NotesCHAPTER 1: THE AITACK

1. George Santayana, Reason in Art (New York, 1934), 100.2. Cf. Laws XI, 935E-936A, forbidding the holding up of a citizen to ridicule.

No doubt Plato here had in mind the treatment of Socrates by Aristophanesin The Clouds. See also Apol. 18B-19C and Phaed. 70C.

3. Laws II, 654B: A man can sing and dance well only 'if he sings good songsand dances good dances.'

4. This shapes much of Iris Murdoch's argument in The Fire and the Sun(Oxford, 1977), to which I will return later; in this context, see 64-5.

5. Compare the discussion of poiein at Charm. 163.6. Indeed, Plato says as much of Socrates iLach , 188D): ' the true

musician . . . a harmony of words and deeds7. This ismuch like the 'infectious' theory advanced by Tolstoy in What isArt'l8. John N. Findlay, Plato: The Written and Unwritten Doctrines (New York ,

1974), 109. Unless explicitly cited from some other work, references toFindlay, with page number, are to this important book.

9. H. S. Thayer , 'Plato's Quarrel with Poetry: Simonides', Journal of theHistory of Ideas, 36 (1975),3-26.

10. M. H. Partee, 'Plato on the Rhetoric of Poetry', Journal of Aesthetics andArt Criticism, 33 (1974), 203-12. H. S. Thayer, 'Plato on the Morality ofImagination', Review of Metaphysics, 30 (1977), 594-618.

11. Cf. I. M. Linforth, 'Telestic Madness in Plato, Phaedrus 244DE', Univ. ofCalifornia Publications in Classical Philoqy, XIII (1944-50), 163-72.

12. Karl Popper , The Open Society and Its Enemies (London, 1945). Laterreferences, abbreviated as, will be to the 4th, revised, edition (Princeton,1962).

13. If the arts are despised for imitating nature we must first say natureimitates too. And further wemust recognize that the arts do not only copythe visibleworld, but ascend to the principles on which nature is built up;and further, that many of their creat ions are original. For they make goodthe faults of things, as having the source of beauty in themselves.

This beautiful passage expresses one of the seminal ideas of theRomanticism that has led so much Platonic scholarship astray .

14. 'If [the sculptors] were to reproduce the true proportions of a well-madefigure, do you know, the upper parts would look too small, and the lowerparts too large, because we see the one at a distance, the other close at hand .'(Soph. 235E-236A)

15. Jane E. Harrison, Themis (1912; reprinted Gloucester, Mass., 1974), 328.

239

240 Notes

16. M. P. Nilsson, History of Greek Religion (2nd edn, Oxford , 1949), 3.17. Jane E. Harrison, loc. cit.18. Curt Sachs, Die Musik der Antike (New York, 1929), passim.19. See also Rep. VIII, 561D: 'abandoning himself to the lascivious pleasure of

the flute.'20. A. E. Taylor, Plato: The Man and his Work (London, 1926; 6th edn, 1949),

110.21. Taylor, op. cit., 29.

CHAPTER 2: THE INCONCLUSIVENESSOF DIALECTIC

1. No attempt will be made in what follows to enter the question ofchronology. Rather, the broad agreement in the findings of Lutoslawski,Ritter, Campbell , and Robin will be taken as a point of departure. TheTable given in W. D. Ross, Plato 's Theory ofForms (Oxford, 1951),2, showsboth the agreements and the divergencies.

2. Popper, OS, Vol. I. See 34, 194,309, and passim, as well as the valuable noteon the Socratic problem, 306-13. '

3. For an interesting variation on this theme, cf. Gregory Vlastos, 'Socraticknowledge and Platonic "Pessimism"', Philosophical Review, 66 (1957),226-38.

4. J. Burnet , Greek Philosophy from Thales to Plato (London, 1914), 168-70.A. E. Taylor, Plato. The Man and his Work , (4th edn, London, 1937),287,and Socrates . The Man and his Thought (New York, 1953),26.

5. Julius Stenzel, Plato 's MethodofDialectic, trans . D. J. Allan (Oxford , 1940),16.

6. Richard Robinson, Plato 's Earlier Dialectic (2nd edn, Oxford , 1953).7. A. K. Rogers, The Socratic Problem (New Haven , 1933), 96. But a little later

(108) Rogers does contrast 'Socratic ignorance' with the Platonic 'quest for"definition" [that] no longer meets defeat' , a view on the whole shared byR. B. Levinson, In Defense of Plato (Cambridge, Mass., 1953), 633.

8. Perhaps we should not overlook 6) the sheer joy of dispute as a means ofsharpening the wits of a young respondent. Cf. Euthydemus 275E, whereDionysodorus says: 'Now look here, Socrates , I prophesy that whicheverthe lad answers, he will be refuted.'

9. There is a curious revival in the Parmenides of a form of dialectic very likethat attributed here to Socrates in the early dialogues , but quite unlike the'Platonic' dialectic in the probably contemporaneous Sophist . In the case ofthe Parmenides, however, the method seems closer to Zeno's antinomies; at128D Zeno is made to say that he does not try to prove the Eleatic position,but only to show that denial ofthe presupposition that reality is one, leads toeven greater difficulties than its assertion . John Burnet , Early GreekPhilosophy (4th edn, London, 1930),313-14, uses this passage to prove thepre-Socratic origin of 'Platonic' dialectic!

10. G. Grote, Plato and the other Companions of Sokrates (London, 1865), I,543.

Notes 241

11. Paul Friedlander, Plato: The Dialogues. First Period (New York 1958),99.12. Cf. R. Robinson, 'Plato's Consciousness of Fallacy', Mind, N. S., 51 (1942),

97-114.13. I have in mind here the 'reversal' in Protagoras 361AC, and perhaps also the

'rout' of Socrates in the first part of the Parmenides .14. There is no internal evidence in the dialogues ; nor is there anything in

Xenophon's Memorabilia, despite the wealth of detail, much of it quitetrivial, about Socrates' life and habits.

15. Levinson , op. cit., lends some support for this view. Cf. 64, 66.16. Popper, OS, Vol. I, 311, makes Antisthenes, the founder of the Cynics and a

defender of democracy, the 'only descendant of Socrates', despite thecontrary opinion of others whom he cites, 277. Leon Robin, La Penseegrecque (Paris, 1923), 183, on the whole agrees with this view.

17. For example, the sum of J2and J 3 is sufficiently close to 7t for thedifference to be attributable to error of measurement.

18. Cf. Anders Wedberg, Plato 's Philosophy of Mathematics (Stockholm,1955),48-9.

19. Unless, of course , 'truth' is redefined to reflect this change of status.20. See the discussion of Findlay in Chapter 3.21. Findlay, 178.22. It is worth noting in this context that Kant was convinced of the finality of

Aristotelian logic, Euclidian geometry , Copernican astronomy, andNewtonian physics. Cf. Critique of Pure Reason, B viii.

23. At 530B the uselessness of astronomical observation is stressed in favour ofa 'genuine study' of the a priori logic of heavenly motions. 531B deridesstudents of harmonics who 'prefer their ears to their understanding'.

24. This is bitterly illustrated in the Cave allegory in the reluctance of thephilosopher who has made the upward journey to return, and his probablefate if he does so.

25. Cf. in this context, Statesman 277C: 'It is difficult, my dear Socrates , todemonstrate anything of real importance without the use of examples. 'Compare the translation of this sentence, here by Skemp , with Cornford'sfreer rendering: 'The highest things can be demonstrated only by means ofexample.' Neither version is false to the Greek ; Cornford's translationserves my argument better, while Skernp's is a warning against reading toomuch into the text.

26. R. G. Collingwood, An Essay on Metaphysics (Oxford, 1940), 155-61,denies this view strenuously, calling it 'a positivistic misinterpretation ofPlato.' It is, at all events, a misinterpretation shared by Jowett andCampbell, Bosanquet, and Nettleship. The support claimed byCollingwood from James Adam in his edition of the Republic (Cambridge,1902), II, 192, is limited to the meaning of anairein, and does not reallyextend to Collingwood's whole position. This is designed to show that'removing hypotheses' does not aim at establishing true first principles, butthat the purpose of dialectic is to aim at a reductio, whereby any and allhypotheses can ultimately be 'unsupposed' by showing that they lead tocontradictions. This would tend to assimilate these passages to 'Socratic'dialectic; but Collingwood attempts no argument along these lines. Heappears to be quite isolated in interpreting these crucial passages in this way.

242 Notes

27. The best account is given in W. Lutoslawski, The Origin and Growth ofPlato's Logic (2nd edn, London, 1905).

28. Cf. Letters VII, 342A.29. Compare Phaedrus 275DE with Laws VII, 811CE and X, 890E-:-89IA.30. Gorgias 522E-527E; Phaedo 107D-115A; Republic X, 614A-62lD;

Phaedrus 246A-249D. These are discussed in chapter 4.31. Cf. Laws IX, 870DE, X, 904D, XII , 959B.32. The point iseven clearer at Timaeus 29C: 'But when [words] express only the

copy or likeness and not the eternal things themselves, they need only belikely and analogous . . . '

33. Prodicus appears and speaks in the Protagoras.34. CfJowett and Campbell, Plato's Republic, II, 292: 'In Plato , at all events,

philosophical terminology is incipient, tentative, transitional.'

CHAPTER 3: HOW THE MYTHS HAVE FARED

1. Since this was written Robert Zaslavsky's Platonic Myth and PlatonicWriting (Washington, 1981) has appeared. While valuable for what it doessay, it suffers from the unusual contraints imposed by the author's insistenceon limiting his treatment to passages that Plato himself refers to as mythoi(or derivatives of mythos). His reasons for doing this (11-15) are notpersuasive and run counter to every other approach to the question I haveseen.

2. John N. Findlay, 'The Myths of Plato', Dionysius 2 (December 1978),19-34. The passage cited is on 19.

3. Francis Bacon, Works, ed. Spedding and Ellis (London, 1870), VI, 698.4. Vico, Nova Scienza, 4th Dissertation.5. Cf. Gorgias 523A: 'Give ear then, as they say, to a very fine story, which you,

I suppose, willconsider fiction (mython), but I consider fact (logon), for whatI am going to tell you I shall recount as the actual truth.'

6. Among many references in Hegel, one must suffice: ' .. . the supreme meritof Plato's philosophy has sometimes been held to consist in his myths whichare scientifically valueless, .. .' Phenomenology of Mind, trans . Baillie(London, 1931), 129. Paul Friedliinder sums up this view, tirelessly repeatedby Hegel's followers: 'Hegel interpreted Plato's myths as representing anecessary stage in the education of the human race, which conceptualknowledge can discard as soon as it has grown up. ' (Plato: An Introduction,trans . Meyerhoff (New York, 1958),209.)

7. Ludwig Edelstein, 'The function of the myth in Plato's Philosophy', Journalof the History of Ideas, 10 (1949), 463-81.

8. Summa theologica, Part I, Q. I, Art 8.9. Frutiger (221) loses patience with Stewart at this point in the argument, and

complains of the 'hodge-podge (fatras) with which he has cluttered hisbook.'

10. One of the most brilliant treatments of this question is found in JohnLivingston Lowes' The Road to Xanadu (Boston, 1927), in which he tracesall the imagery of Kubla Khan to Coler idge's antecedent reading and to the

Notes 243

commonplaces of contemporary poetry, in opposition to Coleridge's claimthat the poem was given to him as an inspired whole.

11. Otto Apelt, Phaidon (Leipzig, 1923).12. Josef Pieper, Ueber die platonischen Mythen (Munich, 1965): ' . .. die

wirkliche Aneignung der mythischen Wahrheit notwendig dasZusammendenken des geglaubten und des Gewussten erzwingt. ' (44)

13. Pieper: 'Wer den Kern der von Platon erzahlten grossen Mythen alsWahrheit akzeptiert, vermag das jedenfaIls, nicht anders als Sokrates, nurzu tun ex akoes, aufGrund des Horens aufjene gleicheStimme, die auch dasOhr Platons selbst erreicht haben muss.' (33-4).

14. Paul TiIlich, cited in Religion in Geschichte und Geqenwart , Vol. 4, 3rd edn,(Tubingen , 1957-62), 1267IT: article on 'Myth' .

15. W. Willi, Versuch einer Grundlequnq der platonischen Mythopoiie (Zurich,1925), 13.

16. My own generalization is a little sweeping: Deuschle and Teichmiiller treatthe entire theory of the soul as mythical; and while a case can be made forconsidering the Timaeus mythical in its totality, this is increasinglyimplausible when applied to the Phaedo, Republic , and Laws, as Couturatdoes in De Plat. my this.

17. On the other hand ZeIler, as already noted , tends to treat the myths as ashortcoming of Plato's philosophical ability, and so he identifies as little aspossible.as myth. Brochard (L es mythes dans la philosophie de Platon, 18)takes a similar tack for reasons not so easily classifiable.

18. The best known such attempt, apart from Lewis Campbell's stylornetry, isW. Lutoslawski's The Origin and Growth of Plato 's Logic.

19. It is worth reproducing Couturat's list here, though not for the reasons thathe established it. Paidia (childish game); paizein (to play); humnos (festivesong); humnein (to celebrate) ; dithurambos (lyric poem); enkomion (eulogy);onar (dream); enupnion (vision); eikon (likeness, image); plasma (image,imi tation);plattein (to shape); epadein (to sing an incantation); chresmodein(to prophesy) ; enthousia zein (to be inspired); peithein (to persuade);pepeisthai (to be persuaded); pisteuein (to believe). The English approxima­tions I have supplied , like their Greek counterparts, may be used in manymeanings , depending on the context.

20. As earlier noted , Zaslavsky uses a similar, but opposite criterion, inconfining his consideration only to those passages in which Plato has usedthe word muthos and its derivatives. So intent is he on this excessivelynarrow criterion that he supplies an exhaust ive concordance of theseoccurrences (dutifully arranged by person, number, case, mood , voice, etc!)to supplement Ast and des Places (Platonic Myth and Platonic Writing, 224­9). However, he has overlooked an occurrence of mython (genitive plural) atLaws X, 903B2.

21. L. Couturat, De Platonicis Mythis (Paris, 1896), 59. A. Doring, 'Dieeschatologischen Mythen Platens', Archio fiir Geschichte der Philosophie, 6(1893), 475.

22. I am of course fully aware that what I here describe as a 'better model' isprecisely the sort of circular tautology that Plato was hoping to overcome byrising to the 'best of the higher hypotheses ', and will return to this pointagain, notably in connection with Findlay 's argument. Here, however, I am

244 Notes

concerned, not with Plato's programme (which remained necessarilyunrealized), but with the actual state of the text. Frutiger has gone astray byemploying the linear model when it is a cluster that he needs, and that is infact inferrable from the text.

23. Popper several timesquotes or refers to this passage. On 37, having quoted itin full, even repeating Plato's emphasis 'except for what is evil', Poppercontinues with the non sequitur : 'In brief, Plato teaches that change is evil.and that rest is divine.' (Popper's italics.)

24. See his note 15(8) to ch. 3 and text, p. 212;note 3 to ch. 4, p. 217;and note 7to ch. 4, p. 219.

25. Dialogues of Plato, III, cxxvi.26. Popper has overlooked Timaeus 19A, in the brief recapitulation of the

Republic, which explicitly repeats the notion of upward and downwardmobility, depending on merit.

27. K. von Fritz, 'Zur Frage der esoterischen Philosophie Platons', Archie furGeschichte der Philosophie, XLIX (1967), 255-68.

28. Konrad Gaiser, Piatons unqeschriebene Lehre (Stuttgart, 1963). H. J.Kramer, Arete bei Platon und Aristoteles (Heidelberg, 1959).

29. J. N. Findlay, The Myths of Plato', Dionysius, 2 (Dec. 1978), 19-34.

CHAPTER 4: ESCHATOLOGICAL ANDRELATED MYTHS

I. Phaedo I07D-115A; Phaedrus 248A-257B; Gorqias 522E-527E; RepublicX, 614A-621B.

2. K. Reinhardt, Platons Mythen (Bonn, 1927) says There is hardly oneamong his dialogues in which the realm of death is not mentioned .' (27)

3. B. Jowett, The Dialogues ofPlato (3rd edn, Oxford, 1892);J. A. Stewart, TheMyths of Plato (London , 1905), who, as noted in chapter 3, gratuitouslyadds a Kantian idiom.

4. Josef Pieper, Ueber die platonischen Mythen (Munich, 1965),writes from aChr istian perspective. He cites (85) Walter Willi, Versuch einerGrundlequnqder platonischen Mythopiie (Zurich, 1925) 13,who says that 'almost all thatis mythical in Plato is somehow otherworldly', and Paul Tillich, Religion inGeschichte und Geqenwart, Vol. 4 (3rd edn), 363 If. (article on 'Myth'):'Myth is divine history. That is the definition of the word that cannot beabandoned'; moreover, 'it is not a literary, but a religious category.'

5. Karl Popper, OS, passim.6. Popper, OS, I, 184.7. E. Frank, Platon und die soqenannten Pythaqoriier (Halle, 1923), 194-8,

shows the extent to which Plato modified the eschatological myths to beconsonant with the newly available discoveries in astronomy and mathe­matics, rather than simply following the classical versions.

8. Laws IV, 72IC; Symposium 207D, etc.9. Symposium 208D If.

10. Odyssey 11,489 ff., quoted at Republic III, 386CD.

Notes 245

11. Frutiger has relatively little to say on the content and philosophicalobjectives of the eschatological myths. But cf. 212-15 and 249--65. Thelatter passage is a painstaking review of the parallels between the imagery ofPlato's treatment and his sources in Empedocles, Pindar, and the Orphictablets .

12. Cf. Phaedo 107e. See also Pieper, op. cit., 39: 'Evil-doing does not end withthe deed.'

13. St Augustine is more cunning than Plato, and promises resurrection in theflesh, but in prime condition, whereas Plato has the dead remain more or lessas they were in life, even 'if limbs were broken or distorted' (Gorgias524 BC).

14. Frutiger (213) denounces the attempts at 'harmonization' of the contents ofthe four myths as 'childish'. He has Couturat (De Plat. mythis, 111-18) inmind. The temptation to treat them as so many synoptic Gospels should noteven arise. The most that it is proper to say is that they are not inconsistentwith one another.

15. The remark is, of course, ironical, but so is Euripides. What validates myobservation in the text is that although Euripides, along with the othertragedians, is to be expelled for singing the praises of tyranny, 'the subtleminds among them will pardon us' (568C). Plato knows what Euripidesmeans, but is fearful that the audience wilJ not.

16. Cf. Laws X, 904C, which offers a rare example of a mixture of free will andpredestination.

17. Cf. Gorgias 525C, where those beyond redemption suffer 'throughouteternity the greatest and most excruciating and terrifying tortures . . .suspended as examples there in the prison house in Hades.'

18. Op. cit., 30, n. 2.19. Ficino also thought so, and made this a commonplace of Renaissance

interpretation.20. Cf. the speech of Aeschines against Timarchus. Also, Pausanius' speech in

the Symposium (180C-185C).21. On the Socratic daimon, see chapter 2.22. Taylor (Plato, 305) suggests 'founders of religion' , but there is no warrant

for such an interpretation of this difficult passage. There is a valuable, ifinconclusive, article by Ivan M. Linforth: 'Telestic Madness in Plato,Phaedrus 244DE', University of California Publications in ClassicalPhilology, XIII (1944-50), 163-72. Linforth rejects Taylor, Pfister, Delatte,and refers to Wilamowitz' bafflement. He also rejects the house of Atreusamong others (Orchomenus, Proetides) which suffered such divine wrath, aswell as Thompson's suggestion that the inclusion of a phrase fromEuripides' Phoenisse (palaion ek menimaton) in this passage might be analJusion to this play. He points out that madness does playa role in the play,but it brings no relief. Instead he suggests that Socrates was here creating amyth with a specificalJy HelJenicbackground that, without reference to anyknown case, would ring a belJ in the Greek mind .

23. Cf. Laws 719CD; 801Be.24. Stanley Rosen, Plato's Symposium (New Haven, 1968), 169-73, quite

correctly sees in Agathon's egoistical substitution of the product of his ownimagination for an objective reality a powerful threat to Socrates' position.

246 Notes

This is indeed an anticipation of Nietzschean creanvity, the kind ofaestheticism to which Plato is most bitterly opposed.

25. Note the explicit reference to Aristophanes' 'halves'. That should havedisposed of some quite unnecessary speculation in the literature as towhether Diotima (there are several possible candidates) really told Socratesthe story. She would have had to know that Aristophanes' story would betold before Socrates ' narration -a wisewoman indeed ! It is safe to take herto be a Socratic/platonic invention.

26. Cf. Enneads , I, vi, 3.27. P. B. Shelley, A Defence ofPoetry. Note also that the famous remark that

the 'poets are the unacknowledged legislators of the world', from the sameessay, is likewise offered in direct answer to the distinction made by Plato.

28. Most recently reconsidered by Phyllis Young Forsyth in Atlantis (CroomHelm, 1980). This includes some review of the Platonic versions, chieflyfrom the perspective cited above (Timaeus 22E), but also argues that theCritias version of Atlantis is modelled on Syracuse and was a thinlydisguised warning by Plato to Dionysius of what might happen to him. Letme also mention, with some regret, a recent (1981) television movie in whichCaptain Nerno, revived after a hundred years of suspended animation, goesin quest of the Atlanteans, who turn out not to have been revived at all.

29. Or at any rate a member of the Academy.30. Cf. Plato 's Cosmology, 230-9. Findlay's explanation is keyed to Phaedo

IIOB where the earth is compared to a ball made of twelve skins: TheDodecahedron 'was reserved for the shape of the Cosmos as a whole, orsome many-faceted , many-colouredjewel set in the crystalline round of theCosmos . . . ' (326). Where are the animals? That much wecan answer: theyare such further worlds, construed as living organisms, as the Demi-urgemight have made.

31. Friedlander, op. cit., (204 ff.) treats this as a political myth, for example.32. Republic II, 379; III , 391D; also II, 364 ff., where the poets are denounced

for attributing evil deeds to the gods; similarly Laws II, 672B.33. Compare this story with the discussion in the Protagoras 320C ff.

CHAPTER 5: POLITICAL MYTHS

I. Plato 's dilemma, to which I shall return, is how to make the good for societyacceptable to those who, in principle, cannot know what that is. Sometimesthe imagery is medical: 'For if wewere right in what we werejust saying andfalsehood is in very deed useless to gods, but to men useful as a remedy orform of medicine, it is obvious that such a thing must be assigned tophysicians, and laymen should have nothing to do with it.' (Republic III,398B; cf. also 382D).

2. In Plato Today Crossman comes close to combining both charges byassociating Plato's position with those totalitarianisms in which, inevitablyin his opinion, the elite is both convinced of the rightness of its dogmas andcontemptuous of the ease with which ordinary people can be fooled.

3. For two very different opinions of this phenomenon, compare KarlMannheirn's Ideology and Utopia with Ernst Cassirer 's Myth of the State.

Notes 247

4. Much of the criticism of this passage in the Republic is made to depend onthe commentator's viewsof individualism, mostly as its history has emergedin the last 200 years. For more balanced treatments among the very largeliterature on this topic alone , two may serve to complement what is saidhere: Gregory Vlastos, 'Justice and Happiness in the Republic' , in Plato 1/:Ethics , Politics. and Philosophy , ed. Vlastos (New York , 1971),66 -95; andRudolph Weingartner, 'Vulgar Justice and Platonic Justice ', Philosophy andPhenomenological Research, 25 (1964-65), 248-52.

5. 'The structure of the Republic rests entirely upon the homology betweensoul and state . And it must be a reading in Plato 's sense when we see the finalmyth as the fulfillment of the entire construction: human soul, state, andcosmos conceived as three forms symmetrically placed around the samecenter .. . ' Friedlander, op. cit., 189.

6. Only one of the many references to heavenly conflicts is apparentlyfavourable . In the surely ironical Menexenus Socrates says that Athens mustbe dear to the gods: 'This is proved by the strife and contention of the godsrespecting her.' (237C)

7. Those reluctant to allow any 'democratic' leanings to Plato makeProtagoras the originator of this myth. To those mentioned in the text wemay add Nestle and Vlastos for Protagoras, and Friedlander and Chern issagainst. I would supplement Friedlander's reasons (op. cit., 176) withreference to the passage in the Phaedrus (249B) which makes the soul'spassage into human form condit ional on some recollection of the Ideas.

8. For an ingenious examination of certain aspects of the Protagoras myth,treated as an inexact analogy to be closely analyzed for its aptness , seeRenford Bambrough, 'Plato's Political Analogies' , in Philosophy . Politics ,and Society , ed. Laslett (Oxford, 1956), 98-115, esp. 101 IT.

9. Among the soberer examinations of this contested passage, see John Wild,Plato 's Modern Enemies and the Theory of Natural Law (Chicago , 1953),51-3. Wild ably defends Plato on the 'noble lie' as a mode of advanc ingthe 'underlying sense of unity and a feeling of devot ion to the commonpurpose' (52).

10. Levinson, In Defense ofPlato (538 text and n. 96, 540)concedes too much toPopper by discounting Timaeus 19A as inapplicable 'to prove or disprovePlato's intention of elevating children of workers .' Yet the Greek is clearenough , and a random reviewof some translations (Jowett , Cornford, Bury,and in German, Kiefer) confirms that unworthy children of good parents godown, and worthy children of bad parents rise.

II. Among several recent articles, two are of particular interest. Christine AllenGarside, 'Plato and Women', Feminist Studies 2 (1975), 131-8, argues thatsexual diITerences, while relevant to bodies, are irrelevant to souls, theeducation of which leads to release from the body . From this, she concludes,equal education follows. Julia Annas, 'Plato's Republic and Feminism',Philosophy 51(1976),307 -21 , is less persuaded of Plato's benignity, since heis not guided by any concern for women as such, but rather b.y the serviceeach person renders the state. These are rival views about feminism ratherthan about Plato , in whose text both positions are soundly grounded.

12. Sir Ernest Barker, The Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle (London,1918) takes the view most commonly repeated since. He recognizes the

248 Notes

analogy with animal husbandry (148) and finds it 'one of the most repulsivethings in the Republic . . . that Plato should make his State a breedingestablishment for the production offine animals' (I 48-9}. In a brief note onmethod (67), he finds the analogy inapt.

13. The appeal of Lysenkoism to Stalin, which ruined Soviet biology for severaldecades, may be expla ined in analogous terms , though human beings werenot directly involved . If characteristics acquired by conditioning in onegeneration (e.g. frost-resistance in winter wheat) could be transmittedgenetically to subsequent generations, might one not consider that havingconditioned the first generation of young Communists, the rest could bebred?

14. Barker, op . cit., 176-8, while acknowledging that some commentators (e.g.Nettleship) see a philosophy of history in Book VIII , generally supports theview I am arguing here .

15. Friedlander links these stories not just to a broad Utopia such as theRepublic might be, but to an interpretation of the Menexenus (and otherpassages) as Plato's 'reconciliation' with Athens, by postulation of itsimmemorial origins (202-3, 208).

CHAPTER 6: METHODOLOGICAL MYTHS

1. Cf. the very similar argument at Philebus 15C.2. Cf. Republic VII , 525B.3. This is only one of the interpretations of an obscurely phrased doctrine. See

G. S. Kirk and J. E. Raven, The Presocratic Philosophers (Cambridge,1957), 367 ff.

4. Cf. Cratylus 440C.5. See, for example, Sophist 246AC.6. Cf. Sophist 259E.7. See Sophist 247C, which agrees that some materialists in fact move in this

direction.8. There is a valuable discussion in J. H. Randall, Jr , Plato: Dramatist of the

Life of Reason (New York, 1970), 191-2. Both versions are treated asmythical.

9. Th is claim is much debated. A. E. Taylor, Plato: The Man and his Work (4thedn, London, 1937), 136, 187, combines the stimulus of'an arresting sense­experience' with an almost Humean notion of association.

10. This myth [Meno 85 etc.] is called on to safeguard the possibility ofknowledge.' Paul Friedlander, Plato: An Introduction , trans. Meyerhoff(New York, 1958), 182.

II. Findlay's chapters VI and VII treat some middle and late writings as'Stoicheiological Dialogues'. He of course acknowledges Aristotle's part inthis terminology, but does not warn the reader how much is being importedinto Plato that is not to be found there directly, even though it is logicallyneeded and abundantly hinted at.

12. For a very clear account of the Line, see Thomas Gould, Platonic Love (NewYork and London, 1963}, 94-8.

13. Compare the very similar image at Phaedo 82D-83C.

Notes 249

14. Gould's discussion in chapter 2 of Platonic Love is most direct and balanced.15. For a different , but most ingenious approach, see Gould, op . cit., which

builds up to a veritable Liebestod by the end of chapter 3 on Diotima. IrisMurdoch similarly argues that ' it is the whole Eros that concerns [Plato],and not just some passionless distillation.' (Th e Fire and the Sun , Oxford ,1977,33.)

CHAPTER 7: THE DEFENCE

I. In contrasting the inchoate mystical leanings of Kephalos in Book I of theRepublic with the eschatological myth of Book X, Friedlander says: 'On thefirst level, the myth is preparation for the dialectical path; on the second, it isa view beyond the limits to which dialectics can lead.' (Op. cit., 184.)

2. One, by the way, that is the basis of Jung's Psychological Types (London,1930).The most familiar of these, quite close to Schiller's analysis, as Jungacknowledges, are introverts and extraverts.

3. Poetics 22, 1459a, 5.4. Here and there Iris Murdoch acknowledges that Plato allows the artists to

emerge from the fire into the sun: 'In a magnificent myth he at last franklyembraces the image and sanctifies the artist, whilegiving to the Forms a finalradiant though mysterious role. There is only one true artist, God , and onlyone true work of art , the Cosmos' (op. cit., 49). She is speaking of theTimaeus as a myth in its entirety, 'wherein moral imagery and scientificspeculation are remarkably blended' (50).

5. This theme is not confined to the 'digression' in the Republic, but persists inessentially the same terms as late as Laws VII, 804E ff.

6 He does this in the myth of the metals, and in several references to thedrawing of lots, some of which have been cited in chapter 4. I do not havespace here to document this more fully, but a very useful paper could bedevoted to this point , which has been overlooked in the literature.

7. The ever-wise Friedlander comes to my aid again here: 'Since his myths arenever to be understood literaliter, they are constantly ready to bring such'mystical' interpretations back to the original concrete image. Thus Platoescapes the danger of a metaphysical dogmatism . . . ' (op. cit., 210).

8. Any number of commentators, including Grote and Findlay , conclude,correctly I think, that Plato would have to expel himself along with the otherpoets if no defence can be offered.

9. From the very large literature on this topic I cite only the following for thewealth of examples they include: Arthur Koestler, The Act of Creation(London, 1964): Jacques Hadamard, The Psychology of Invention in theMathematical Field (Princeton, 1949); Brewster Ghiselin, ed., The CreativeProcess (Berkeley, 1952).

10. I do not want to import here, there being no foundation for it in the Platonictext, the rival claims ofGestaltists and some empiricists as to whether wholeconfigurations are perceived, or discrete fragments . The Gestalt is toepistemology what deep structure is to linguistics: both imply someontological claims of enormous interest and controversy; but one canstretch the Platonic text only so far.

250 Notes

II. Eric. A. Havelock, A Preface to Plato (Cambridge , Mass., 1963).12. E. Zeller, Philosophie der Griechen (5th edn, Leipzig, 1922), allows that 'The

myths appear where something is to be represented which the philosopherregards as true indeed, but the scientific demonstration of which surpasseshis means' (II, 1,581). Frutiger (op. cit., 219-20) correctly , I believe, rejectsthis approach (also adopted by Stewart , op. cit., 42-76, and by others ,including Willi) as too narrow: it does not allow for those passages in whichPlato chooses a mythical form for matters capable of dialectical demonstra­tion. Zeller himself has acknowledged this (II, I, 582, note I) in commentaryon the Symposium myth: 'the undertaking is only a description of Eros, adefinition of the term that could just as well have been given in purelydialectical form, if artistic considerations had not led the philosopher toclothe his thoughts in a thin and transparent sheath .' Teichmiiller (Dieplatonische Frage, Gotha, 1876, 91) attacks Zeller for this inconsistency.Little has changed since, with commentators placing what I call the weakdefence (myth where dialectic ispossible) in opposition to the strong defence(myth beyond dialectical limitations) .

13. P.-M. Schuhl, Lafabulation platonicienne (Paris, 1968,21) offers a succinctversion: 'The myths express in concrete terms abstract reasoning inac­cessible to the vulgar.' L. Edelstein, 'The function of the Myth in Plato'sphilosophy', Journal of the History of Ideas, 10 (1949) 463-81 , is similarlyconfined to the weak defence.

14. Popper, OS,passim. I cannot resist citing Hegel in this note on the same sideof the question as Popper. 'The only form in which truth exists is in ascientific system' (Phdnomenoloqie des Geistes, Hamburg, 1952, 12).Elsewhere (Sdmtliche Werke, Jubiliiumsausqabe, Stuttgart, 1927-40,XVIII , 179) Hegel complains that all that Plato gives us is the dialogueinstead of 'a purely philosophical work, truly didact ic.' Zeller, op. cit., 580,speaks for a whole school of rationalist philosophers: 'The Platon ic mythsalmost always point to a defect in scientificknowledge' , a defect they believethey have remedied.

15. 'The Platon ic myth is his first essay toward a new truth, the shaping ofhis first groupings but in philosoph ical-conceptual terms it is stillunformed .' So P. Stocklein, Ueber die philosophische Bedeutung von PiatonsMythen, Philologus, Suppl. 30, 3 (Leipzig, 1937), 3. On page 5 it is a'preliminary stage of logos' ('eine Vorstufe des Logos'). At the other extremeis Findlay in his 1978article previously cited - the myths are not mythic atall, 'but sober accounts of the geography of Being.'

16. St Thomas Aquinas, Summa Contra Gentiles, I, 4.17. R. B. Levinson, In Defense of Plato (Cambridge, Mass., 1953, 64), affirms

much the same thing: 'To the defense and reinforcement of these spiritualdivinations, logical proofs are required to contribute as best they can.Reason and faith are thus enlisted in a common cause, and Plato does notalways mark their precise mutual frontiers , something of "myth" creepingat times into his "logos," to balance the rational element that pervades somany of his avowed myths.'

18. Except, as previously noted , the passage at Republic V, 460A, whichprovides for the rigging of the mating lotteries so as to improve the breed ofGuardians.

Notes 251

19. Poetics, 1451a, 36; 1460b, 10.20. Zhdanov's words at the 1934 congress of writers aim at the 'historically

specificdepiction of reality in its revolutionary development. This authen­ticity and historical specificityin the depiction ofreality should be combinedwith the task of ideologically reshaping and educating the toilers in the spiritof socialism.' (Russkaya sovetskaya literatura, Moscow, 1963,316). For thetheory , seeC. Vaughan James, Soviet Socialist Realism: Origins and Theory,London , 1973. For recent practice see the moderately sympathetic BeyondSocialist Realism by Geoffrey Hosking, London, 1980.

21. In Plato's Thought (London, 1935) G. M. A. Grube limits himself to theweak defence: 'Only when [the nature of justice] is fully established doesPlato go on to the myth of the day of judgment. The myth is not the mainargument, it is only a story with a merely corroborative force for those whobelieve in immortality.' (157) There is just one hint of the strong defence:, . .. do not his myths represent, however dimly, truth which the humanintellect . . . cannot reach scientifically' (204).

22. This should not be understood mechanically, as Frutiger has pointed out(op. cit., 19ff.) Passages of narrative as long as a whole book (e.g. Laws V)are dialectical, not mythical; and some passages of dialogue are mythical.

23. G. Grote, Plato and the other Companions ofSokrates (London, 1865),wasthe first I think to speak of 'negative dialectic' (III, 240).

24. Cf. Norman Gulley, Plato 's Theory ofKnowledge (London, 1962),43: 'Platorecognizes, moreover , the limitations of the method of hypothesis, and ofhuman argument in general, as a means of establishing with certainty thetruth of any postulate.' This claim, which I am convinced is correct, hasoften been rejected, most recently by J. T. Bedu-Addo, 'The Role of theHypothetical Method in the Phaedo', Phronesis 24 (1979), 111-32.

25. G. Grote, op. cit., III, 239.26. Appearance and Reality (Oxford, 1893), I.27. Collected Papers of C. S. Peirce (Cambridge, Mass., 1934) V, 247.28. Plato is himself not above alluding to the doctrines of Empedocles,

Parmenides, etc., as treating 'us as children to whom we tell a story' (Sophist242C).

29. G. K. Roberts, A Dictionary of Political Analysis (London, 1971), 131.30. Hence the famous remarks at Letters II, 341C and VII, 341C; these in turn

have encouraged the speculations of Gaiser and Findlay , among others.

Bibliography

A. TEXTS

Plato: The Collected Dialogues, Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns, eds.,New York, 1961.This is the best one-volume edition in English, translated byseveral hands. It is used throughout, save where otherwise indicated.

B. BIBLIOGRAPHIES

H. F. Cherniss, 'Plato (1950-1957)', Lustrum IV (1959), 5-308; V (1960),323-648.J. B. Skemp, Plato (Oxford, 1976).R. D. McKirahan, Plato and Socrates . A Comprehensive Bibliography, 1958­

1973 (New York and London , 1978).

C. STUDIES OF THE MYTHS (Adapted from Frutiger, 287)

C. Crome, De mythis Platonicis imprimis de necyiis (1835).A. Jahn , Dissertatio Platonica (1839).G. Schwanitz, Die Mythen des Plato (1852).J. Deuschle, Die platonischen Mythen (1854).A. Fisher, De myth is Platonicis (1865).B. F. Westcott , 'The myths of Plato', Contemporary Review II (1866),199-211,

469-81.R. Hirzel, Ueber das Rhetorische und seine Bedeutung bei Plato (1871) .Volquardsen, Platons Theorie vom Mythus und seine Mythen (1871).E. Forster, Die platonischen Mythen (1873).P. Gregoriades , Peri ton muthon para Platoni (1879).K. Thiemann, Die platonische Eschatologie (1892).A. Doring, 'Die eschatologischen Mythen Platons', Archiv fur Geschichte der

Philosophie, 6 (1893), 475-90.L. Couturat, De Platonicis mythis (1896).V. Brochard, 'Les mythes dans la philosophie de Platon', Annee philosophique

XI (1900), 1-13. Reprinted in Etudes de philosophie ancienne et de philosophiemoderne , 46-59 (1912).

1. A. Stewart, The Myths of Plato (1905).W. Willi, Versuch einer Grundlegung der platonischen Mythopoiie (1925).K. Reinhardt, PIatons Mythen (1927).P. Frutiger, Les mythes de Platon (1930).P. Stocklein, Ueber die philosophische Bedeutung von PIatons Mythen.

Philologus, Supp!. 30, 3 (1937).

252

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L. Edelstein, 'The function of the myth in Plato's philosophy', Journal of theHistory of Ideas, 10 (1949), 463-81.

J. Pieper, Ueber die platonischen My then (1965).P.-M. Schuhl, La fabulation platonicienne (1968).M. J. Gregory , 'Myth and transcendence in Plato', Thought 43 (1968),273-96.V.Sease, 'The myth in Plato's theory of ideas' , South- West Journal ofPhilosophy

V (1970), 186-97.S. Gaffney, 'Dialectic, the myths of Plato, and the transcendent in the world',

Proc. of the Catholic Philosophical Assn. XLV (1971), 77-85.G. Stormer, 'Plato's theory of myth' , Personalist 55 (1974), 216-43.J. N. Findlay, 'The Myths of Plato', Dionysius, 2 (1978), 19-34.R. Zaslavsky, Platonic Myth and Platonic Writing (1981).

OTHER WORKSJ. Annas, 'Plato's Republic and Feminism' , Philosophy 51 (1976), 307-21.--, An Introduction to Plato 's Republic (Oxford, 1982).O. Apelt, Phaidon (Leipzig, 1923).R. Bambrough, 'Plato's Political Analogies' , in Philosophy , Politics, and Society,

ed. Laslett (Oxford, 1956), 98-115.Sir E. Barker, The Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle (London, 1918).J. Burnet, Greek Philosophy from Thales to Plato (London, 1914).--, Early Greek Philosophy (4th edn, London, 19'30).E. Cassirer, The Myth of the State (New Haven, 1946).C. Cavarnos, Plato's Theory of Fine Art (Athens, 1973).R. G. Collingwood, An Essay on Metaphysics (Oxford, 1940).F. M. Cornford, Plato's Theory of Knowledge (London, 1935).--, Plato 's Cosmology (London, 1937).--, Plato and Parmenides (London, 1939).R. H. S. Crossman , Plato Today (London, 1937).J. Dewey, Art as Experience (New York, 1934).E. R. Dodds, The Greeks and the Irrational (Berkeley, 1951).J. A. Elias, '''Socratic'' vs. "Platonic" Dialectic', Journal of the History of

Philosophy, 6 (1968), 205-16.J. N. Findlay, Plato: The Written and Unwritten Doctrines (New York, 1974).W. Fite, The Platonic Legend (New York , 1934).E. Frank, Platon und die sogenannten Pythagoriier (Halle, 1923).P. Friedlander, Plato: An Introduction , trans. Hans Meyerhoff (New York,

1958).--, Plato : The Dialogues, First Period (New York, 1958).K. von Fritz , 'Zur Frage der esoterischen Philosophie Platons', Archiv fir

Geschichte der Philosophie, XlIX (1967),255-68.K. Gaiser , Platons ungeschriebene Lehre (Stuttgart, 1963).C. Allen Garside, 'Plato and Women', Feminist Studies , 2 (1975),131-8.T. Gould , Platonic Love (New York and London, 1963).--, 'Plato's Hostility to Art', Arion, III (1964), 70-91.G. Grote, Plato and the other Companions of Sokrates (London, 1865).G . M. A. Grube , Plato 's Thought (London, 1935).N. Gulley, Plato's Theory of Knowledge (London, 1962).

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J. E. Harrison, Themis (London , 1912).E. A. Havelock, A Preface to Plato (Cambridge, Mass., 1963).G. S. Kirk and J. E. Raven, The Presocratic Philosophers (Cambridge, 1957).H. J. Kramer, Arete bei Platon und Aristoteles (Heidelberg, 1959).R. B. Levinson, In Defense of Plato (Cambridge, Mass., 1953).1. M. Linforth, 'Telestic Madness in Plato , Phaedrus 244DE' , University of

California Publications in Classical Philology, XIII (1944-50) , 163-72.J. Livingston Lowes, The Road to Xanadu (Boston, 1927).W. Lutoslawski, The Origin and Growth of Plato 's Logic (2nd edn, London ,

1905).1. Murdoch , The Fire and the Sun: Why Plato Banished the Artists (Oxford,

1977).M. P. Nilsson, A History of Greek Religion (2nd edn, Oxford, 1949).W. J. Oates, Plato 's View of Art (New York, 1972).M. H. Partee, 'Plato's Banishment of Beauty', Journal of Aesthetics and Art

Criticism, XXVIII (1970), 209-22.--, 'Plato on the Rhetoric of Poetry', Journal ofAesthetics and Art Criticism,

XXXIII (1974), 203-12.--, Plato 's Poetics: the Authority of Beauty (Utah, 1982).J. Pieper, Enthusiasm and Divine Madness: The Platonic Dialogue Phaedrus,

trans . R. & C. Winston (New York, 1964).K. Popper , The Open Society and Its Enemies (4th edn, Princeton, 1962).J. H. Randall, Jr, Plato: Dramatist of the Life of Reason (New York, 1970).L. Robin , La Pensee grecque (Paris, 1923).R. Robinson, 'Plato's Consciousness of Fallacy', Mind, N. S. 51 (1942),97-114.--, Plato 's Earlier Dialectic (2nd edn, Oxford, 1953).A. K. Rogers, The Socratic Problem (New Haven, 1933).S. Rosen, Plato's Symposium (New Haven, 1968).W. D. Ross, Plato's Theory of Forms (Oxford, 1951).G. Ryle, Plato 's Progress (Cambridge, 1966).G. Santayana, Reason in Art (New York, 1934).P. Shorey, What Plato Said (6th edn, Chicago, 1965).H. L. Sinaiko, Love, Knowledge and Discourse in Plato: Dialogue and Dialectic in

Phaedrus, Republic. Parmenides (Chicago, 1965).R. Kent Sprague, 'Socrates' Safest Answer, Phaedo 100d', Hermes, XCVI

(1968-69), 632-5.J. Stenzel, Plato 's Method of Dialectic, trans. D. J. Allan (Oxford, 1940).A. E. Taylor , Plato: the Man and his Work (4th edn, London , 1937).--, Socrates. The Man and his Thought (New York, 1953).H. S. Thayer, 'Plato's Quarrel with Poetry: Simonides', Journal ofthe History of

Ideas, 36 (1975), 3-26.--, 'Plato on the Morality of Imagination', Review ofMetaphysics , 30 (1977),

594-618 .W. J. Verdenius, Mimesis: Plato's Doctrine ofArtistic Imitation and its Meaning

for us (Leiden, 1949).L. Vel '7'v i, 'The Quarrel between Poetry and Philosophy', Philosophical

Forum, 1i (1970-71), 200-12.G. Vlastos, 'Socratic Knowledge and Platonic "Pessimism''', Philosophical

Review, 66 (1957), 226-38.

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G. Vlastos, 'Justice and Happiness in the Republic', in Plato II: Ethics. Politics.and Philosophy, ed. Vlastos (New York , 1971).

--, ed., Plato. A Collection of critical essays. Vol. I: Metaphysics andEpistemology. Vol. II: Ethics. Politics. and Philosophy of Art and Religion(Princeton , 1973).

A. Wedberg, Plato's Philosophy of Mathematics (Stockholm, 1955).R. Weingartner, 'Vulgar Justice and Platonic Justice', Philosophy and

Phenomenological Research, 25 (1964-65), 248-52.--, The Unity of the Platonic Dialogue. The Cratylus, the Protaqoras, the

Parmenides (Indianapolis, 1973).N. P. White, Plato on Knowledge and Reality (New York , 1976).J. Wild, Plato's Modern Enemies and the Theory ofNatural Law (Chicago, 1953).F. Yartz, 'Infinite Regress and the Sense World in Plato', South-West Journal of

Philosophy, 6 (1975), 17-28.Zeller, Philosophie der Griechen (5th edn, Leipzig, 1922).

Index Nominum

Adam, J. 167, 241 n.26Aeschylus 4,8, 127, 130, 166,217Anaxagoras 189, 190Anaximander 148Annas, J. 247, n.11Apelt , O. 91,243 n.11Aquinas, St Thomas 44,78,227-8,250

n.l6Arcesilaus 45Aristophanes 6, 41, 70, 110, 130, 132,

136, 246 n.25Aristotle I, 8, 11,42,45,49 ,52,64,72, 103,

107, 110, 11 2, 118, 125, 130, 134, 140,156, 157, 162, 171 , 187, 199,212, 225,229, 248 n.ll , 249 n.3, 251 n.19

Aristoxenus 64Ast, F. 160,243 n.20Auerbach, E. 2Augustine, St 91,92,102,104,110,152,

245 n.l3

Bacon, F. 76, 197, 200, 242 n.3Barker, E. 247 n.l2, 248 n.l4Baumgarten, A. 226Bedu-Addo, J. T. 251 n.24Bergson, H. 70Bosanquet, B. 241 n.26Bradley, F. H. 234,251 n.26Brehier, E. 96Brochard, V. 243 n.l7Browning, R. 35, 229Burke, E. 103, 177Burnet, J. 41,240 nn.4,9

Cambridge Platonists 83, 88Campbell, L. 63, 160,240 n.26, 241 n.26,

242 n.34, 243 n.18Cassirer, E. 2, 108, 246 n.3Cherniss, H. 112,247 n.7Coleridge, S. 235, 242 n.lOCollingwood, R. G. 58,241 n.26Condorcet , Marqu is de 102Copern icus, N. 225

Cornford , F. M. 147, 148, 167, 168,241n.25, 246 n.30

Couturat, L. 94,95,96,243 nn.l6,19,21,245 n.14

Croiset, A. 95Crossman, R. H. S. 25,76,101 ,121 ,155 ,

175, 220, 234, 246 n.2

Democritus 188Descartes, R. 23,47, 225Des Places, E. 243 n.20Deuschle, J. 94,243 n.16Dewey, J. 18Dilthey, W. 80,235Doring, A. 94, 96. 243 n.21Dryden, J. 76

Ede1, A. 235Edelstein, L. 77, 242 n.7, 250 n.l3Einstein, A. 206Emerson, R. W. 83Empedocles 189,245 n.11Erasmus 143Eryximachus 6, 70, 136Euclid 61, 133, 225Euripides 80, 130, 166, 171-2,245 n.15

Ficino, M. 245 n.l9Findlay, J. N. 7,47-8,50,58,60,71 ,75,

76,94,107 -8,111-8,119,147,155 ,165 ,171 , 175, 176, 191, 225, 239 n.8, 241nn.20,21, 242n.2, 243n.22, 244n.29, 246n.30, 248 n.ll, 249 n.8, 250 n.15, 251n.30

Fite, W. 25, 76, 101 , 140Forsyth, P. Y. 246 n.28Frank, E. 244 n.7Freud, S. 205, 225Friedlander, P. 43,241 n.ll, 242 n.6, 246

n.31, 247 nn.5,7, 248 nn.15,10, 249nn.I ,7

Fritz, K. von 112, 244 n.27

256

Index Nominum 257

Frutiger , P. 76,77,91 ,92-100, 106, 108,119, 120, 131, 133, 155, 160, 165, 171,176, 194, 196, 242 n.9, 244 n.22, 245nn.11,14, 250 n.l2, 251 n.22

Gaiser, K. 71, 112,244 n.28, 251 n.30Gar side, C. A. 247 n.11Ghiselin, B. 249 n.9GOdel, K. 232Goethe , J. W. 82, 210Goldschmidt, V. 167Gorgias 30, 136Gould, T. 248 n.l2, 249 nn.l4,15Graves, R. 15, 87Grote , G. 33, 43, 87, 131, 160, 234, 240

n.IO, 249 n.8, 251 nn.23,25Grube , G. M. A. 251 n.21Gulley, N. 251 n.24

Hadamard, J. 249 n.9Harrison, J. E. 15,87 ,239 n.l5, 240 n.17Havelock, E. 223, 250 n.llHegel,G . W.F. 79,94,102,107,120,176,

218,242 n.6, 250 n.14Hempel, C. G. 61, 114Heraclitus 104, 189Hermann , K. F. 160Hesiod 3, 5, 8, 102, 104, 109, 158, 165,

180,211Hindemith, P. 22Hippias 69Hirzel, R. 94, 95Hobbes, T. 156, 159Homer 3,4,5,6,8, 126, 157, 158,211Hosking, G. 251 n.20Hume, D. 150, 248 n.9Husserl, E. 60, IIIHuxley, A. 173, 181 ,216

Isocrates 2

James, C. V. 251 n.20James, W. 80, 190,226,235Jowett, B. 95, 106, 117, 122, 147, 241

n.26, 242 n.34, 244 n.3Jung, C. G. 80, 89, 213, 235, 249 n.2

Kant , I. 56,80,83,89,90,92,94,97,120,130-1 , 175, 190,206 ,225,241 n.22

Kierkegaard, S. 85, 227Kipling, R. 19, 177Koestler, A. 249 n.9Kramer, H. J. 71, 112, 244 n.28Kuhn, T. 232

La Mettrie, J. 225Lee, H. D. F. 109Leibniz, G. W. 23, 47, 89, 226Levinson, R. B. 76,240 n.7, 241n.15, 247

n.IO, 250 n.l7Linforth, I. M. 239 n.11, 245 n.22Locke, J. 156Lowes, J. L. 242 n.lOLucretius 127Lutoslawski, W. 63, 240 n.l , 242 n.27,

243 n.l8Lysias 2, 6, 31, 70, 132, 137

Machiavelli, N. 209Malinowski, B. 15Mannheim, K. 246 n.3Marx, K. and Marxism 79-80,107,153,

169,217 ,219Mill, J. S. 150, 153Montaigne, M. de 94Murdoch, I. 226-7,239 n.4, 249 nn.l5,4Murray, G. 92Musaeus 8

Nagel, E. 226Nestle, W. 247 n.7Nettleship, R. 168,241 n.26, 248 n.14Newton, I. 206, 225Nietzsche, F. 80, 246 n.24Nilsson, M. P. 15,240 n.16

Parmenides 104, 186Partee, M. 7,239 n.IOPeirce, C. 234, 251 n.27Pepper, S. 235Pericles 31Pieper, J. 71,75,85,91-2,243 nn.12,13,

244 n.4, 245 n.12Pindar 8, 90, 211-2, 245 n.llPlotinus II , 39, 71, 81, 88, 90, 110, 124,

143, 205-6, 239 n.13, 246 n.26Poincare, H. 167Polus 30Polybius 103Popper, K. 9,25,41, 54, 75, 90, 100-11,

119, 121, 122, 131 , 152, 155, 159, 160,161,165-7,171 ,174,175 ,176,180,215,217,220,225,230,234,239 n.l2, 240n.2,241 n.16, 244 nn.23,24,26,5,6, 247 n.lO,250 n.l4

258 Index Nominum

Porphyry 88Praz , M. 84Prodicus 69, 242 n.33Protagoras 30, 126, 247 n.7Pythagoras 61, 118, 128, 133, 147, 180,

188, 189, 196

Raglan, Lord 15Randall, J. H. 248 n.8Reinhardt, K. 91, III , 244 n.2Richards, I. A. 167Ritter, C. 240 n.1Roberts, G. K. 251 n.29Robin, L. 240 n.I, 241 n.l6Robinson, R. 41,240 n.6, 241 n.12Rogers, A. K. 41,240 n.7Rosen, S. 245 n.24Rosenberg, A. 209Ross, W. D. 240 n.1Rousseau, J.-J. 100, 156Russell, B. 187, 215Ryle, G. 112

Sachs, C. 240 n.l8Santayana, G. 1,112,239 n.ISchiller, F. C. S. 94Schiller, J. C. W. 80,82,120,210-1 ,235,

249 n.2Schleiermacher, F. 136, 160Schopenhauer , A. 81, 83, 84, 85, 227Schuhl, P.-M. 77, 250 n.l3Sextus Empiricus 45, 81Shakespeare, W. 3, 10, 11-12, 130, 181 ,

212Shelley, P. B. 1,85, 143-4,233,246 n.27Shorey, P. 94, 108, 109, 167Simonides 6, 7Skemp, J. 241 n.25Sophocles 130, 217

Spinoza, B. 47, 79, 152, 205Steinhart , K. 160Stenzel, J. 41, 240 n.5Stewart, J. A. 75,76,82-90,93,95, 120,

122, ISS, 160, 165, 167, 168, 171, 191,225,242 n.9, 244 n.3, 250 n.12

Stocklein, P. 250 n.15Sydney, Sir P. I

Taylor, A. E. 27, 33, 41, 137, 240nn.20,21,4, 245 n.22, 248 n.9

Teichmiiller, G. 94,243 n.16, 250 n.12Thayer, H. S. 7,239 nn.9,10Thrasymachus 30, 31Tillich, P. 92, 243 n.l4, 244 n.4Tisias 30Tolstoy, L. 227,239 n.7Toynbee, A. 103, 176Tredennick, H. 2

Verdenius, W. 2Vico, F. 76, 242 n.4Vlastos, G. 240 n.J, 247 nn.4,7

Wedberg, A. 241 n.l8Weingartner, R. 247 n.4Wild, J. 247 n.9Willi,W. 77,92,94,95,243 n.15, 244n.4,

250 n.12Wittgenstein, L. 80, 100Wordsworth , W. 83,85

Xenophon 41,45, 110,241 n.14

Zaslavsky, R. 242 n.I, 243 n.20Zeller, E. 77,94, 120,218,243 n.l7, 250

nn.l2,14Zeno of Elea 45, 188

Index Locorum

Apology 117(l7C) 70; (22C) 12; (l8B-19C) 239 n.2;(24B) 14; (32BC) 117; (32CO) 117; (40)44; (410) 44, 129

Charmides(1630) 72

Cratylus 66, 70, 71(383A) 67; (385A) 67; (386AC) 67;(3860) 67; (3870) 67; (387E-388E) 67;(3890E) 67; (389E) 67; (39OC) 67;(3910) 67; (393A) 67; (3930) 67; (3980)67; (4000-401 A) 68; (4220E) 68;(423C) 68; (4230) 68; (424BC) 68;(4270) 68; (4320) 68; (433A) 68; (4350)68; (436A) 68; (4360) 68; (437AO) 68,69; (4380) 69; (438E) 69; (439B) 69;(4390) 69; (440A) 69; (44OC) 69, 248 n.4

Critias 112, 145, 181-3, 217, 246 n.28(1100) 182; (1140) 182

Crito 88

Epinomis 112, 162(978A) 22

Euthydemus(275E) 240 n.8; (217E) 72

Euthyphro(6A) 8, 92

Gorqias 25,28,29,31 ,36(447E-466A) 22; (4500) 26; (45IE) 26;(453A) 26; (453B) 26; (454E-455A) 26;(456BC)26; (456C) 27; (460B)27; (461B)27; (463A) 28; (4680) 28; (470A) 31;(480B) 28; (SOlE) 22; (503A) 29; (504E)29; (522E-527E) 242 n.30; (523A) 125,129, 242 n.5; (523B) 129; (523C-525A)127; (524BC) 245 n.l3; (524E-525A)122; (525C) 129,245 n.17; (526C) 124,135; (5260) 129; (527B) 92

Hippias Major(2850) 69; (298B) 20

Ion 5(533O-535A) 6; (535B) 6; (536B) 6

Laches(1880) 24, 239 n.6

Laws 17, 40, 48, 64, 65, 66, 70, 72, 73,74, 95, 112, 127, 145, 158-60, 162,243 n.16

Laws II(645A) 70; (653AB) 24; (654A IT.) 21;(654B) 239 n.3; (655B) 20; (6550) 18;(656B) 9, 20; (656C) 22; (656CE) 13;(656E) 19; (657B) 19; (658E-659C) 13,20; (659C) 20; (659CO) 12; (6590) 20;(660A) 12; (6610) 12; (662B) 13; (664B)13; (668A)22; (669AB) 13,24; (669E) 22;(670A) 22; (672B) 8, 246 n.32; (673A) 18

Laws III(676A-702A) 158; (680B) 158; (681CO)158; (682A) 12, 158; (684AB) 158;(689AB) 158; (69OC) 158; (694AB) 159;(697C) 159; (698B) 159; (7ooA-70IB)19, 159; (7000) 20; (7010) 159

Laws IV(713A-714A) 149, lSI ; (713B) lSI;(714A) 70; (719C) 12; (719CO) 245 n.23;(72IC) 244 n.8

Laws VI(1770) 110

Laws VII(7970) 103; (799A,E) 19; (80IB) 13;(80IBC) 245 n.23; (801OE) 24; (802B)13; (804E IT.) 249 n.5; (811) 73; (81IBC)13; (811CE) 242 n.29; (8120) 22; (816B)73; (8170) 13,24,36

Laws VIII(829C-830A) 24; (8290) 13

Laws IX(8700E) 242 n.31; (881B) 66, 129

Laws X(886C) 8; (890E-89IA) 73, 242 n.29;(8950) 71; (904C) 245 n.l6; (9040) 242n.31; (909A) 162

259

260 Index Locorum

Laws XI(935E-936A) 239 n.2

Laws XII(941B) 8; (944B) 12; (9570) 73; (959B)129, 242 n.31

Letters II(311CO) 128; (341C) 251 n.30

Letters VII 64(341BE) 48,73, 111, 112; (341C) 48,251n.30; (342A) 242 n.28; (342BC) 71;(342E) 71; (343A) 71; (344AC) 73;(344B) 71

Menexenus 112(237C) 248 n.l5

Meno 56, 98, 120, 123, 125, 136, 194,196-7

(75E) 12; (80E) 196; (81B) 212; (82B)196; (82B-85B) 196;(85) 248 n.lO; (85E)196; (86B) 196; (86E If.) 32; (98A) 195;(99) 12

Parmenides 33, 41, 48, 120, 185-9,241 n.l3

(1280) 240 n.9; (130B) 186; (1300) 186;(131B) 186; (131C) 186; (132) 186;(l33CO) 187; (l34CE) 187; (135C) 187;(1470) 71

Phaedo 4, 39, 47, 55, 56, 89, 91, 98, 99,120, 123, 125, 136, 137, 149, 160,164, 194-6, 243 n.16

(60E) 132; (61A) 2, 164; (61C-62C) 97;(7OC) 239 n.2; (7OC-12A) 196; (12E)195; (12E-77A) 97; (74A) 195; (740)195; (75-9) 56; (75A) 195; (75B) 195;(75E) 195, 197; (76CE) 196; (760) 193;(800) 135; (800-84B) 133; (80E-8IA)135; (81C-82B) 135; (82C) 135; (820­83C) 248 n.l3; (83A) 135; (830) 135;(83E) 135; (84A) 135; (84B) 135; (84E­85B) 132; (92E) 99; (97C-98E) 190;(990) 55; (990-10IE) 49; (I00A) 55;(IOOB) 56, 193; (100c) 56; (1000) 56;(I00E If.) 56; (1010) 32, 47, 56, 231;(1020) 39; (107C) 245 n.12; (1070) 129;(107O-115A) 242 n.30; (107E-108A)127; (10SA) 127; (10SAB) 127; (1090)124; (1IIBC) 125; (113A,0) 129; (I13E)129; (114AB) 129; (114C) 124, 135;(1140) 44, 129; (114E) 125

Phaedrus 5, 6, 25, 26, 29, 32, 33, 55, 95,124, 125, 143, ISS, 160, 163-4

(229C) 92; (23OC) 104;(230E If.) 30, 132,137; (237B If.) 137; (242C) 44; (243) 138;(243C If.) 133, 136; (244) 5; (244C) 70,133; (2440E) 8; (245A) 12,236; (245CO)

134,137; (246A) 138,203 ; (246A-2490)242 n.30; (247CE) 124, 135, 139; (248B)134; (248C) 124; (2480E) 135; (249A)124, 129, 135; (249B) 128, 247 n.7;(249BC) 124; (249BE) 124; (249C) 124,191; (250A) 124, 195; (250B,0) 124;(2500) 139; (251A) 141; (253C If.) 140;(256A) 124, 135; (257A) 124, 129;(257B If.) 29; (2580) 73; (259B) 164;(2590) 164; (261AB) 29; (263A) 30;(263B) 32, 33; (264C) 30; (265AB) 30,138; (2650) 30; (265O-266B) 30, 55;(265E) 30, 53; (266A) 30; (26SA) 30;(270A) 31; (273E) 31; (274C-275B) 163;(275A) 12, 195; (2750) 163, 242 n.29;(275E) 73, 163; (276A) 71; (276C) 73;(277B) 55; (277BC) 73; (277C) 55

Phi/ebus 18, 199(15C) 248 n.1; (16C-17A) 185; (17B) 69;(17C) 22; (17E) 192; (18B) 69,163; (34B)195; (39A If.) 123; (56A) 22; (56B) 34;(56C) 22; (62C) 20

Protagoras 5,6, 160-1,242 n.33, 247 n.8(3120) 35; (316E) 24; (319B) 35;(32OCIf.) 246 n.33; (322E) 12; (326AB)23; (329A) 73; (339BO) 6; (342A-347A)6; (345E) 6; (347C) 21; (347E) 7, 12;(361AC) 241 n.l3

Republic 4,5,7,17,27,33,39,40,56,64,65, 106, 112, 115, 117, 123, 128, 133,134, 136, 145, 156-8, 183, 229, 243n.16, 244 n.26

Republic I(3310) 43; (332B) 7

RepublicII(3590-36OB) 135, 164; (36OC) 164;(363 If.) 8; (364 If.) 246 n.32; (364BC) 8;(36SA) 164; (368E-369A) 157; (369B­374B) 156; (369C) 156, 160; (3120) 157;(377B) 9; (377E-III, 392C) 8; (379) 246n.32; (3790) 8; (380A) 8; (3800-3810)9,105

RepublicIII(3820) 246 n.l ; (386 If.) 9; (386C0) 244n.lO; (3910) 246 n.32; (393C) 9; (395B)9; (39SAB) 36; (398B) 166, 246 n.l;(3980) 19; (398E) 21; (399A) 21; (399C)21; (4OOA) 21; (4OOBC) 21; (4000) 19;(4OOE) 22; (401A) 24; (401B) 13;(401BC)20; (4010) 22; (402B) 20, 69; (411B) 20,21; (414B) 166; (4140-4150) 165;(414E) 165; (415A) 131; (415B) 166, 177;(415C) 109, 167; (4150) 167, 168;(4150E) 108, 166

Index Locorum 261

Republic IV(424B) 19; (424B) 20; (434BC) 109;(434E-44IC) 133, 134, 198,203; (435E)134;(437A) 237; (439E) 203; (440E) 203;(440AB) 203

Republic V(45IC-457C) 171; (45IE) 173; (452AC)175; (454) 49; (454A) 49, 55; (455 fT.)116; (458B) 64; (459) 172; (459BC) 166;(4590) 172; (4590-460B) 168; (460A)154,250 n.18; (46IC) 173; (46IE) 173,174; (469B) 110; (472CO) 229; (473C)175; (473CD) 175

Republic VI(499C) 108; (507CO) 204; (508A) 198;(508A-5090) 198; (508B) 139, 198;(5080) 198; (509B) 199; (509C) 199;(5090) 57, 200; (5090-51 IE) 198;(510-11) 233; (510B) 58; (510C) 57;(5100) 47,57; (510E) 62; (511) 49, 185;(51IA) 58, 62, 201; (5I1B) 58, 62, 192,201; (51IBC) 62; (511C) 57, 62, 115;(5110) 62, 201

Republic VII 123(514A) 57; (514A-517A) 198; (516C0)203; (517A) 202; (520AO) 203; (523 fT.)196; (525B) 248 n.2; (527C) 62; (530B)241 n.23; (531-3) 233; (53IB) 241 n.23;(531C) 39, 57, 63; (53IC -5390) 49;(5310) 63; (53IE) 63, 65; (533) 185;(533-4) 47; (533C) 62, 115,231 ; (534A)48; (5348) 63; (5398) 234

Republic VIII 172, 176, 182(544C) 176; (5440) 176; (545C) 176;(545C-IX576B) 175; (546) 118, 120, 175,180; (547) 109; (547E) 177; (549B) 177;(55OC) 177; (551C) 177; (553C) 178;(555E) 177; (556B) 178; (557B) 178;(5590) 178;(560A) 178, 180;(5610) 240n.19; (562E) 178; (566A) 178; (567E)178; (568A) 130; (568B) 36; (568C) 245n.15

Republic IX(572E) 178; (585C) 192; (588C) 222;(592AB) 108, 160

Republic X(595A) 10, 12; (596A) 192; (596B fT.) 7;(597C) 10; (598A) 10; (598C) II; (599B)37; (6OOCE) 12; (6ooE) 7; (602C) 12;(605B) 36; (607A) 36; (607C) 144, 238n.l; (607CO) 36; (61IB--612A) 133;(61IB--612C) 135; (611C) 135; (614A­6210) 242 n.30; (614C--616A) 129;(6140) 127; (615A) 125; (616C) 23;

(6170) 130, 137; (62IA) 124; (62IAB)130

Sophist 25,30,32,41 ,49,51 ,53,55(218C) 51; (2270) 51; (235B) 51; (235E­23M) 239 n.12, 239 n.14; (242C) 251n.28; (2440) 70;(246AC) 248n.5; (247C)284 n.7; (253A) 69; (253B) 23, 136;(253OE) 51; (259E) 248 n.6; (26IE) 72;(263B) 72; (264E) 51

Statesman 41,49, 51, 55, 136, 149-51(260A) 35; (261C) 51; (26IE) 52, 72;(262B) 52; (2620) 192; (262E) 51, 52;(267AC) 52; (2680 -273E) 52; (2680­274E) 149; (269C fT.) 102, 150; (269E)150; (270A) 150; (271B) 150;(271E) 150;(272BO) 151; (273E-2740) 52;(275A,B) 151;(277C) 138,236,241 n.25;(2770) 53, 189; (2780) 69; (279CO) 52;(2840) 53; (2858) 49; (2850) 52; (28M)50, 53; (287B-291O) 52; (2910) 53;(293B) 53; (293C) 74; (2930) 53

Symposium 6, 124, 136, 137, 143,204-5(18OC-185C) 245 n.20; (186E-187C) 23;(189B-193O) 132, 133, 141 ; (19IA) 141;(192C) 141; (l99C-201C) 141 ; (2010­212C) 133; (203A) 142; (205E-206A)142;(20M) 136; (206B) 142; (2070) 244n.8; (208C) 142; (2080) 244 n.9; (208E)204; (209A) 143; (210A) 205; (2IOA­212A) 143,204; (210B) 205; (2IOC) 205;(211) 185; (2118) 204, 205; (211C) 56, 97,205 n.33; (2110) 205; (212A) 205, 209;(2120) 21

Theaetetus 106, 199,202,222(152B) 123; (l548fT.) 197; (1578) 71;(158A) 71; (165E) 72; (168C) 72; (174E)106;(184C) 72; (198E) 195; (2020 fT.) 69;(20M) 24

Timaeus 22,23,64, 112, 113, 120, 125,133,136 ,144-9,150,152,181-3,201

(18A) 24; (l9A) 244 n.26, 247 n.IO;(22B)182;(22E) 145,246 n.8; (23B) 182;(25B)182; (25C) 182, 183; (28A) 192; (28C) 65,146; (29A) 149; (29B) 146; (29C) 242n.32; (29E) 152; (3IA) 146; (35B-360)146; (38C) 146; (39C) 102; (47CO) 24;(48B) 69; (49BC) 148; (51O-52C) 148,191;(520fT.) 148;(53C) 147; (55C) 148;(550) 148; (64A) 148; (69C) 134; (69C­720) 133; (70A) 134;(700) 133; (7ICO)133, 134; (7IE) 133, 135; (72AB) 134;(720) 134