers of the 4 sampled schools. He had discussions with them and implored that the lesson plans, date of commencing to teaching and time of each test must be strictly adhered to. No evaluation should be given. Chalk board must be cleaned after each lesson.

7. Hawthorne effect This is a situation in which the students’ behavior may be

affected by their knowledge of participation in a study. This was controlled by the use of the regular chemistry teachers of the schools. The teachers conducted the teaching, administration of instruments, invigilation of pretest,

posttest, retention test and marking of the tests. The researcher was not directly involved in the treatment or else the students would have been sensitized that they were being used for a research. This would have caused them to fake their behaviors and actions. The researcher monitored regularly and encouraged them with caution.

8. Novelty effectThis is an increase in interest as a result of motivation or

participation on the part of the research subjects because they were doing something different from what they used to do. This was avoided by conducting the teaching and testing in the two SS2 chemistry classes only in the 4 sampled schools. Their regular chemistry teachers in their intact classes were also used. Normal chemistry periods of three periods a week were adhered to for 5weeks.

Method of data collection The pretest scores, posttest scores and the retention test

scores were recorded after each marking exercise. The CAT items scored 2 marks each. The maximum mark is 80 marks

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for pretest, posttest, and retention test respectively. A total of 194 copies of the CAT and the CII were issued and retrieved.

Methods of data analysisThe six research questions were answered using mean

and standard deviation scores while the nine null hypotheses were tested at 0.05alpha level of significance using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). The pre-test scores were used as covariates to the post-test scores. ANCOVA was appropriate here because it served as a procedure for controlling the initial groups’ differences as well as increasing the precision due to the extraneous variables thus reducing error variance (Ferguson, 1981).

Decision ruleReject the null hypotheses if the calculated value of test

statistics F-cal is equal to or greater than the critical or table value (F – cal ≥ F critical) at 0.05 level of significance, and appropriate difference, otherwise accept.

CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS

This Chapter presented the result of the study. The six research questions were answered using mean and standard

lxxiii

deviation scores while the nine hypotheses were tested using ANCOVA analysis at 0.05alpha level of significance. The results were presented in tables according to the research questions and the hypotheses. At the end of presentation a summary of the results obtained was made.

Research Question 1What is the difference in mean achievement score of

students taught using mind mapping teaching strategy (MMTS) and those taught without it?

Table 5: Mean X) and Standard deviations (SD) of achievement(͞ Scores of subjects by gender (MMTS and CTM).

Me

thod

Gender

Over

all

Mal

e

Fem

ale

MM

TS

(experi

mental)

N

X͞

SD

18.17

8.93

48

X͞

SD

25.74

7.33

50

X

SD

21.95

8.13

98

CT

M

(cont

rol)

N

8.32

3.19

47

10.12

1.76

49

9.22

2.48

96

Over

all

N

13.2

4 6.06

95

17.93

4.55

9

15.58

5.30

194

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9

As shown in Table 5 above, mean achievement score of students taught using MMTS isx=21.95 while mean achievement score of students taught using CTM isx=9.22. The difference in mean achievement score of students taught using MMTS and those taught using CTM is 12.23 in favor of MMTS group. This suggests that students taught using MMTS obtained higher academic achievement score than students taught using CTM. Similarly students taught using MMTS obtained standard deviation score of 8.13 while students taught using CTM obtained standard deviation score of 2.48. This is an indication that students taught using MMTS obtained higher spread out of scores about their mean than students taught using CTM that obtained lower spread out of scores about their mean. In order to make a valid decision on whether the students’ difference in mean achievement score based on the use of MMTS and CTM in teaching senior secondary Chemistry was due to error or variance, Null hypothesis 1 was tested.

Hypothesis 1There is no significant difference in mean achievement

score of students taught using MMTS and those taught without it.

Table 6: Summary of analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) on subjects’ pre-CAT and post-CAT mean achievement scores by gender (MMTS and CTM)

Sources of Variation

Sum of squares

Degrees of freedom (DF)

Mean square

F-cal

F – Critical

Decision at P<0.05 level

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Covariates

201.36

1 201.36

5.60

Pre-test

201.36

1 201.36

5.60

Main effect

6512.11

2 3256.06

90.55

Treatment

6023.79

1 6023.79

167.5

1

3.84 S

Gender

811.63

1 811.53

22.57

3.84 S

2 way interactions 504

.591 50

4.59

14.03

Treatment

X Gende

r

504.59

1 504.59

14.03

3.84 S

Explained

9618.25

4 2404.56

66.87

Residual

6796.41

189

35.96

Total 16414.669

193

85.050

S=Significant at 0.05 probability level; NS=Not Significant at 0.05 probability level.

As shown in Table 6 above, the calculated F-ratio for MMTS (treatment) is 167.51 against the F-critical value of 3.84 at 0.05level of significance, 1df numerator and 193df denominator. Since F-calculated value of 167.51 is greater than the F-critical of 3.84. Therefore null hypothesis 1 of no significant difference in the mean achievement score was rejected. This implies that the observed difference in the mean achievement score of students taught using MMTS and those taught using CTM was significant and was due to variance and not attributed to error.

Research Question 2What is the difference in mean achievement score of male

and female students taught using MMTS?

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As shown in Table 5 above, mean achievement score of the female students taught using MMTS is x=25.74 while ͞ mean achievement score of the male students taught using same MMTS is x=18.17. The difference in mean achievement ͞ score of male and the female students taught using MMTS is 7.57 in favor of the females. This suggests that the female students taught using same MMTS obtained higher academic achievement score than the male students taught using same MMTS. Similarly the male students taught using MMTS obtained standard deviation score of 8.93 while the female students taught using same MMTS obtained standard deviation score of 7.33.This is an indication that the male students obtained higher spread out of scores about their mean than the female students who obtained lower spread out of scores about their mean. In order to make a valid decision on whether the students gender difference in mean achievement score based on the use of MMTS in teaching senior secondary chemistry was due to error or variance, hypothesis 2 was tested.

Hypothesis 2 Gender does not significantly influence the mean

achievement score of students taught using MMTS. As shown in Table 6 above, the calculated F- ratio for

gender influence on mean achievement score of students taught using MMTS is 22.57 against the F-critical value of 3.84 at 0.05level of significance, 1df numerator and 193df denominator. Since F- calculated value for gender influence on mean achievement score of 22.57 is greater than F-critical of 3.84. Null hypothesis 2 of no significant gender influence on mean achievement score of students taught using MMTS was rejected. This implies that the observed influence on mean achievement score of students taught using MMTS was significant and was due to variance and not attributed to error.

Research Question 3What is the difference in mean interest score of students

taught using MMTS and those taught without it?

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Table 7: Mean(X) and Standard Deviation(S) of interest scores of subjects by gender (MMTS and CTM)

Method

Gender Overall

Male

Female

MMTS

(experimental)

N

X SD

67.85 9.70

48

X SD

65.66 9.71

50

X SD

66.76 9.44

98

CTM

(control)

N

56.13 17.24

47

63.90 11.05

49

60.01 14.14

1.96

Overall

N

61.20 13.20

95

64.78 10.38

99

63.39 11.79

194

As shown in Table 7 above, mean interest score of students taught using MMTS is x=66.76 and those taught ͞ using CTM is x=60.01. The difference in mean interest score ͞ of students taught using MMTS and those taught using CTM is 6.75 in favor of MMTS group. This is an indication that students taught using MMTS became more interested in chemistry than those taught using CTM. The standard deviation score obtained by the students taught using MMTS is 9.44 and those taught using CTM is 14.14. This is an indication that the MMTS group obtained lower spread out of scores about their mean than the CTM group that obtained higher spread out of scores about their mean. In order to make a valid decision on whether the difference in mean interest score based on the use of MMTS and CTM in

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teaching senior secondary school chemistry is due to variance or error Null Hypothesis 3 was tested.

Hypothesis 3 There is no significant difference in the mean interest

score of students taught using MMTS and those taught without it.

Table 8: Summary of Analysis of covariance on subjects’ pre-CII and post-CII mean interest scores by gender (MMTS and CTM)

Sources of variation

Sum of squares

Degrees of freedom DF

Mean Square

F-cal

F-critical

Decision at P< 0.05 Level of significance

Covariates

1858.45

1 1858.45

13.39

Interest

1858.45

1 1858.45

13.39

3.00 S

Main effects

2294.39

2 1147.19

8.26

Treatment

2256.98

1 2256.98

16.26

Gender

35.48

1 35.48

0.26

3.00 NS

2way Interactions

741.05

1 741.05

5.34

Treatment

X Gender

741.05

1 741.05

5.34

3.00S

Explained

5563.51

4 1390.88

10.02

3.00 S

Residual

26242.42

189

138.85

Total

31805.99

193

164.80

S = Significant at 0.05 probability level; NS = Not Significant at 0 .05 probability level.

As shown Table 8 above, the calculated F-ratio for interest is 13.39 against the F-critical value of 3.00 at 0.05 level of significance, 1df numerator and 193df denominator. Since the

lxxix

F-calculated value of 13.39 is greater than the F-critical of 3.00. Null hypothesis 3 of no significant difference in the mean interest score was rejected. This implies that the observed difference in mean interest score of students taught using MMTS and those taught using CTM was significant. It was due to variance and not attributed to error.

Research Question 4What is the difference in mean interest score of male and

female students taught using MMTS?As shown in Table 7 above, mean interest score of the

female students taught using MMTS is x=65.66 and those of ͞ the male students taught using same MMTS is x=67.85. The difference in mean interest score of male and female students taught using MMTS is 2.19 in favor of the females. This indicates that the female students taught using MMTS became more interested than the male students taught using same MMTS. Similarly the standard deviation score of the female students taught using MMTS is 9.71 and that of the male students taught using same MMTS is 9.70. This indicates that the female students taught using MMTS obtained higher spread out of scores about their mean than the male students that obtained lower spread out scores about their mean. Therefore, in order to make a valid decision on whether the gender difference in mean interest score based on the use of MMTS in teaching senior secondary chemistry was due to variance or error Null hypothesis 4 was tested.

Hypothesis 4Gender does not significantly influence the mean interest

score of students taught using MMTS. As shown in Table 8 above, the calculated F- ratio for

gender influence on mean interest score was 0.256 against the F--critical value of 3.00 at 0.05 level of significance, 1df numerator and 193df denominator. Since F-calculated of 0.26 is less than F-critical of 3.00. Null hypothesis 4 of no significant gender influence on mean interest score was not rejected. This implies that the observed influence on mean

lxxx

interest score of students taught using MMTS was not significant. It was attributed to error and not variance.

Table 9: Mean X) and standard deviation(S) of subjects mean(͞ retention scores by gender (MMTS and CTM)

Method Gender Overall

Male

Female

MMTS (experim

ental) N

X SD 29.06

3.99

48

X SD

32.14 3.51

50

X SD

30.60 3.75

98

CTM (contr

ol) N

10.09 1.56

47

18.02 20.72

49

14.05 11.14

96

Overall

N

19.57 2.28

95

25.08 12.11

99

22.33 7.44 194

Research Question 5What is the difference in mean retention score of students

taught using MMTS and those taught without it?As shown in Table 9 above, mean retention score of

students taught using MMTS is x=30.60 and those of the ͞ students taught using CTM is x=14.05. The difference in ͞ mean retention score of students taught using MMTS and those taught using CTM is 16.55 in favor of MMTS group. This is an indication that students taught using MMTS retained chemistry concepts and principles more than students taught using CTM. The standard deviation score of students taught using MMTS is 3.75 and those of the students taught using CTM is 11.14. This is an indication that

lxxxi

students taught using MMTS obtained lower spread out of scores about their mean than those of the students taught using CTM that obtained higher spread out of scores about their mean. In order to make a valid decision on whether the students mean retention score based on the use of MMTS and CTM in teaching senior secondary school chemistry was due to variance or error. Hypothesis 5 was tested.

Hypothesis 5 There is no significant difference in the mean retention

score of students taught using MMTS and those taught using CTM.

Table 10: Summary of ANCOVA on subjects’ mean retention scores by gender (MMTS and CTM)

Sources of variation

Sum of squares

Degree of freedom df

Mean Square

F-cal

F-critical

Decision at P< 0.05 level of significance.

Covariates

84.49

1 84.49

.726

Retention

84.49

1 84.49

.726

3.84

NS

Main effects

5428.05

2 2714.03

23.34

Treatment

5240.26

1 5240.26

45.06

3.84

S

Gender

1048.04

1 1048.04

9.01

3.84

S

2way Interactions

345.57

1 345.57

2.97

Treatment

X Gender

345.57

1 345.57

2.97

3.84 NS

Explained

15025.33

4 3756.33

32.

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29Resi

dual219

80.98189 116.

30Tota

l370

06.31193 191.

74 S = Significant at 0.05 probability level; NS = Not Significant at .05

probability level.

As shown in Table 10 above, the calculated F-ratio for mean retention score is 0.726 against the F-critical value of 3.84 at 0.05 level of significance, 1df for numerator and 193df denominator. Since F-calculated value of 0.726 is less than the F-critical of 3.84. Null Hypothesis 5 of no significant difference in mean retention score of students taught using MMTS and those taught using CTM was not rejected. This implies that the observed difference in mean retention score of students taught using MMTS and those taught using CTM was not significant. It was attributed to error and not variance. The sex of the students had no influence on their mean retention score.

Research Question 6What is the difference in mean retention score of male

and female students taught using MMTS?As shown in Table 9 above, mean retention score of male

students taught using MMTS is x =29.06 while the mean ͞ retention score of female students taught using same MMTS isx=32.14. The difference in mean retention score of male and female students taught using MMTS is 3.08 in favor of the females. This suggests that the female students taught using MMTS retained chemistry concepts and principles more than their male counterparts taught using MMTS. Furthermore the female students taught using MMTS obtained standard deviation score of 3.51 while the male students taught with same MMTS obtained standard deviation score of 3.99. This is an indication that the female students taught using MMTS obtained lower spread out of scores about their mean than the male students taught using

lxxxiii

same MMTS that obtained higher spread out of scores about their mean. In order to make a valid decision on whether the students difference in mean retention score of male and female students taught based on the use of MMTS in teaching senior secondary chemistry was due to variance or error. Null Hypothesis 6 was tested.

Hypothesis 6 Gender does not significantly influence the mean

retention score of students taught using MMTS.As shown in Table 10 above, the calculated F-ratio for

gender influence on mean retention score of students taught using MMTS is 9.01 against the F-critical value of 3.84 at 0.05level of significance, 1df numerator and 193df denominator. Since F-calculated value of 9.01 is greater than the F-critical of 3.84. Null hypothesis 6 of no significant influence of gender on mean retention score of students taught using MMTS was rejected. This implies that the observed gender influence on mean retention score was due to variance and not attributed to error.

Hypothesis 7 The interaction effect of gender and treatment on mean

achievement score of students taught using MMTS and those taught without it is not significant.

As shown in Table 6 above, the calculated F-ratio for interaction effect of gender and treatment on mean achievement score is 14.03against the F-critical value of 3.84 at 0.05 level of significance, 1df numerator and 193denominator. Since F-calculated of 14.03 is greater than F-critical of 3.84. Null hypothesis 7 of no significant interaction effect of gender and treatment on mean achievement score of students taught was rejected. This implies that the observed interaction effect of gender and treatment on mean achievement score of students taught using MMTS and CTM was significant. It was due to variance and not attributed to error.

Hypothesis 8

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The interaction effect of gender and treatment on mean interest score of students taught using MMTS and those taught without it is not significant.

As shown in Table 8 above, the calculated F-ratio for interaction effect of gender and treatment on mean interest score of students taught was 5.34 against the F-critical value of 3.00 at 0.05level of significance, 1df numerator and 193df denominator. Since F-calculated of 5.34 is greater than the F-critical of 3.00. Null Hypothesis 8 of no significant interaction effect of gender and treatment on mean interest score of students taught using MMTS and CTM was rejected. This Implies that the observed interaction effect of gender and treatment on mean interest score of students taught using MMTS and CTM was significant. It was due to variance and not attributed to error.

Hypothesis 9The interaction effect of gender and treatment on mean

retention score of students taught using MMTS and those taught without it is not significant.

As shown in Table 10 above, the calculated F-ratio for interaction effect of gender and treatment on mean retention score was 2.97against the F-critical value of 3.84 at 0.05level of significance, 1df numerator and193df denominator. Since F-calculated of 2.97 is less than F-critical of 3.84. Null hypothesis 9 of no significant interaction effect of gender and treatment on mean retention score was upheld. This implies that there was no observed interaction effect of gender and treatment on mean retention score of students taught using MMTS and CTM. Any interaction effect was not significant and may be due to error and not attributed to variance

Summary of result The major findings in this report are shown

below.

lxxxv

1. Mean achievement score of students taught using MMTS was significantly higher than those taught without it.

2. Gender influenced mean achievement score of students taught using MMTS significantly.

3. Mean interest score of students taught using MMTS was significantly higher than those taught without it.

4. Gender had no significant influence on mean interest score of students taught using MMTS.

5. Mean retention score of students taught using MMTS was higher than those taught without it but not significantly different from those taught without it

6. Gender influenced mean retention score of students taught using MMTS significantly.

7. Significant interaction effect of gender and treatment on mean achievement score of students taught using MMTS and those taught without it was observed.

8. Significant interaction effect of gender and treatment on mean interest score of students taught using MMTS and those taught without it was observed.

9. No significant interaction effect of gender and treatment on mean retention score of students taught using MMTS and those taught without it was observed.

CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION OF RESULT, CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATION AND SUMMARY

Discussion This chapter presented the discussion and interpretation of result in the previous chapter. The discussion is organized under the following headings:- The effect of MMTS on the mean achievement score.

The influence of gender on the mean achievement score.

The effect of MMTS on the mean interest score.

lxxxvi

The influence of gender on the mean interest score.

The effect of MMTS on the mean retention score.

The influence of gender on the mean retention score.

The effect of MMTS and gender interaction on the mean

achievement score, the mean interest score and the mean

retention score.

Conclusion.

The effect of MMTS on the mean achievement score

This study revealed that mean achievement score of students taught using MMTS was significantly higher than those of the students taught using CTM. The reasons for the higher performance by the experimental group was that they were more actively involved in mind mapping of the concepts and principles of Chemistry which involved drawing and painting the maps which were absent in the control group throughout their lesson periods. It could also be that the experimental group members were able to link up new concepts in Chemistry to the relevant concepts in their mind mapping which they were familiar with. This was absent in the conventional teaching method. In addition, it could be as a result of excitement over creating new shapes (maps) emerging on their own from each topic which was similar or nearly the same with that of their teachers. Furthermore, the mind mapping and pictorial adjunct mode presentation provided by the MMTS was completely absent in the CTM. The teacher and students participatory role in mind mapping technique is unique which made for better performance of the MMTS group than the CTM. This was also completely absent in CTM group. The above findings observed when mind mapping teaching strategy was used to teach one group of students supported the findings of Ezeudu (1995) who used

lxxxvii

different structural graphic organizer concept map. The result also supported the works of Anaekwe (1997) and Ali and Anaekwe (1997) that used effect of students’ interaction patterns and found significant effect on the mean achievement score of students in their studies. The researcher therefore tenders that most teaching strategies which involve active participation of the students and encourage hands on minds on activities by the students have been found significant achievement score in their studies.

The Influence of gender on the mean achievement score This study revealed that the mean achievement score of

students taught using MMTS was significantly influenced by gender. This is an indication that gender inclusive science teaching strategy (MMTS) influenced mean achievement score of students in their mind mapping of chemistry activities. This also implies that the use of gender inclusive instructional mind mapping teaching strategy influenced the gender groups positively.

Generally there are two categories of result from studies on gender influence on mean achievement score. The finding of this study supported the first category in which there was significant gender influence on mean achievement scores Ezeudu 1995; Anaekwe 1997). Conversely the result contradicted the findings of the second category in which there was no significant gender influence on mean achievement scores (Nworgu 1985; Ezeudu 1991 and Okeke 2005).

The effect of MMTS on the mean interest scoreResult of this study revealed that the mean interest score

of students taught using MMTS was significantly higher than mean interest score of those taught using CTM. Therefore the use of mind mapping teaching strategy enhanced the mean interest score of students. This means that the mode of instruction has significantly affected the mean interest score of the students. The overall higher mean interest score shown by the treatment group against the control group was as a result of high level of activities and excitement over creating

lxxxviii

new shapes and structures (maps) emerging from their intellect and is similar to that of their teachers. Furthermore, the pictorial adjunct mode of presentation by the use of MMTS activities stimulated interest in the experimental group. Finally the researcher tenders that constructive teaching strategy (MMTS) is a gender inclusive instructional technique and involves hands on minds on activities was the main source of their interest. The finding was in agreement with Okwo (2002) and Okwo and Tartiyus (2004). This finding also agreed with Okebukola (1990), Ezeudu (1995), Osisioma (1995); Osisioma (2005) & Njoku, (2006). One can rightly say that mind mapping has the ability of arousing and sustaining interest.

The influence of gender on the mean interest score.

This study revealed that the mean interest score of students taught was not influenced significantly by gender. This is an indication that gender had no influence on the mean interest score of students taught using MMTS. Any observed difference in mean interest score is due to chance. This finding contradicted Nworgu (1990) and Obodo (1990) in which they reported that students’ interest towards science was significantly dependent on gender. However, the finding supported Anaekwe (1997) and Ifeakor (1999) that reported no significant effect of gender on students’ development of interest in Chemistry. They also reported that female students showed equal interest with their male counterpart. Some studies on gender influence on students’ interest in science were of the opinion that boys are more exposed to scientific activities very early in life than girls. More over they are more encouraged to enter for science related courses like engineering and technology while girls go for biology, home economics and other related domestic subjects. The result of this study has shown that giving equal science and unlimited access to education for females, they would as well develop interest in physical sciences like chemistry. The implication is that the use of MMTS gender

lxxxix

inclusive strategy has eliminated masculine image of science related differences in students’ interest in favor of the girls in this study.

The effect of MMTS on the mean retention score.This study revealed that the mean retention score of

students taught using MMTS was higher than those taught using CTM but was found not significantly different from those taught using CTM. This implies that MMTS had effectively enhanced the memory of the experimental group more than the control group but not as much that had caused no significant different. This higher mean retention score by the treatment group could be as a result of the MMTS was able to have enhanced the brain cells the experimental group. Furthermore the gender inclusive instructional technique of MMTS made it possible for the experimental group to obtain higher mean retention score than the control group. The finding of this study showed that there was no significant difference on the mean retention score of students taught using MMTS and those taught using CTM. The finding supported similar innovative teaching reported by Ezeh (1992); Okebukola (1990). Conversely the finding contradicted Ezeudu (1997), Nworgu (1990) and Egbugara (1983). The study of science especially chemistry is activity based. Activity based teaching technique requires that the teacher does while the students by simulation do the same over and over by themselves and learning would have taken place.

The influence of gender on the mean retention score.

Evidence from this study revealed that the influence of gender on mean retention score of students taught using MMTS was significant. This is an indication that students’ gender group memory was greatly enhanced as a result of gender inclusive MMTS. Therefore gender influence on the mean retention score of students taught using MMTS was significant. This finding contradicted Wandersee (1990) and Ezeudu (1995) who found no significant gender influence on

xc

mean retention score in chemistry. This finding also supported the findings of Ezeudu (1997) and Nworgu (1990)

The effect of MMTS and gender interaction on mean achievement score, mean interest score and mean retention score.

The interaction effect of treatment and gender on mean achievement score was significant. This finding contradicted Nworgu (1990) who found no significant interaction effect of gender and use of resource materials in integrated science taught. Similarly the finding supported Ifeakor (2003) in which it was reported that the interaction effect of assessment technique and gender on mean achievement score was found significant. Similarly the interaction effect of treatment and gender on mean interest score was significant. This finding also supported Anaekwe (1997) who found that the effect on students’ interaction patterns and gender on mean interest score was significant. Conversely the interaction effect of treatment and gender on mean retention score was not significant in this study. This is an indication that the interaction effect of treatment and gender on mean retention score may be present but was insignificant. This finding supported Ezeh (1992) and Ezeudu (1995) but contradicted Nworgu (1990).

ConclusionThis study has shown that the MMTS has significant effect

on students’ cognitive achievement, interest and retention in Chemistry. The MMTS is more efficacious than the CTM. The influence of gender on mean achievement score and mean interest score were significant but mean retention score was not. Female students showed to be superior to their male counterparts. The interaction effect of gender and treatment on the mean achievement score and the mean interest score were significant but not on the mean retention score.

Implications of the study

xci

The result of this study has some obvious implications for all the stakeholders in Education. The use of MMTS has been proved to be effective in facilitating greater achievement, interest and retention in chemistry content. Chemistry teachers in Colleges of education, Institute of education, department of Science education, Curriculum planners and textbooks authors may adopt it in order to ensure meaningful teaching and learning in Chemistry. The mind mapping teaching strategy is a recent innovation which is very effective. The pre-service chemistry teachers should be trained on the use of this strategy. The MMTS should be included in science method content in teacher training institutions like Colleges of Education, departments of Science Education and Institutes of Education. Furthermore, since the study revealed that there is significant interaction effect of gender and MMTS on students’ achievement and interest. It will be meaningless to develop different curriculum teaching methods for male and female students.

Finally, major stakeholders should sponsor chemistry teachers to seminars and workshop on regular basis to keep the teachers abreast with this innovative teaching strategy of teaching chemistry.

Limitations of the studyThe regular chemistry teachers taught intact classes

selected for the study in their schools but they may not have adhered very strictly to the procedure of teaching and administration of the instruments. This may be due to their individual differences and attitude to work irrespective they were all trained for same duration. The training sessions organized for teachers involved in this study may not have been sufficient enough for the expected level of mastery needed in mind mapping techniques.

RecommendationsSince MMTS is found to be an effective teaching strategy

for improving students mean achievement score, mean interest score and mean retention score in chemistry. Chemistry teachers should adopt it as a teaching strategy in

xcii

chemistry classrooms and laboratories. Workshops and seminars should be organized for in-service chemistry teachers. The teacher training institutions should include the use of MMTS in their chemistry method course content to ensure the training of the pre-service chemistry teachers. Authors of chemistry text-books should include MMTS in their texts for easy access for students and teachers. Finally, the curriculum planners should include MMTS in senior secondary chemistry scheme foe teachers and students.

Suggestion for further research 1. Similar investigations should be carried out to

determine the effect of MMTS on other areas of chemistry. 2. Similar studies can be replicated using a wider geographical area. 3. A case study of this study can be conducted. 4. Similar studies can be replicated in other subject areas like arts subjects, engineering and mathematics.

Summary The development of any nation depends on the scientific

and technological development of that nation. Scientific and technological development depends on the development of the basic sciences. Chemistry is one of the basic sciences but the West African Examination Council (WAEC) annual reports of many years 2001 to 2010 have revealed that secondary school students have not been performing well in Chemistry, one of the core science subjects offered at the Senior School Certificate Examination (SSCE). It is not quite clear what is responsible for this trend of poor performance. This has caused a source of concern and worry to major stakeholders in the education sector. In Nigeria, secondary school teachers very often teach chemistry by lecture teaching method in the guise of conventional teaching method. They do so in classrooms and even in laboratories without recourse to constructive teaching method that promotes the acquisition of scientific skills, technological skills and even entrepreneurial skills. Teaching methods and instructional management techniques employed by teachers have often been alluded to as the major contributing factor to students’

xciii

poor performance in secondary school science subjects. Therefore, the situation calls for exploring other teaching methods found effective in some other fields and countries. One of such teaching strategies is mind mapping teaching strategy. The independent variables of this study are MMTS and gender while the dependent variables are academic achievement, interest and retention. The variables were defined and discussed. Reports of other researchers on them indicated how gender and gender influential differences in classroom management have continued to be inconsistent. Therefore, the problem of this study put as question was, would mean achievement score, mean interest score and mean retention score of secondary school chemistry students taught using MMTS be improved and enhanced? The significance of this study indicated how the stakeholders in chemistry education would benefit if published. The main purpose of the study was to determine the effect of MMTS and gender influence on mean achievement score, mean interest score and mean retention score in secondary chemistry. This study was conducted in Enugu education zone in Enugu state in 2008/2009 academic session. Six research questions were asked and nine hypotheses were formulated that gave this study a sense of direction.

The literature review was organized under conceptual framework and empirical studies. Some important concepts of this study were discussed under conceptual framework while some other similar reports were reported under empirical studies. Under conceptual framework, the concept of similarity of cognitive human information process of the brain and mind mapping process was discussed. Constructivism was defined as an instructional strategy that emphasizes how students are taught by active participation of constructing their own knowledge. The similarity of constructive teaching strategy and mind mapping teaching strategy was discussed. The similarity of Ausubel’s learning theory and mind mapping theory was discussed. Mind mapping definition, origin and laws were also discussed. Under empirical studies, some

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other similar strategies of teaching chemistry were reported. Gender of students’ achievement and interest in chemistry was reported. Status of achievement and retention in chemistry was reported. Students’ disposition in chemistry was also reported.

This study adopted quasi experimental non equivalent control design. The population of the study was 4,698 chemistry students in Enugu Education zone in 2008/2009 academic session. The sample of the study was194 SS2 chemistry students was drawn through multistage sampling technique. The instruments CAT and CII were developed by the researcher, validated by the experts in the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. They were trial tested at two secondary schools in Enugu urban. The reliability coefficients obtained for the CAT and the CII were 0.8359 and 0.7214 using Kuder Richardson formula-20 and Chronbach alpha procedure respectively. Two lesson plans one for the experimental (MMTS) and the other for the control (CTM) were prepared by the researcher. The teachers used them for teaching the subjects. On the first day of the experiment the instruments were administered by their regular teachers as pretest. An hour was allowed for the test. The test was marked, collated and collected by the teachers and handed over to researcher. Teaching commenced on the next chemistry period by the teachers for 5 weeks. Five weeks after, posttest was administered. An hour was allowed for the test. The test was marked, collated and collected by them and handed over to the researcher. Two weeks after, the CAT was further rearranged by the researcher and administered as retention test by the teachers. An hour was allowed for the test. The test was marked, collated and collected by them and handed over to the researcher. Some of the extraneous variables controlled in this study were effect of pretest on posttest, Hawthorne effect, initial group differences, instruction situation variable, subjects’ interaction, novelty effect, teachers’ variable and training of teachers

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Data obtained from this study were analyzed. Mean and Standard deviation scores were used to answer the six research questions while the nine hypotheses were tested at P≤ 0.05level of significance using Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA). The result showed that students taught using MMTS obtained mean achievement score, mean interest score and mean retention score in chemistry higher than those taught using CTM. Gender influenced significantly on mean achievement score and mean retention score but not on mean interest score of students taught using MMTS. Furthermore, the result revealed significant interaction effect of gender and treatment on mean achievement score and mean interest score but not on mean retention score of students taught using MMTS.

Since MMTS was found as a facilitative instructional strategy for improving mean achievement score, mean interest score and mean retention score in secondary school chemistry. The findings have serious implications for the stakeholders in chemistry education. Therefore, this study recommended adequate training for teachers on the use of MMTS be adopted in Nigerian secondary schools. It is effective teaching and learning using MMTS because it promotes the acquisition of scientific skills, technological skills and even entrepreneurial skills.