nutrition and livestock · 2020-04-07 · nutrition and livestock. technical guidance to harness...

NUTRITION AND LIVESTOCK

THE MANY DIMENSIONS OF NUTRITION

Technical guidance to harness the potential of livestock for improved nutrition of vulnerable populations in programme planning

NUTRITION AND LIVESTOCKTechnical guidance to harness the potential of livestock for improved nutrition of vulnerable

populations in programme planning

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome, 2020

Required citation:FAO. 2020. Nutrition and livestock– Technical guidance to harness the potential of livestock for improved nutrition of vulnerable populations in programme planning. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca7348en

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https://doi.org/10.4060/ca7348en

iii

Contents

Foreword ...........................................................................................................vii

Acknowledgements ......................................................................................... ix

Abbreviations and acronyms ........................................................................... x

About this paper .............................................................................................. xi

Introduction: why technical guidance on livestock and human nutrition? .... 1

Leveraging livestock for human nutrition ....................................................... 1

What is malnutrition and what are its causes? ............................................. 2

The potential of animal-source foods for human nutrition .............................. 5

Contribution of animal-source foods to nutrition .......................................... 5

Taboos and cultural factors related to animal-source food intake .............. 6

Impact pathways from livestock to human nutrition ....................................... 7

Consumption of animal-source foods ........................................................... 9

Crop production ............................................................................................. 9

Income-generation ....................................................................................... 10

Women’s empowerment ............................................................................... 11

Physical activity ............................................................................................. 12

Disease transmission ..................................................................................... 12

Recommendations for making livestock programmes more nutrition-sensitive ........................................................................................................... 15

General considerations for programme design .......................................... 15

Assessing the local nutritional context ......................................................................15

Setting explicit nutrition-related objectives and activities ........................................17

Developing a nutrition-sensitive household targeting strategy ...............................18

Targeting women for livestock activities ....................................................................18

Understanding the ‘livestock to nutrition’ impact pathways ....................................20

Selecting nutrition-related indicators.........................................................................20

Adhering to the ‘do no harm’ principle .....................................................................20

iv

Specific considerations related to livestock production ............................. 21

Choice of species .......................................................................................................21

Seasonal variations in livestock production ..............................................................22

Animal health programmes .......................................................................................23

Specific considerations related to the livestock value chains .................... 24

Preservation and processing techniques .................................................................24

Value-chain analysis ..................................................................................................26

Business approach .....................................................................................................26

Use of livestock by-products .......................................................................................27

Emergency nutritional programmes..........................................................................27

Nutrition education and behaviour-change communication .................... 28

Promoting the nutritional value of animal-source foods ..........................................28

Addressing taboos and diversifying consumption of animal-source foods ...........28

Promoting food hygiene and safety at household level ..........................................29

Broadly targeting nutrition education .......................................................................30

Educating producers and consumers ......................................................................30

Creating an enabling environment for enhanced linkages between livestock and human nutrition ........................................................................ 33

References ...................................................................................................... 35

Annex 1: Checklist for nutrition-sensitive livestock interventions................... 39

Assessment .................................................................................................... 39

Design ............................................................................................................ 40

Implementation ............................................................................................. 40

Monitoring and evaluation ........................................................................... 41

Annex 2: Resources for further information .................................................... 43

Specific to livestock ....................................................................................... 43

Technical documents ................................................................................................43

Reviews ........................................................................................................................44

About nutrition-sensitive programming in food and agriculture ................ 44

For designing nutrition-sensitive policy and programmes .......................................44

For assessment, monitoring and evaluation of nutrition-sensitive approaches .....44

For multisectoral planning for nutrition and resilience .............................................45

Nutrition education ....................................................................................................45

v

Boxes

þ Box 1. Types of malnutrition .............................................................................3

þ Box 2. Beliefs, taboos and practices related to consumption of

animal-source foods .......................................................................................6

þ Box 3. Promoting family poultry for household food security and

nutrition in Tanzania ......................................................................................16

þ Box 4. Impact of crop and livestock programmes on dietary diversity of

women and children in Mali.........................................................................17

þ Box 5. Gender focus on livestock-related income-generating activities

for better food security and nutrition in Bangladesh ..................................19

þ Box 6. Improving livestock productivity and milk consumption in a

community development programme in Nepal .........................................23

þ Box 7. Traditional preservation and processing techniques for

animal-source foods .....................................................................................24

þ Box 8. Impact of dairy value chain improvement on food security and

nutrition in Rwanda .......................................................................................26

þ Box 9. Radio soap opera tackles nutrition in pastoral communities in

Ethiopia ..........................................................................................................29

þ Box 10. Behavioural change for improved nutrition through pastoralist

field schools in Ethiopia. ................................................................................31

Figure

þ Figure 1: Impact pathways from livestock to nutrition ...................................8

vii

Foreword

The livestock sector plays a crucial role in the social and economic development

of a country, especially in low- and middle-income countries. It directly supports

the livelihoods of 600 million poor smallholder farmers in the developing world

(Thornton et al., 2006; HLPE, 2016). Livestock are a direct and indirect source

of food for rural and urban households. It is estimated that livestock-derived

foods, or animal-source foods (ASF), contribute 18% of global food energy

consumption and 34% of global protein consumption (FAOSTAT, 2016). ASF are

a unique source of high-quality proteins and bioavailable essential vitamins

and minerals. Livestock are also a powerful safety net for the poor, particularly

women and pastoralist groups.

ASF are an important component of diverse diets, but consumption varies

widely. For example, annual meat consumption ranges from less than 4 kg

per person in some countries to more than 100 kg per person, in others. High

consumption of some ASF is correlated with non- communicable diseases such

as cardiovascular disease and certain types of cancers and contributes to the

public health burden of disease. However, poor people often consume little or

no ASF for various reasons, including poor availability, accessibility (including

price), dietary patterns that may result from customs, religious taboos and lack

of knowledge about their nutritional importance. The high potential of ASF to

improve diets of vulnerable populations makes livestock an important sector for

national policies and development partners’ programmes aiming to improve

food security and nutrition.

Leveraging the potential of livestock and optimizing efficiency in production

systems is now more important than ever before given the current global food

security and nutrition situation. In 2018, the number of chronically undernour-

ished people in the world was estimated to have increased to 821 million (FAO,

IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO, 2018). Multiple forms of malnutrition coexist within

countries, households and individuals. The rising prevalence’s of both child un-

dernutrition and adult and child obesity are increasingly evident across many

developing countries. Addressing this situation requires integrated, nutrition-sen-

sitive actions across the entire food system. Specific actions are subsequently

required to improve the diets of vulnerable population groups by increasing

their intake of nutrient-dense foods (including ASF) in order to achieve healthier

diets for all.

viii

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), responding

to the mandate to improve diets and raise levels of nutrition enshrined in its

Constitution (FAO, 2017a), works to mainstream nutrition objectives, activities

and considerations in food and agriculture policies and programmes. As

a knowledge provider, FAO works to equip countries and stakeholders with

the technical capacities and skills needed to develop interventions and

programmes that improve nutrition outcomes. This technical guidance

brief, Nutrition and Livestock: Technical guidance to harness the potential

of livestock for improved nutrition of vulnerable populations in programme

planning, has been developed to highlight the role of livestock in nutrition-

sensitive approaches for vulnerable populations. It emphasizes the linkages

between livestock and nutrition that address the nutritional needs of vulnerable

households and groups, with a particular focus on impact pathways, and

provides recommendations for designing and implementing livestock inter-

ventions to leverage nutrition outcomes. It captures experiences and advice

of experts from both livestock and nutrition sectors and is based on activities

developed by the United Kingdom Royal Veterinary College, the International

Livestock Research Institute and FAO.

Anna Lartey

Director, Nutrition and Food Systems Division, FAO

Berhe G. Tekola

Director, Animal Production and Health Division, FAO

ix

Acknowledgements

This technical guidance brief was developed under the leadership of

Paula Dominguez-Salas (Assistant Professor in Nutrition-Sensitive Livestock

Agriculture, joint appointee at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical

Medicine, United Kingdom, and the International Livestock Research Institute,

Kenya, based at Leverhulme Centre for Integrated Research on Agriculture

and Health) and Domitille Kauffmann (Nutrition consultant, Nutrition and

Food Systems Division [ESN], FAO, Rome).

It was finalized with the support of Deborah Badombena Wanta (Consultant,

ESN, FAO, Rome) and Anne Mottet (Livestock development officer, Animal

Production and Health Division [AGA], FAO, Rome).

We are grateful for the contributions from FAO staff across the Organization,

and specifically to Philippe Ankers (Strategic Programme 3), Daniela Battaglia

(AGA), Ramani Wijesinha Bettoni (ESN), Ruth Charrondiere (ESN), Charlotte

Dufour (ESN), Jessica Fanzo (ESN) and Doris Rittenschober (ESN). We would

like also to acknowledge the contributions of Ahmed ElIdrissi (Strategic

Programme 5), Boitshepo Giyose (ESN), Kazuki Kitaoka (Emergency and

Rehabilitation Division [TCE]), Emmanuella Olesambu (TCE), Eran Raizman

(Animal Health Service), Elvira Uccello (ESN) and Julien Vallet (DPI-Africa

Service) and Margaret Wagah (Consultant, ESN) during the review process

of the technical guidance brief.

The guideline also had the support of Pablo Alarcon and Kristie Smith

(Royal Veterinary College, United Kingdom), and of Christophe Breyne (FAO

Senegal).

The document was edited by Paul Neate. Graphic design and layout services

were provided by Davide Cascella. Communication support was provided

by Chiara Deligia and Bianca Carlesi (ESN).

x

Abbreviations and acronyms

ADB: Asian Development Bank

ASF: Animal-source foods (referring to livestock-derived foods in this brief)

ESN: Nutrition and Food Systems Division, FAO

FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

ILP: Intensive livestock production

KAP: Knowledge, attitudes and practices

MDD: Minimum dietary diversity

MDD-W: Minimum dietary diversity for women

MIYCN: Maternal, infant and young child nutrition

NCD: Non-communicable diseases

ND: Newcastle disease

NSVC: Nutrition-sensitive value chain

RVC: Royal Veterinary College, United Kingdom

SDG: Sustainable Development Goal

TCE: Emergency and Rehabilitation Division, FAO

VC: Value chain

VSF: Vétérinaires Sans Frontières

WFP: World Food Programme

xi

About this paper

This technical guidance brief summarizes some of the current thinking on

how livestock can address the nutritional needs of vulnerable households

and groups, with a particular focus on impact pathways. It outlines

recommendations for designing and implementing livestock interventions

to leverage nutrition outcomes, based on activities developed by the United

Kingdom Royal Veterinary College, the International Livestock Research

Institute (ILRI) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

Nations (FAO) and a paper compiling the experiences and advice of

experts from both the livestock and nutrition sectors.

It is intended for use by programme planners and managers working

for government, humanitarian and development agencies involved in

designing and implementing livestock-related policies and programmes,

with the objective of helping in integration of nutrition outcomes in their

work. Additionally, it is aimed at those involved in developing nutritional

polices and strategies, to take into consideration the potential of livestock-

based strategies to improve nutrition.

It provides guidance and recommendations relevant to a diversity of contexts

(e.g. emergency, resilience, long-term investments), ecosystems (e.g. arid,

semi-arid, humid tropics) and production systems (e.g. pastoralism, intensive

farming, mixed farming) and highlights when specific aspects need to be

considered depending on the context.

1THE MANY DIMENSIONS OF NUTRITION

INTRODUCTION: WHY TECHNICAL GUIDANCE ON LIVESTOCK AND HUMAN NUTRITION?

Leveraging livestock for human nutritionGlobally, the demand for animal source foods (ASF) is on the increase and

the contribution for improved nutritional outcomes is enormous. ASF are good

sources of high-quality and bioavailable proteins and essential micronutrients

such as iron, zinc and vitamins A and B12 (folate). Their consumption can

improve diet quality, hence contributing to balanced and healthy diets. They

are particularly relevant for nutritionally vulnerable population groups whose

diet quality and protein intake are sub-optimal and where ASF consumption is

low or negligible (Randolph et al., 2007; Gibson, 2011).

Livestock are a key resource for economic growth in many countries, both at

national and household level. Animals are important assets and an essential

source of income for livestock-keeping households. Moreover, livestock can

also significantly influence the livelihoods of other households that do not

have livestock, as well as supplying inputs for crop production such as fertilizer

or animal traction.

At the same time, livestock production has been implicated in climate change

through greenhouse gas emissions and land and water depletion, and in

threats to human health associated with zoonotic and food-borne diseases

and an increase in antimicrobial resistance caused by inappropriate and

overuse of antimicrobials in livestock production. Overconsumption of ASF

such as red meat and processed meat has been correlated with increased

risk of some cancers and non-communicable diseases. Therefore, livestock

development efforts should be based on nutrition-sensitive approaches that

consider dietary gaps and promote consumption of ASF in moderation, in line

with identified nutritional needs and in accordance with available food-based

dietary guidelines. It should also take into account the possible health and

environmental risks.

2


Well-managed and utilized livestock can play an important role in achieving

the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including poverty eradication

(SDG1), promoting food and nutrition security through sustainable agricultural

production (SDG2), ensuring healthy lives and well-being (SDG3), achieving

gender equality and empowering women (SDG5), encouraging sustainable

production and consumption practices (SDG12) and combatting climate

change (SDG13) (FAO, 2016a).

Appropriately designed livestock interventions can positively impact the

nutritional status of vulnerable groups and households through increased

consumption of nutritious animal-source products, as well as through

several other indirect pathways.

What is malnutrition and what are its causes?Malnutrition is the abnormal physiological condition caused by deficiencies,

excesses or imbalances in intakes of macronutrients (protein, carbohydrates

and fats) and/or micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) necessary for an

active and healthy life. Malnutrition includes undernutrition, micronutrient

deficiencies, overweight and obesity. These conditions can arise separately or

coexist (see Box 1). Disease can also lead to malnutrition by reducing appetite

and hence the intake of nutrients, as well as by reducing the body’s ability to

absorb nutrients (e.g. diarrhoea). Malnutrition, in turn, increases susceptibility

to disease because it compromises the body’s immune defences.

3

INTRODUCTION: WHY TECHNICAL GUIDANCE ON LIVESTOCK AND HUMAN NUTRITION?


þ Box 1. Types of malnutrition

The following are the main types of malnutrition:

• Wasting (or ‘acute malnutrition’) is a form of undernutrition that indicates in

most cases recent and severe weight loss, which is often associated with acute

starvation and/or severe disease. Children under five years of age are the most

exposed to risks of acute malnutrition, in particular when transitioning from exclusive

breastfeeding to complementary feeding. A child is described as ‘wasted’ when

its weight in relation to its height is much lower than it should be. The occurrence

of wasting often varies seasonally or increases following natural disasters such as

droughts or floods.

• Stunting (or ‘chronic malnutrition’) is a form of growth failure that causes both

physical and cognitive delays in growth and development. It arises when the

body does not absorb sufficient amounts of nutrients over a prolonged period.

This can be the result of lack of access to adequate foods and/or disease. A child

is described as ‘stunted’ when its height in relation to its age is much less than

it should be. Stunted children also have elevated risk of death, as well cognitive

deficits.

• Micronutrient deficiency (or ‘hidden hunger’) refers to lack of vitamins, minerals

and/or trace elements that are essential for the proper functioning, growth

and metabolism of a living organism. Usually caused by poor diets, it is often

referred to as ’hidden hunger’ because its physical symptoms are not obvious,

while its consequences can be devastating. It can, and often does, coexist with

undernutrition, overweight and obesity.

• Overweight and obesity refer to a body weight that is above normal for height

as a result of excessive accumulation of fat. These conditions result mainly from

an excess of energy consumed relative to energy expended. Both conditions

increase the risk of non-communicable diseases.

Source: WHO (2017)

Different forms of malnutrition can coexist in the same community, household

and even in the same individual. For example, stunting is associated with

multiple micronutrient deficiencies; stunted children have increased risk

of adult obesity; an obese individual can be anaemic and have other

micronutrient deficiencies. Additionally, pregnant women who are themselves

undernourished are likely to give birth to babies of low birthweight and

ultimately have children with stunted growth and development, creating an

intergenerational cycle of malnutrition.

4


There are numerous factors that increase vulnerability to malnutrition, including

physiological and socio-economic factors. These predispose households

and individuals to food and nutrition insecurity. For example, within a single

household, family members have different nutritional needs: pregnant and

lactating women, children under five years of age, adolescent girls, and elderly

and sick people are the most nutritionally vulnerable and require specific

nutritional attention. Malnutrition experienced during the first 1 000 days of

life (between conception and the child’s second birthday) has the greatest

adverse long-term effects on the individual’s health, educational achievement

and earning potentials. In addition, a growing body of evidence points to the

need to pay more attention to adolescent girls’ nutritional needs. Therefore,

adopting a life-cycle approach to nutrition is essential.

Malnutrition has consequences both for the individual (in terms of both health

and physical and mental growth and development) and for society as a

whole (in terms of expenditure on health, impaired cognitive achievement

and reduced economic activity).


THE POTENTIAL OF ANIMAL-SOURCE FOODS FOR HUMAN NUTRITION

Contribution of animal-source foods to nutritionThe generic term ‘animal-source foods’ (ASF) refers to all foods of animal origin,

including fish and wild animals (game/bush meat). However, this brief focuses

only on products derived from farm mammals (cattle, buffalo, camels, sheep,

goats, pigs and poultry).

Dietary diversity indicators1 are commonly used to provide information about

diet quality and its nutritional adequacy. Among the 7–12 food groups that

are commonly considered (the total number of food groups depends on the

indicator), three or four are ASF: dairy products, eggs, meat and/or organ meat.

This preponderance of ASF groups reflects the great nutritional value of these

food products, which provide highly bioavailable nutrients that are essential

for growth and health and that may be difficult to obtain from plant-source

foods alone (Murphy and Allen, 2003).

ASF are energy-dense foods. They are a good source of high-quality proteins:

the proteins they contain are highly digestible and have a good profile of

essential amino acids. For example, ASF generally contain high concentrations

of threonine, lysine and sulphur-containing amino acids, which are in relatively

short supply in most plant-based foods. They are also a good source of several

critical micronutrients, such as iron, zinc and vitamins A and B12 that are often

lacking in the diets of nutritionally vulnerable populations. The bioavailability of

these micronutrients is also higher in ASF than in many plant-derived foods. For

example, red meat and offal (such as liver) contain high levels of haem iron

and provide it in an easily absorbable form. Livestock-derived foods are also

relatively rich in lipids, particularly saturated fatty acids and cholesterol. These

are important components of a balanced diet but have been linked with

many health concerns including increased incidence of non-communicable

diseases (NCDs) when consumed in excess of dietary needs.

1 Including Household Dietary Diversity Score, Minimum Dietary Diversity-Women, Individual Dietary Diversity Scores and Minimum Acceptable Diet (see FAO (2016b)).

6


The good amino acids profile and high micronutrient density and

bioavailability make ASF very efficient for improving the quality of diets,

especially during periods of high nutritional demand such as pregnancy,

lactation, early infancy and childhood, and adolescence (Iannotti, Barron

and Roy, 2008). Relatively small amounts of ASF can substantially increase

the nutrient adequacy of the diet.

It should also be noted that about two-thirds of the world’s adult population

do not produce the enzyme lactase, which is needed to digest lactose, the

sugar found in milk and other dairy products to a lesser extent. While lactose

intolerance can create symptoms such as bloating and diarrhea, consumption

of dairy products is increasing in regions with lactase deficiency due to colon

microbiome adaptation (Forsgård, 2019) and lower lactose contents in

products such as cheese and yogurts.

Taboos and cultural factors related to animal-source food intakeNumerous cultural and religious beliefs and taboos influence consumption

of ASF, including restrictions on which ASF can be eaten or by whom. Women

and children, in particular, are often subject to such restrictions. Meat is more

likely to be subject to food taboos than any other food. Examples are included

in Box 2.

þ Box 2. Beliefs, taboos and practices related to consumption of animal-source foods

These examples of beliefs, taboos and/or practices are context-specific:

• Women do not consume meat during pregnancy because of the risk of

excessive in utero growth of the baby, leading to difficult delivery (Hassan Tahir,

Elawad Mohammed Ahmed and Ahmed Ali Mohammed, 2018).

• Women do not consume meat during pregnancy for fear of a discoloration of

the foetal body (Leslie, Pelto and Rasmussen, 1988).

• Gizzards and thighs of ducks are eaten by the elderly, while children can only

have the lower legs or the head. (Ogbeide, 1974).

• Frequently, coconut milk and liver are taboo for children, because it is believed

that the milk renders them unintelligent, whereas the liver causes abscesses in

their lungs (Ogbeide, 1974).

7

THE POTENTIAL OF ANIMAL-SOURCE FOODS FOR HUMAN NUTRITION


• Milk represents a particularly wholesome food for young men and warriors

(Fontefrancesco, 2018).

• Milk makes women strong and insubordinate to their husband. (Meyer-Rochow,

2009).

• The consumption of eggs during pregnancy is believed to develop bad habits

for the child such as stealing or being bold (Ogbeide, 1974).

• Some ASF are also considered to be remedies, e.g. the meat from small ruminants

is thought to have medicinal or prophylactic properties in areas of Ethiopia; goat

milk is believed to cure AIDs; traditional healers use zebra meat and fat to treat

tuberculosis and other diseases (Haasnoot et al., 2010); raw beef is soaked in the

drink of an alcoholic person to induce vomiting and nausea and cure alcoholism

(Ubani, 2011).

These factors and taboos must be understood and taken into account in

planning any intervention relating to consumption of ASF.


IMPACT PATHWAYS FROM LIVESTOCK TO HUMAN NUTRITION

Livestock-related activities can influence the nutritional status of the community

through multiple impact pathways (Figure 1). Not all of these pathways are

relevant in all contexts but understanding how they work and how they may

coexist or compete can help inform the design of livestock programmes and

highlight opportunities to enhance positive nutrition impacts while minimizing

potential negative impacts.

10


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11



Consumption of animal-source foodsFigure 1 shows impact pathways from livestock production to nutrition

outcomes. ASF could be derived from different sources such as

own-production or purchase from other households or from markets. Adding

small amounts of ASF to nutrient-poor diets can considerably improve the

nutrient adequacy of those diets, but the impact of this on individuals

depends on a number of factors including intra-household food distribution

dynamics. The benefits also depend on avoiding overconsumption of ASF.

The manner in which ASF are produced, preserved, prepared and consumed

matters in so far as minimising food safety and health risks is concerned.

Consumption of home-produced ASF is the most direct way to improve

household nutrition and was traditionally the main incentive for households

to keep animals. However, this has been displaced in a number of contexts

by the income pathway, and livestock products are sold to provide income

that is then spent on food and other requirements. ASF consumption is

commonly associated with wealth profiles, with the likelihood of high-income

households consuming more ASF than poor households.

Crop productionFAO (2009) estimates that about 60% of rural households raise livestock.

Animals provide essential inputs for crop agriculture, including organic

fertilizer and draught power for sowing, ploughing and harvest activities.

They also constitute a good source of transport of agricultural products to

markets. Animals thus contribute in many ways to enhance crop production

and trade of other foods, which have implications for household nutrition

directly or indirectly through income-generation. Conversely, livestock can

also compete with crops for productive resources such as land, water,

labour and investment and, if not adequately managed, can have negative

effects on air, land and water quality that can affect productivity, quality of

life or health.

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Income-generationLivestock activities generate income for livestock keepers in various ways.

These include:

• sale of live animals

• sale of ASF such as meat, milk, cheese and eggs

• sale of non-food products such as skins, wool, horns, bones and manure

• provision of various paid services such as draught power.

Livestock production can also provide wages for other households in the

community. For example, smallholders often rely on family members for

livestock-related work, but they may also employ non-family members to do

this work. It also supports other value-chain actors, such as slaughter-houses

and retailers.

It is generally assumed that increased income will lead to better food and

nutrition security, but this is not always the case. Income can be used for

various purposes that may have positive or negative impacts on nutrition.

These purposes include:

• buying ASF, as well as other nutritious foods (e.g. pulses, nuts, fruits and

vegetables) resulting in improved dietary diversity;

• buying other less nutritious food items. This can have detrimental impacts

on diet quality if for example, households sell nutritious fresh milk to buy

less nutritious but cheaper and more filling foods such as biscuits and fried

doughnuts;

• buying non-food items that contribute to improved food preparation and

hygiene (e.g. soap and cooking fuel);

• buying services for improved health and welfare (e.g. vaccinations,

medicines, medical fees, education);

• accumulating assets as a form of capital and risk management. For example,

livestock can act as ‘savings’ that can be realized during times of need.

This might include purchase of foods during the hunger gaps, payment of

medical bills when a family member is ill, payment of school fees, or social

capital expenses to maintain and create social networks such as dowry

for marriage and child-naming ceremonies. Keeping animals rather than

saving cash in financial institutions can provide a much better return on

investment, through reproduction or services provided. In addition, livestock

are a mobile asset, which is convenient in areas prone to food shocks and

crises; and

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• are investing in the livestock business (e.g. animal feed, veterinary drugs

and vaccines). This may or may not lead to better nutrition, depending on

the uses given to the business.

Household decisions on spending income depend on the interplay of many

factors, including knowledge and value placed on nutrition and on the

nutritional value of ASF, the terms of trade for ASF, the socio-economic status

of the household, and the way the household perceives the future. It will be

important to consider all these factors when designing nutrition-sensitive

livestock programmes. It is also important to note that livestock activities

can compete in terms of time and investment with other income-generating

activities (agricultural or non-agricultural) that may also be important for the

household economy.

Women’s empowermentIf women had greater decision-making power over household expenditures

and control over resources, and had appropriate knowledge on nutrition, it is

likely that households would allocate larger proportions of their income and

resources to improve their household diets, and particularly those of children.

Certain types of livestock production and activities are typically carried out

by women (e.g. dairy goats, some types of dairying and poultry). Supporting

women-led livestock activities may positively affect various dimensions related

to women’s empowerment, for example by increasing women’s income and

control over resources. However, as these activities start to generate large

profits, men may take over control of them.

Women’s involvement in labour-intensive livestock activities may pose negative

effects on diets and family welfare, in particular when these activities increase

demands on their time and thus interfere with other important tasks such

as childcare. For example, time-consuming responsibilities involving women

going to markets to sell ASF may require that they leave their children with

other family members, thus interrupting the exclusive breastfeeding period. In

addition, they may allocate less time to preparing nutritious complementary

foods for young children.

Therefore, existing gender constraints and opportunities could potentially

pose negative impacts. These gender dynamics need to be assessed when

designing nutrition-sensitive livestock programmes to make them gender

friendly.

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Physical activityLivestock-related activities such as herding, milking and providing water

during dry seasons are labour intensive and may involve intense physical

effort. Such labour and time-intensive activities increase the nutrient demands

of those involved, which ought to be offset by healthy diets. In addition, the

extra nutritional demands of livestock-related tasks vary between production

systems, e.g. from very low for free-range poultry to high for zero-grazed

cattle fed cut-and-carry fodder. The impact on nutrition can be particularly

detrimental during periods of drought, when increased husbandry activity

may be required while household food stocks are at their lowest. Households

may attempt to cope with the shortfall by rationing the food available, for

example by reducing portion sizes or the number of meals per day or by

favouring certain household members over others. This may be of particular

concern for nutritionally vulnerable groups and individuals such as pregnant

and lactating women and young children.

The likely impacts of livestock activities should be identified and taken into

account when planning, designing and implementing livestock-based

interventions aimed at improving food and nutrition security.

Disease transmissionTransmission of diseases from livestock to humans has negative consequences

for nutritional status of those affected.

Pathogens can be transmitted from animal to human (i.e. zoonoses such as

cysticercosis and brucellosis) via direct animal contact, via consumption of

contaminated ASF and via environmental contamination (through soil, water,

utensils or foods, in combination with poor hygiene practices). Many of these

transmissible diseases are well known, but there are also emerging diseases

(such as highly pathogenic avian influenza) that can affect large numbers of

animals and people.

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Inappropriate and overuse of antimicrobials in livestock production contributes

to an increase in antimicrobial resistance in pathogens causing human

infections.

Disease can impair nutrient absorption and/or cause the body to lose

nutrients, such as through diarrhoea. Pathogens of animal origin can be

particularly harmful to young children or pregnant and lactating women,

whose immune system is still developing or has been partially suppressed. In

addition to microbial and parasitic contamination, ASF has been associated

with other food-safety issues such as contamination of milk with aflatoxins

or antimicrobial and other chemical residues. A growing body of scientific

evidence indicates that dietary exposure to mycotoxins is a likely contributing

factor to child stunting in affected populations (Wild, Miller and Groopman,

2015).

Furthermore, disease in animals can impair their productivity, which in turn

negatively affects the ‘consumption of ASF’ and the ‘income-generation’

pathways. Animal health interventions such as vaccinations and deworming

can prevent this. However, activities to control animal disease such as preventive

slaughtering of animals may also reduce the availability of ASF.


RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MAKING LIVESTOCK PROGRAMMES MORE NUTRITION-SENSITIVE

The following recommendations can help design and implement livestock

programmes2 that maximize their positive impacts on human nutrition.

General considerations for programme design

Assessing the local nutritional context

A nutrition-sensitive programme should be based on a comprehensive

understanding of local malnutrition problems and on the role that

livestock-based livelihoods and ASF consumption can play in addressing them.

This requires a sound assessment of the nutritional situation and an analysis

of the local causes of malnutrition (including nutrient adequacy, dietary and

ASF consumption patterns, cultural and food-safety practices). Box 3 provides

an example of a programme focusing on improving poultry production in

Tanzania, which includes a comprehensive assessment of maternal and child

dietary patterns and of the role of chicken and egg consumption in the diets

of mothers and children.

Such nutrition assessments should provide information on the frequency of

ASF intake, seasonal trends and key nutrient gaps. They should also assess

food-safety issues at the household level (e.g. hygiene practices, water and

food storage, preservation and preparation of food, how animals are kept in

the household compound in relation to food-storage and preparation areas),

as disease is an immediate cause of malnutrition. It is important to look at data

disaggregated by livelihood group or income level and by age and gender

(boys and girls, women and men) to identify any unequal food distribution

practices. Where data are not available, formative research3 should be carried

out prior to planning a programme to gain an understanding of the needs of

local communities, the practices and taboos that might be harmful or affect

success and how they can be overcome, and to ensure that interventions

2 Programmes may include interventions such as animal husbandry inputs, animal transfer and conditional cash transfer related to livestock activities

3 Formative research is research conducted before or during the development of a programme to help researchers decide on and describe the targeted population (understand their characteris-tics, behaviours and needs that influence their decisions and actions).

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are culturally appropriate, feasible and acceptable. The research can be

done using mixed methods such as focus-group discussions, household and

key-informant interviews, knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) surveys4

and observations.

þ Box 3. Promoting family poultry for household food security and nutrition in Tanzania

In Tanzania, family poultry production plays a significant role in the food security of

70% to 99% of rural and peri-urban households. The Australian International Food

Security Research Centre has been implementing a five-year project (2014 to 2019)

in Manyoni District, in the semi-arid central zone of Tanzania, aimed at reducing

childhood undernutrition through improved poultry and crop production.

The first component of the project consists of a community-based vaccination

campaign against Newcastle disease (ND). This viral disease causes significant

losses in poultry flocks, which has a negative impact on household income as well

as on household nutrition. ND vaccination has significantly reduced poultry losses,

strengthening food security and contributing to improved human nutrition.

The second component of the project assessed maternal and child dietary

patterns and the role of chicken and egg consumption in mothers’ and children’s

diet and on child growth. This established that complementary feeding practices

within the communities were inadequate. Chicken and eggs were rarely eaten

in the assessed households. The study further revealed that consumption of

poultry products by mothers is closely associated with the intake of these foods

by their children, and that there are no significant gender-based barriers to the

consumption of chicken and eggs by children. The study found positive changes

in dietary patterns during the project, leading to the conclusion that programmes

which increase the consumption of poultry products at household level bring

direct benefits to infants and young children and to maternal nutrition.

Source: Alders et al. (2014).

4 KAP surveys can provide valuable information regarding what is known, believed or done regard-ing a specific topic. See FAO (2014a) for further information.

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Setting explicit nutrition-related objectives and activities

Specific nutrition objectives should be explicitly set and reflected in activities.

For instance, the objective of a programme might be to increase diet quality

and contribute to nutrient adequacy for women and children under five

through diversification of livestock production, or to increase the consumption

of ASF by pregnant and lactating women and children through nutrition

education activities and by increasing awareness of the nutritional value of

ASF. Box 4 provides an example of a plant- and animal-production programme

implemented in Mali that explicitly aimed to improve the diets of children

under five and women of childbearing age in 2 000 households that were

vulnerable to food insecurity.

þ Box 4. Impact of crop and livestock programmes on dietary diversity of women and children in Mali

Food security is a challenge and acute malnutrition is highly prevalent in Mopti,

Mali, a region prone to high seasonal variations in temperature and rainfall. Sales

of agricultural products are often the only source of income for farm households.

Although farmers commonly produce a surplus of grain, year-round access to food

(quantity, quality and price) is an issue because farmers sell a large proportion

of their produce during the first three months after harvest, often at low prices, in

order to satisfy immediate basic needs.

Between 2011 and 2015, Agronomists and Veterinarians Without Borders

implemented a plant- and animal-production programme that explicitly aimed

to improve the diets of children under five and women of childbearing age in 2

000 households that were vulnerable to food insecurity. This programme provided

the beneficiaries with improved seeds, two goats or ten hens and a rooster. It also

provided training on hygiene, horticultural and husbandry practices and dry

cheese production to deal with the surplus of fresh milk in periods of abundance,

as well as nutrition education sessions (including awareness-raising on gender

and nutrition linkages and cooking demonstrations) and mass screening for

malnutrition.

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As a result of the programme, the percentage of households with acceptable

food consumption (measured by the household dietary diversity score) increased

from 67% to 85% during the lean period. The individual dietary diversity score in the

lean season rose from 3.9 to 4.4 out of 9 food groups in children from two to three

years of age, and from 2.3 to 3 out of 7 food groups in children from 6 to 24 months

of age (according to the World Health Organization Minimum Dietary Diversity for

Young Children).

Overall, this intervention had a significant impact on the dietary diversity of

mothers and young children through both the consumption pathway (increased

consumption of diversity of food groups year-round) and the income-generation

pathway (increased income generated through small-scale breeding, which

facilitated greater access to certain nutritious foods).

Source: Bonde (2015).

Developing a nutrition-sensitive household targeting strategy

When identifying final project beneficiaries, attention should be given to

households and individuals that are more vulnerable to malnutrition. This

includes considering both:

• socio-economic vulnerability (such as the poorest households, households

with limited assets [e.g. displaced people] and marginalized groups [e.g.

ethnic minorities]); and

• physiological vulnerability (those with specific nutritional needs, e.g.

pregnant and lactating women and young children [particularly during

the complementary feeding phase, starting from 6 months of age], but

also adolescent girls, elderly people with low intake and poor absorption of

vitamin B12, and people living with HIV).

Targeting women for livestock activities

Targeting women for specific activities in livestock programmes can help

increase their control over productive and economic resources and their level

of empowerment. This can ultimately increase the likelihood that the income

earned and the food produced will be directed to improving maternal and

childcare, as well as household nutrition and health. This is especially likely

if nutrition education is included in the programme activities. Box 5 gives an

example of a livestock programme that targeted women using a pro-poor

approach.

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þ Box 5. Gender focus on livestock-related income-generating activities for better food security and nutrition in Bangladesh

Market demand for livestock products is high in Bangladesh. As a result, most

rural farm families are involved in some way in livestock-rearing activities. Taking

advantage of this, the Asian Development Bank supported a livestock project in

the northwest and north-central regions of Bangladesh from 2004 to 2012. The goal

of the project was to improve the living standards of the landless and marginal

farm households, with a special focus on poor households headed by females.

The project provided targeted households with capacity-building on livestock

enterprises, microcredit, technical services (vaccination, deworming and artificial

insemination) and marketing assistance. A specific component supported the

poorest women of the communities with training on building their asset base to

start income-generating activities and improve their livelihoods, enabling them

to increase their income and contribute towards enhancing their family’s food

consumption.

The project contributed to increased production of livestock products (milk,

meat and eggs). It also developed entrepreneurship among the participants

through various measures including enhancing skills and knowledge for value

addition and marketing of products, setting up milk collection centres and linking

beneficiaries with industrial buyers to ensure fair prices for their products.

The project increased household income by 9% to 96%, encouraged land purchase

and ownership, increased livestock and poultry ownership, helped households

build assets and improved amenities. These impacts translated into increased

household food consumption, especially children’s intake of nutritious food

(particularly animal protein), and increased expenditures on children’s education

and medical care. The gender mainstreaming target was successfully achieved,

as about 98% of beneficiaries were women, who were able to strengthen their role

in family decision-making.

Source: Asian Development Bank (2011a; 2013; 2015).

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Understanding the ‘livestock to nutrition’ impact pathways

Project planners should consider what the impact pathways from the project

activities to improved nutrition will be. This process will help select the most

suitable project activities and relevant indicators for monitoring and identify

any possible negative impacts.

Selecting nutrition-related indicators

Indicators should be chosen according to the likely project impact pathways.

In order to select the most appropriate and realistic nutrition-related indicators,

it is necessary to consider what is achievable in the programme time frame

and what is feasible in terms of data collection. Anthropometric indicators

(which measure individual nutritional status) may thus not be applicable as

they may not change significantly during a short programme intervention or

by programmes focused on a single sector. More appropriate indicators might

include the following: changes in infant feeding practices (e.g. Minimum

Adequate Diet, Minimum Dietary Diversity for children (MDD) (see Box 4 for

an example of the use of these indicators to measure the nutrition outcomes

of an animal-production programme); changes in diet quality (e.g. increase

in the consumption of ASF or iron-rich foods; Minimum Dietary Diversity

for Women (MDD-W); changes in the diversity of food groups consumed;

changes in prevalence of diseases (e.g. episodes of diarrhoea, prevalence

of zoonoses); and changes in women’s empowerment (e.g. time allocation,

per cent of revenue controlled by women). FAO’s Compendium of indicators

for nutrition-sensitive agriculture provides more details of these and other

indicators and how to select the most appropriate indicators (FAO, 2016b).

Adhering to the ‘do no harm’ principle

It is essential to ensure that the selected livestock programme does not have

a negative impact on nutritional outcomes, for example support to increased

livestock productivity and market outlets should not divert ASF away from

household consumption, any increase in women’s workloads should not

interfere with breastfeeding or child caring capacities, or the spread of zoonotic

diseases should not be increased by the enhanced livestock programmes.

This will require monitoring throughout project design and implementation,

using appropriate indicators.

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Specific considerations related to livestock production

Choice of species

Nutritional characteristics of the different species available should be taken

into account. For example:

• Short-cycle species grow fast and can thus help achieve quicker nutrition

impact. However, non-ruminant species such as pigs and poultry require

higher-quality feed, whereas ruminant species can produce highly nutritious

products from roughages and crop by-products.

• Certain products are more suitable for own-consumption than others. For

example, milk and eggs are produced regularly, in relatively small quantities

and require little or no processing and are ideal for home consumption,

whereas ruminants produce large quantities of product (meat and offal)

at one time and require processing (slaughter and butchering) prior to

consumption and may be preferred for sale.

• Keeping multiple species may have numerous benefits. It reduces the risk of

losses to disease, diversifies the types of ASF produced, makes optimal use

of feeds available and allows for better adaptation to market demands. For

example, different species feed on different types of vegetation; cattle and

sheep graze on grass and other soft vegetation, while goats browse coarser

material such as shrubs. Camels, on the other hand, can survive with limited

water and have a long lactation period, whereas cattle produce large

volumes of milk but need more water. Small livestock such as ducks, rabbits

or guinea pigs can also be considered.

Gender implications also need to be taken into account. For example, species

that are reared in and around the homestead (e.g. poultry) are more readily

reared by women, given their home-based responsibilities. Produce and

income generated by such species are more likely to be used to improve

household nutrition. The workload (physical burden and time) imposed

on women is also an element to consider. Increases in women’s workload

could be mitigated with additional measures, such as introducing time and

labour-saving practices and technologies.

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Seasonal variations in livestock production

In certain agroecosystems, biomass availability is strongly seasonal as a result

of precipitation patterns or elevation. This is the case for example in the Sahel,

in mountainous environments or in the steppes of Patagonia or Russia. As a

consequence, livestock production, in particular from ruminants that depend

on grazing, can also be highly seasonal. This can be mitigated through good

animal husbandry practices and use of adapted genotypes and production

systems in order to ensure feed and food availability all year round. Actions to

be undertaken might include the following:

• Improve feed of lactating animals when forage is in short supply or of low

quality by providing supplementary feed (e.g. bran, oil seed cakes), fodder

(e.g. hay, straw) and/or water point rehabilitation. This has a high impact

on milk yield. It is important to note that animal feed quality can affect

the nutritional value of the ASF produced. Therefore, attention is needed to

prevent contaminated feed from entering the food chain (e.g. grain not

used for human consumption due to aflatoxin content can still be a problem

if fed to animals as aflatoxins can then be found in milk).

• Match breeds to production systems and resources available. The choice of

breeds needs to take into account their ability to survive and produce under

prevailing conditions, including disease challenges. Crossbred livestock

tend to have higher yields than pure indigenous breeds while remaining

adequately adapted to the environment.

• Conserve animal products or process them in ways that ensure their

conservation. Processing milk into cheese or butter or drying meat can

ensure their availability all year long. More information is provided in the

next section and in Box 7.

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Animal health programmes

Programmes such as vaccination and adequate supply of veterinary extension

services are essential to protect a household’s productive assets, improve

productivity and avoid harmful side effects on human health and nutrition

(e.g. spread of new animal diseases, transmission of zoonoses). Large-scale

vaccination campaigns are strategic interventions that can have a huge

impact on productivity, as illustrated in Boxes 3 and 6. Good practices include:

• building upon existing systems of community animal health workers and

veterinary outreach projects in order to ensure sustainability;

• ensuring that biosecurity measures are adhered to throughout to avoid the

spread of diseases; and

• ensuring that appropriate veterinary support is provided to the animals

remaining with women and children or the elderly when men of pastoralist

households migrate with the main herds.

þ Box 6. Improving livestock productivity and milk consumption in a community development programme in Nepal

As part of its Agricultural Perspective Plan (1996–2015), the Government of Nepal,

supported by the Asian Development Bank, implemented a Community Livestock

Development Project for a five-year period starting in December 2005. The project

aimed at improving the levels of food security, nutrition, income and employment

in rural communities by increasing productivity of the livestock subsector. The

project focused on two elements: (i) intensive livestock production (ILP); and (ii)

processing, marketing and commercialization of livestock subsector services.

The ILP component targeted poor families (62% headed by women), comprising

disadvantaged castes and resource-poor ethnic groups. Activities included

cultivation of improved perennial forage and winter forage; breed improvement

through provision of artificial insemination services and higher-quality cattle bulls

and buffalo bulls; and provision of veterinary services (such as vaccination and

drenching against internal parasites, laboratory services and disease diagnosis).

The ILP component increased cow milk production by 140%, buffalo milk production

by 57% and goat off-take by 28%.

The project increased food consumption and dietary adequacy of the target

households. Milk consumption increased by 11% and meat consumption by 50%.

On average, it was estimated that nutritional intake of girls and boys under six

years of age increased by 19.1% during project implementation.

Source: Asian Development Bank (2011b; 2012).

26


Specific considerations related to the livestock value chainsLivestock value chains5 (VC) hold a great potential for improved nutrition. A

nutrition lens needs to be applied throughout the VC development process

to unlock all the positive benefits, especially for the nutritional needs of

the vulnerable groups. CFS (2016) outlines a nutrition-sensitive value chain

(NSVC) framework developed by FAO, the International Fund for Agricultural

Development, the World Food Programme, along with Biodiversity

International and International Food Policy Research Institute. This is a tool

intended to enhance supply of and/or demand for nutritious food, as well

as to help leverage opportunities to add nutritional value (and/or minimize

food and nutrient loss) at each step of the chain, thereby improving the

availability, affordability, quality and acceptability of nutritious food.6

Developing a nutrition-sensitive livestock VC would greatly benefit from

giving specific attention to the aspects described below.

Preservation and processing techniques

Promoting these technologies can reduce the seasonality of ASF availability,

increase shelf life, improve food safety and ultimately reduce waste. Modern

food technology activities often require a lot of resources (e.g. water,

electricity, machinery) and may require a critical mass to justify investment,

which can be limiting in many settings. However, there is also a range

of traditional techniques that can be broadly implemented, including

at household level (see Box 7). Preservation activities should work hand

in hand with increased production for cost-effectiveness and should be

tailored to local food preferences and circumstances.

þ Box 7. Traditional preservation and processing techniques for animal-source foods

Degradation of ASF is influenced by several factors including microbiological

contamination (pathogens or non-pathogenic spoilage bacteria); humidity; pH;

temperature; and exposure to oxygen. Supply and efficient use of ASF are often

5 A food value chain consists of all the stakeholders who participate in the coordinated production and value-adding activities that are needed to make food products (FAO, 2014b).

6 The NSVC framework can help guide livestock VC programme development in, for instance, ana-lysing the roles and incentives of different actors along the chain, better integrating the impact of cross-cutting issues such as gender and climate change or contributing to create a conducive policy and regulatory environment. See CFS (2016) and FAO (2017b) for more information.

27



challenging in settings where there is no electricity or cold chain. In this context,

traditional low-cost and low-resource preservation methods can help ensure food

safety and maintain the nutritional value of ASF. Examples of such processing

methods include the following:

• Drying: partial or total elimination of the water contained in fresh meat. Drying

is widely used in Sahelian countries to help preserve meat throughout the year.

The meat can be consumed raw or rehydrated and cooked in stews (e.g. kilichi in Niger).

• Smoking: direct or indirect exposure to smoke from burning certain plants or

woods. This technique delays ASF degradation and also alters the flavour. The

meat must be thinly sliced to ensure uniform smoking. The presence of phenolic

compounds in the smoked meat hinders insect attacks.

• Salting: with or without addition of spices. This technique is frequently combined

with drying, cooking or smoking. There are two types of salting: dry salting (meat,

either in a block or in fine slices, is rubbed with a dry salt mixture) or wet salting

(meat is marinated in water with the salt mixture, i.e. brining, for a variable length

of time).

• Fermenting: such as the preparation of sour milk, where growth of lactic acid-

producing bacteria is promoted. These bacteria convert sugars into lactic acid,

which reduces pH. Some also produce antibiotic compounds, thus preventing

the development of other undesirable bacteria. In addition, fermentation alters

the organoleptic characteristics of the product and increases the digestibility of

the milk. Milk is commonly heat-treated to kill off other bacteria and fungi before

fermentation culture is added.

• Other techniques: these include butter- and cheese-making; pasteurization,

condensing or desiccating milk; and home preparation of canned meat.

In addition to preserving the food, preservation techniques can have positive

or negative impacts on the nutritional value. For instance, thermic treatments

(cooking, drying, smoking) can cause the degradation of certain components

such as vitamins and cause structural change in proteins that alter their biological

quality. Moreover, toxic compounds such as heterocyclic aromatic amines

(potential carcinogens) can be formed when the treatment temperature is too

high. Adding salt significantly increases the overall sodium content of the food,

which increases the salt load of the diet with potential deleterious effect on health.

Conversely, fermentation can enhance the nutritional profile of meat by making

certain components more digestible, synthesizing vitamins (mainly B vitamins)

and other bioactive compounds or providing probiotics, which are important

to maintain gut health. Thus, preservation of ASF also has implications for their

nutritional content and even their taste (hence acceptability) which need to be

factored in when planning processing activities.

Source: Authors

28


Value-chain analysis

Value-chain analysis identifies issues of governance, equity and health risks and

opportunities and constraints for producers, consumers and other actors (FAO,

2017c). For example, in some societies women may not participate in slaughter

of animals, but they can participate in subsequent ASF processing (e.g. meat

drying). Value-chain analysis also helps identify local markets and incentives and

opportunities for traders that influence livestock and ASF prices. Understanding

value-chain drivers is also important for producers – for example, to encourage

early sale of animals during crises. Value-chain analysis should not only focus

on ASF but also on the upstream supply of feed and forage, drugs and other

necessary inputs.

Business approach

Profitable programmes that are based on a good and inclusive business model

and sound analysis of opportunities presented throughout the value chain are

more likely to be sustainable and have a long-term effect on nutrition.

þ Box 8. Impact of dairy value chain improvement on food security and nutrition in Rwanda

Working closely with the Government of Rwanda, Land O’Lakes implemented

a project funded by the United States Agency for International Development to

unlock the potential of the dairy sector in the Eastern Province of Rwanda. The

project, organized in two phases, started in 2007 and aimed at developing the

capacities of smallholder milk producers to: (i) improve the productivity of dairy

cows (e.g. through improved cattle management and health and provision of

artificial insemination services); and (ii) strengthen the dairy value chain and

facilitate market access by smallholders. Activities included training on hygiene

practices for safe collection and transport of milk; home and business finances;

cooperative development; and gender sensitization. The smallholder producers

were also provided with metal milk cans for collection and transport of milk.

The project also included a behaviour-change communication component to

encourage households to retain milk for their own consumption. Using radio, TV

and billboard channels, the project disseminated messages (in Kinyarwanda) on

the nutritional benefits of milk, specifically for children and pregnant and lactating

women.

29



At the end of the second phase (2012–2017), smallholder milk production

showed a significant increase, from an average of 5.8 litres/day in 2013 to 19.4

litres/day in 2015. The project also resulted in an increase in daily household

milk consumption, from 2.2 litres in 2013 to 5.8 litres in 2016. According to both

farmers and cooperatives, the introduction of best practices for the collection,

handling and transportation of milk and the support for quality testing and access

to improved equipment contributed to drastically reducing the amount of milk

spoiled and rejected at milk collection centres. With the increase in production,

many households were able to increase their income and to retain milk for home

consumption.

Source: McMahon (2016); Land O’Lakes/USAID (2017).

Use of livestock by-products

Planners should investigate the potential of other activities related to livestock,

such as production of skins, handicrafts, wool or cosmetics, to generate

income, especially for women, who are more likely to use additional income

for household care and nutrition.

Emergency nutritional programmes

Food may have to be distributed in certain areas and at certain times of the

year to address hunger and malnutrition. However, planners must take care

to ensure a balanced diet and that foods distributed do not displace other

local foods when these are available. Small-scale initiatives supporting local

producers and local markets can help improve the nutritional value of the

food baskets with ASF such as dried meat or milk.

30


Nutrition education and behaviour-change communicationNutrition education plays an important role in developing and delivering

nutrition-sensitive agricultural development initiatives by ensuring that

increased food production or income translates into improvements in diets

and nutrition status. As mentioned previously, where data are not available,

formative research should be carried out prior to planning a programme. This is

necessary to provide an understanding of the needs of local communities and

to help identify the most important behaviours and related barriers/attitudes

that might be harmful or affect success and how they can be overcome.

In particular, when designing nutrition education interventions for livestock

programmes, the following aspects will deserve specific attention.

Promoting the nutritional value of animal-source foods

Nutrition education can help promote consumption of ASF in nutritionally

vulnerable groups by raising awareness of the importance of ASF as

nutrient-dense foods, including for complementary foods and during

pregnancy and lactation. Such education may include topics such as how to

prepare ASF (e.g. participatory cooking and tasting sessions), how to store ASF

safely, good hygienic practices and home processing. Attention also needs to

be given to excessive consumption of ASF. Nutrition education should always

emphasize the importance of balanced diets, because attitudes formed

through these interventions can become lifelong attitudes and lead to under-

or overconsumption of ASF when the context changes.

Addressing taboos and diversifying consumption of animal-source foods

When designing nutrition education interventions, it is important to understand

the impact of culture, social organization and gender dynamics on household

diet and nutrition. This includes understanding who eats which part or product

of which animal and when and whether consumption of ASF is subject to

gender restrictions and taboos and assessing how best to address these

issues. Dietary practices and cultural beliefs are not easy to change, and

programmes will have to work with religious/community leaders or elders

and obtain their buy-in for any proposed changes. It is also vital to test new

31



behaviours and recommendations before rolling out the interventions widely.

Box 9 provides an example of a behaviour-change communication strategy

using the channel of a weekly radio soap opera and tapping into the strong

Ethiopian tradition of oral storytelling to entertain and educate.

þ Box 9. Radio soap opera tackles nutrition in pastoral communities in Ethiopia

Following the 2011 food crisis in the Horn of Africa, Mercy Corps implemented the

Pastoralists Areas Resilience Improvement through Market Expansion programme,

funded by the United States Agency for International Development, to help

vulnerable pastoralist families in the Somali, Oromia and Afar regions of Ethiopia

to increase their food security and resilience. The programme helped pastoralists

diversify their incomes and develop reliable farming methods.

To strengthen positive impacts on nutrition, a partnership with Warner Bros. was

established in 2015 to implement a three-year project to promote behaviour

change using the channel of a weekly radio soap opera. The goal was to transform

some of the inherent behaviours and beliefs that prevent families from thriving by

tapping into the strong Ethiopian tradition of oral storytelling and harnessing the

power of stories to entertain and educate.

Weekly broadcasts engaged listeners with stories in local dialect with characters

tailored to the three regions. These stories stressed the importance of livestock

health, of diversified diets (particularly for mothers and young children), of the first

1 000 days, and of equitable decision-making for improved household nutrition.

Details unique to each region, such as names and common greetings, contributed

to helping local audiences relate to the stories. As part of the communication

strategy, the programme established listener groups to coordinate and facilitate

listening to the soap opera, refine messages to take away and assist with monitoring

and evaluation. The show has received positive feedback from the community

and the listening group leaders.

Source: Cogan (2015); ReliefWeb (2015).

Promoting food hygiene and safety at household level

Adequate hygiene practices during home-preservation of food, storage and

meal preparation (e.g. boiling, stewing, roasting, frying) are crucial to reducing

microbial contamination and preventing disease. Education and sensitization

activities can help promote adoption and uptake of hygienic practices.

32


Broadly targeting nutrition education

Nutrition education at household level should engage all relevant individuals

whose actions might affect household nutrition; it should not be restricted

to women of reproductive age. Men should be included because they are

commonly in charge of the household’s productive assets and have an

important role in livestock-related activities. Traditional healers, mothers-in-law

and grandmothers often play an important role in the household and in

decision-making regarding health, feeding, childcare and household expenses.

Other groups to be targeted include local leaders and religious leaders. Care

must be taken to include such individuals in the nutrition education activities

and get their buy-in right from the start.

Educating producers and consumers

Livestock extension officers, farmer associations and ASF retailers can play an

important role in relaying key messages on nutrition to both producers and

consumers and to motivate both producing and non-producing households

to diversify their diet and to consume more ASF. This requires developing the

knowledge of these actors on basic principles of livestock–nutrition linkages

and developing strategies to promote behavioural change. Planners should

review the terms of reference of agricultural extension services to assess

the best strategies to incorporate support for nutrition in their current roles.

It is important to note that behaviours are difficult to change and a one-off

message is unlikely to result in the desired change; therefore, combining

different approaches and identifying the most appropriate channels is

essential.

33



þ Box 10. Behavioural change for improved nutrition through pastoralist field schools in Ethiopia.

Box 10. Behavioural change for improved nutrition through pastoralist field schools

in Ethiopia

In 2013, Vétérinaires Sans Frontières (VSF) Suisse implemented a livestock-based

intervention to help the pastoralist communities in Kebriderhar and Shilabo

districts of Somali region, Ethiopia, to improve their food security, nutrition and

resilience. The main intervention was providing milking goats to households that

had children recurrently affected by malnutrition.

The intervention had positive impacts on child nutrition in the target households.

The percentage of children with mid-upper arm circumference of less than 11

cm at four months decreased from 33% before the intervention to 0% after. The

percentage of children showing signs of acute malnutrition decreased from 56.8%

before the intervention to 12.3% after.

However, it was also reported that some mothers stopped breastfeeding after

receiving a milking goat, which could negatively impact child nutrition. To prevent

this potential negative effect, the intervention also provided nutrition education

through pastoral field schools and village community banks (i.e. groups made up

mainly of women who meet regularly and organize collective saving and loans)

as channels for behavioural change for nutrition. Nutrition messages focused on

maternal, infant and young child nutrition (MIYCN) and hygiene practices (e.g.

the first food a newborn should receive, how frequently to feed with breast milk

and critical times for hand-washing).

Along with these activities, from April 2015 to August 2016 VSF Suisse conducted a

study of behavioural change for improved nutrition to assess the ability of pastoral

field schools and village community banks to promote positive behavioural

change in the community. The study found that mothers in the intervention

communities were more aware of what the appropriate practices for MIYCN are.

Moreover, participating mothers also passed the messages to other mothers in

their communities.

Source: Lensse et al. (2017); Transform Nutrition (2017).


CREATING AN ENABLING ENVIRONMENT FOR ENHANCED LINKAGES BETWEEN LIVESTOCK AND HUMAN NUTRITION

The role of ASF in improving the nutrition of vulnerable populations has been

largely overlooked in public policies and international development programs.

However, as discussed, the livestock sector has the potential to contribute to

addressing malnutrition, particularly in regions where livestock production is a

major economic activity. Not using livestock as a pathway out of malnutrition in

such regions would be a missed opportunity. At the same time, the operational

recommendations presented in the previous section require a conducive

environment to be created. This calls for the following steps to be taken:

• Strengthening intersectoral collaboration and strategies: Coherent and

well-coordinated programming between the nutrition and livestock sectors

can optimize the use of resources, maximize impact and build resilience.

Achieving this would require mobilizing mixed teams of experts with

knowledge of livestock–nutrition linkages to identify synergies between

programmes of each sector and ensure successful interdisciplinary

approaches. Strategies need to be inclusive and consider smallholders and

consumers who do not possess livestock. Institutional/structural challenges

and funding barriers that keep work in ‘silos’ need to be overcome through

advocacy at national and institutional levels. Opportunities need to be

forged to start and maintain dialogue at local, national and regional levels

(e.g. creation of mixed working groups).

• Developing capacity in integrated nutrition and livestock programming:

Developing such capacity requires establishment of a ‘nutrition-sensitive’

culture among livestock experts and nutrition experts should include

livestock programmes in the portfolio of dietary diversification strategies.

The necessary capacity can be built by various means, such as formal

face-to-face and online training; facilitation of intersectoral workshops

with a focus on experience-sharing and challenges and opportunities

for integration; and creation of a community of practice on ‘livestock for

nutrition’ to share lessons learned that are specific to livestock programmes.

36


• Building a body of evidence in nutrition-sensitive livestock programmes:

The evidence base on the impact pathways from livestock to nutrition

and successful intervention models is a work in progress and needs to be

expanded to ensure that informed decisions can be taken. This includes

conducting robust nutrition impact assessments and process evaluations

to better understand the factors that influence the pathways from livestock

to nutrition and the internal and external validity of existing and innovative

nutrition-livestock programmes, and to document potential for scaling up

nutrition. Partnerships involving multiple types of stakeholders (i.e. from

researchers to policymakers and field implementers) can contribute to

successful integrated action, while at the same time shaping policy and

research.

Properly managed livestock can play a role in addressing malnutrition.

Greater integration between the livestock and nutrition sectors is necessary

to ensure livestock livelihoods and animal-source foods contribute to

fighting malnutrition.


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ANNEX 1: CHECKLIST FOR NUTRITION-SENSITIVE LIVESTOCK INTERVENTIONS

Assessment þ Review existing assessments of the nutritional context. Conduct new

formative research if necessary. Answer the following questions:

- What are the main malnutrition problems and key nutrient deficiencies in

the target region? What is the best/most efficient way to address them?

Are livestock interventions and ASF production a feasible/effective

option? How?

- What are the local ASF consumption patterns? What are the enablers/

barriers to ASF consumption (including attitudes and taboos)?

þ Assess the role of livestock in the food system/food environment, including

the characteristics of livestock production. Answer the following questions:

- What are the local ASF production patterns?

- What are the preferred species and what are the associated challenges

and opportunities?

- What are the household gender dynamics in terms of involvement with

different animal species?

- Are there any seasonal problems? What are the strategies and practices

used by households to cope with these problems?

- What will be the implementation structure?

- Are there specific risky production, food safety, hygiene or storage

practices related to ASF and livestock activities?

- What are the seasonal dynamics?

42


Design þ Define clear nutrition-related objectives in relation to the main nutrition

problems identified.

þ Define a nutrition-sensitive targeting strategy for households. Answer the

following questions:

- Who are the most nutritionally vulnerable populations and age/sex

groups in the area of intervention?

- How will the proposed intervention benefit those populations?

þ Design activities that can promote nutrition-related outcomes. Answer the

following questions:

- Which pathways may/may not be used?

- What factors might affect these pathways?

- How can the positive pathways be enhanced in the local context?

- Who will be involved in the activities? How will women be included?

þ Identify possible risks to nutrition (i.e. unintended side effects) based on

the identified impact pathways and consider how these negative impacts

can be prevented or mitigated.

ImplementationConsider the following:

þ Approach the intervention implementation from a business point of view

to ensure sustainability.

þ Promote intersectoral collaboration within the geographical area:

- Are the existing delivery platforms for nutrition-sensitive livestock

well-structured and is resource allocation for implementation being

optimized?

- Are other related organizations/agencies aware of the importance of

livestock to nutrition and on board?

þ Consider gender aspects during the organization of the activities, such as

trainings and distribution of assets (what are women’s/men’s workloads

and time distribution throughout the day?).

þ Dedicate efforts to ensure good husbandry and animal health practices

(health, genetics, feeding, reproduction, etc.).

43

ANNEX 1: CHECKLIST FOR NUTRITION-SENSITIVE LIVESTOCK INTERVENTIONS


þ Include a nutrition education component to address key behaviours,

including food hygiene.

- Is the nutrition education component based on adequate information?

Should formative research be carried out?

- Are taboos and cultural practices taken into account?

- Are all the relevant members involved (i.e. beyond women/mothers –

e.g. grandmothers, men)?

þ Valorize ASF and sub-products to optimize the livestock inputs invested.

þ Provide opportunities for household consumption, ideally including across

seasons (e.g. ASF preservation, recipe preparation).

þ Put in place measures to ensure sustainability of the intervention in the

long term.

- Are the delivery platforms/structures used likely to exist after the

intervention has ended?

- Are all programme staff sensitized about the importance of nutrition-

sensitive livestock interventions and their potential benefits?

Monitoring and evaluation þ Select appropriate indicators for the project/programme:

- Are the consumption/nutrition indicators realistic and adapted to the

scope and duration of the intervention?

- Are there any intermediate indicators that can be used to better

understand the use of the different pathways?

þ Measure process indicators and conduct process evaluation.

þ Evaluate the impact against the original nutrition objectives.

þ Document and disseminate lessons learned.


ANNEX 2: RESOURCES FOR FURTHER INFORMATION

Specific to livestock

Technical documents

FAO. 2010. Livestock sector policies and programmes in developing countries – a menu for practitioners. Rome. 163 pp. (available at www.fao.org/docrep/012/

i1520e/i1520e00.pdf).

FAO. 2013. Milk and dairy products in human nutrition. Rome. 404 pp. (available at

http://www.fao.org/docrep/018/i3396e/i3396e.pdf).

FAO. 2015. Tecnical interventions for livestock emergencies: The how-to-do-it manual. Animal Production and Health Manual No. 18. Rome. 260 pp. (available at http://

www.fao.org/3/a-i5904e.pdf).

FAO. 2016. Livestock in protracted crises. Guidance notes. Rome. 20 pp. (available at

http://www.fao.org/3/a-i6637e.pdf).

FAO. 2017. Nutrition-sensitive livestock and fisheries. In FAO. Nutrition-sensitive agriculture and food systems in practice: Options for intervention, pp. 5–8. Rome.

(available at http://www.fao.org/3/a-i7848e.pdf).

FAO. 2017. Gender assessment of dairy value chains: Evidence from Ethiopia. Rome.

80 pp. (available at http://www.fao.org/3/a-i6695e.pdf).

FAO. 2018. World Livestock: Transforming the livestock sector through the sustainable

development Goals. Rome. 222 pp. (available at http://www.fao.org/3/CA1201EN/

ca1201en.pdf)

FAO & European Union. 2017. Strengthening sector policies for better food security and nutrition results. Livestock. Policy Guidance Note 2. Rome, FAO. 40 pp. (available at

www.fao.org/3/a-i7213e.pdf).

High Level Panel of Experts (HLPE). 2016. Sustainable agricultural development for food security and nutrition: What roles for livestock? A report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition. HLPE Report 10. 140 pp. Rome,

Secretariat of the HLPE. (available at http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5795e.pdf).

Livestock Emergency Guidelines and Standards. 2014. Livestock emergency guidelines and standards. Second edition. Rugby, UK, Practical Action Publishing. 3`14 pp.

(available at www.fao.org/emergencies/resources/documents/resources-detail/

en/c/177304/).

UN Network for SUN/REACH Secretariat. 2016. Matrix of actions: Livestock and fisheries.

In Compendium of actions for nutrition, pp. 20–26. Rome. (available at www.

reachpartnership.org/documents/312104/fa572e1e-b8a9-48bf-89c0-cd3afb203c60).

http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/i1520e/i1520e00.pdf

http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/i1520e/i1520e00.pdf







http://www.fao.org/3/CA1201EN/ca1201en.pdf

http://www.fao.org/3/CA1201EN/ca1201en.pdf



http://www.fao.org/emergencies/resources/documents/resources-detail/en/c/177304/

http://www.fao.org/emergencies/resources/documents/resources-detail/en/c/177304/

http://www.reachpartnership.org/documents/312104/fa572e1e-b8a9-48bf-89c0-cd3afb203c60

http://www.reachpartnership.org/documents/312104/fa572e1e-b8a9-48bf-89c0-cd3afb203c60

46


Reviews

Grace, D., Dominguez-Salas, P., Alonso, S., Lannerstad, M., Muunda, E., Ngwili, N., Omar,

A., Khan, M. & Otobo, E. 2018. The influence of livestock-derived foods on the nutrition of mothers and infants in developing countries during the first 1 000 days of a child’s life. ILRI Research Report 44. Nairobi, International Livestock Research

Institute. 82 pp. (available at https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/

S2211912417300780?via%3Dihub).

Leroy, J.L. & Frongillo, E.A. 2007. Can interventions to promote animal production

ameliorate undernutrition? The Journal of Nutrition, 137(10):2311–2316.

Masset, E., Haddad, L., Cornelius, A. & Isaza-Castro, J. 2011. A systematic review of agricultural interventions that aim to improve nutritional status of children. London,

EPPI-Centre, Social Science Research Unit, Institute of Education, University of

London. (available at https://www.bmj.com/content/344/bmj.d8222).

About nutrition-sensitive programming in food and agriculture

For designing nutrition-sensitive policy and programmes

FAO. 2014. Key recommendations for improving nutrition through agriculture and food systems. Rome. 2 pp. (available at www.fao.org/3/a-i4922e.pdf).

FAO. 2015. Designing nutrition-sensitive agriculture investments: Checklist and guidance for programme formulation. Rome. 62 pp. (available at www.fao.

org/3/a-i5107e.pdf).

FAO. 2017. Nutrition-sensitive agriculture and food systems in practice: Options for intervention. Rome. 102 pp. (available at http://www.fao.org/3/a-i7848e.pdf).

E-learning modules: https://elearning.fao.org/course (see section “Nutrition and

Food Systems”)

For assessment, monitoring and evaluation of nutrition-sensitive approaches

FAO. 2014. Guidelines for assessing nutrition-related knowledge, attitudes and practices. Rome. 188 pp. (available at http://www.fao.org/docrep/019/i3545e/

i3545e.pdf).

FAO. 2016. Compendium of indicators for nutrition-sensitive agriculture. Rome. 60 pp.

(available at www.fao.org/3/a-i6275e.pdf).

FAO & FHI 360. 2016. Minimum dietary diversity for women: A guide for measurement. Rome, FAO. 82 pp. (available at www.fao.org/3/a-i5486e.pdf)

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211912417300780?via%3Dihub

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211912417300780?via%3Dihub

https://www.bmj.com/content/344/bmj.d8222





https://elearning.fao.org/course





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ANNEX 2: RESOURCES FOR FURTHER INFORMATION


For multisectoral planning for nutrition and resilience

FAO. 2014. Agreeing on causes of malnutrition for joint action. Rome. (online

publication available at www.fao.org/3/a-i3516e.pdf / E-learning module

available at https://elearning.fao.org/course/view.php?id=192).

Nutrition education

FAO. 2016. Integrating agriculture and nutrition education for improved young child nutrition. Programme lessons. 30 pp. Rome. (available at http://www.fao.

org/3/a-i6367e.pdf).

FAO. 2019. Food-based dietary guidelines. In: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [online]. Rome. [Cited 15 January 2019]. www.fao.org/

nutrition/nutrition-education/food-dietary-guidelines/en/

FAO. 2019. ENACT/ENAF online courses. In: Nutrition [online]. Rome. [Cited 15

January 2019]. www.fao.org/nutrition/education/professional-training/enact/

enactonline/en/


https://elearning.fao.org/course/view.php?id=192



http://www.fao.org/nutrition/nutrition-education/food-dietary-guidelines/en/

http://www.fao.org/nutrition/nutrition-education/food-dietary-guidelines/en/

http://www.fao.org/nutrition/education/professional-training/enact/enactonline/en/

http://www.fao.org/nutrition/education/professional-training/enact/enactonline/en/

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