Notes General reJDarks The references to Japanese books will follow the Japanese practice of mentioning the author's surname before his given name. As almost all Japanese books are published in Tokyo, only the publisher's name will be given.

Notes to the Introduction

1. Milton C. Albrecht, 'Art as an Institution', in Milton C. Albrecht, James M. Barnett and Meson Griff(eds), Sociology if Art and Literature: A Reader (London: Gerald Duckworth, 1970).

2. R. Wellek and A. Warren, Theory if Literature (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1978). See the chapter on 'Literature and Sociology', pp. 95--6.

3· G. A. Huaco, 'The Sociological Model', in Milton C. Albrecht et al. (eds), op. cit.

4· L. Goldmann, 'The Sociology ofLiterature', in Milton C. Albrecht et al. (eds), op. cit.

5· For further information on this subject see below, chapter 6. 6. For further information on this subject see below, chapters 2 and 3· 7· Kamei Hideo, Ito Sei no sekai (Kodansha, 196g).

Notes to Chapter One: The Meiji Literary World

1. The term 'MeijiJapan' is used here as defined by M. B.Jansenin M. B. Jansen (ed.), Changing Japanese Attilulks toward Modernisation (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969) (referred to hereafter as Changing Attitudes) p. 77, to describe the period in Japanese history between the Restoration and 1900. It does not cover the whole of the actual Meiji period, which ended in 1912, but it was around 1goo that, according to Jansen, the distinctive character of Japan as a modern state became clearly recognisable. What emerged at this time established the nation's course during the next period of 'Imperial Japan'- a period that lasted until defeat at the end of the Second World War.

2. J. Hall, 'Changing Conceptions of the Modernization of Japan', in M. B. Jansen (ed.), Changing Attitudes, pp. 23-4.

3· M. Bradbury, The Social Context if Modern English Literature (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971) pp. g-1 1.

135

Notes

4· For a detailed description of the various types of popular literature in the Tokugawa period, see D. Keene, World within Walls (London: Seeker & Warburg, 1976).

5· Ibid., p. 397· 6. According to Keene a change occurred in that system in the late Edo period:

'In the event the book was successful the publisher made additional payment to the author, thus anticipating the modern system of advance and royalties' (ibid., p. 410).

7. Calligraphy was one of the traditionally acknowledged skills and people who possessed this ability were often employed as professional letter writers.

8. Ito Sei, Bungei tokuhon, in Ito Sei ::.enshu (Collected Works oflto Sei), vol. 17 (Shinchosha, 1973) pp. 145-50. As most quotations used here are taken from this edition of his collected works, the latter will be referred to hereafter simply as Zenshu.

g. Kosaka Masaaki, Japanese Thought in the Meiji Era (Pan-Pacific Press, 1958) p. 54· 10. M. Ryan, Japan's First Modern Novel (New York: Columbia University Press,

1967) p. 64. 11. Ito Sei, Bungei tokuhon, in Zenshu, vol. 17, pp. 147-53. 12. The term comes from Tokutomi Soho's book Shin Nihon no seinen (New

Japanese Youth) which was published in 1887 and aroused much interest among the young generation. The same year Tokutomi Soho also founded a society, called the Min'yiisha, which started publishing a magazine Kokumin no tomo (Friend of the People) devoted to the propagation of the early Meiji ideals of democracy and individualism. With many intellectuals and young writers contributing to the magazine it became a focus of Meiji cultural life.

13. The novel has recently been translated into English by K. Strong under the title Footprints in the Snow (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1971).

14. K. Pyle, The New Generation in Meiji Japan: Problems of Cultural Identity I88S­I89s (Stanford, Cal.: Stanford University Press, 1969) p. 78.

15. Maruyama Masao, 'Patterns of Individuation', in M. B. Jansen (ed.), Changing Attitudes, p. 510.

16. According to Chie Nakane, the relationship between two individuals of upper and lower status forms the basic structural principle of Japanese society and gives it its traditionally vertical character. The relationship between master and his disciple, or between the university professor, his assistants and his students, is constructed along a vertical line. 'The professor is closer to his assistant and to his students than he is to any of his fellow professors'- Chie Nakane, Japanese Society (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1970) p. 38.

17. Chie Nakane, ibid., p. 118. 18. Hirotsu Kazuo, whose father Hirotsu Ryuro was a member of the Koyo mon,

mentions in his memoirs Nengetsu no ashioto (Kodansha, 1969) Izumi Kyoka, Oguri Fuyo, Yanagawa Shun'yo, Tayama Katai and Tokuda Shusei as Koyo's shosei. Hirotsu Ryuro had his own shosei and students, one of whom, for a time, was Nagai Kafii.

19. Ito Sei, 'Rise of Naturalism', Japan Qjlarter!J, vol. 2, no. 4 (1955) p. 510. 20. The incident is mentioned in Hirotsu Kazuo's memoirs, Nengetsu no ashioto, p. 41. 2 1. Chie N akane, op. cit., p. 42. 22. Ito Sei, Kyudiisha to ninshikisha (Shinchosha, 1962) p. 159· 23. The phenomenon of 'cliquishness' is also mentioned by Ivan Morris in his

introduction to Modern Japanese Stories, ed. Ivan Morris (Tokyo: Charles E.

For

Notes 137

Tuttle, I962) p. I7: 'The tendency of writers and others to band together in groups or societies derives directly from the pre-modern period, when the individual young artist had scant chance of recognition unless he could be identified with some established family or school that would give him its protection and encouragement. This relates to the feudal tradition of a close relationship between master and pupil, which even today plays an important part in literature and other fields.'

24. Maruyama Masao, Nihon no shiso (Iwanami Shinsho, I96I) p. I29· 25. K. Pyle, The New Generation in Meiji Japan, p. IS· 26. Ito Sei, Shosetsu no hoho (Kawade Shobo, I956) p. 8I: 2 7. Gaigo Gakko- Tokyo School ofF oreign Languages. The Russian department

of the School had originated as a part of the Institute for the Training of Official Interpreters, founded during the Tokugawa regime. At the school some of the students were granted scholarships. In the Russian department most of the instructors were Russian, and the courses offered were almost the same as those taught in Russian secondary schools. All subjects were taught in Russian.

28. Nakamura Mitsuo, Modern Japanese Fiction, vol. I (Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai, I968) P· 42·

29. Quoted by Odagiri Hideo, Bungakushi (Tokyo Keizai Shinposha, I969) p. ISO· 30. M. Ryan, Japan's First }love/, p. I47· 3 I . I to Sei, Shosetsu no hoho, p. 81. 32. Uchida Roan, Bungakusha to naru ho, in Gendai Nihon bungaku ::.enshu, vol. 4I

(Kaizosha, I930) pp. 376-436. 33. Ito Sei, Shosetsu no hoho, p. 81. 34· One of the famous maxims enunciated by General Araki Sadao, quoted by

Maruyama Masao in Thought and Behaviour in Modern Japanese Politics (London: Oxford University Press, 1963) p. 8.

35· Fukutake Tadashi, Man and Sociery in Japan (The University of Tokyo Press, I962) chapter I, passim.

36. Ito Sei, Shosetsu no hoho, pp. Ig6-7.

Notes to Chapter Two: Naturalist 'Avant-garde' and the Fortnation of the Modern 'Bundan'

I. H. Passin, 'Modernisation and the Japanese Intellectual', in M. B. Jansen (ed.), Changing Attitudes, p. 480.

2. One can observe a similar changing social pattern in the literary communities. While the I88os were still dominated by the writers of samurai origin (Tsubouchi Shoyo, Futabatei Shimei, Mori Ogai, etc.), many of the Bungakukai writers in the I89os either came from Tokyo shitamachi (down­town) merchant families, or lived in the Nihonbashi-Kyobashi districts (the down-town shopping areas ofTokyo), such as Higuchi Ichiyo; the naturalist writers of the I900s were mainly of country origin. Nagai Kafii in his polemical debates with the leading naturalist critic and writer Masamune Hakucho in I 926 called him an 'unlettered rustic'.

3· H. Passin, 'Modernisation and the Japanese Intellectual', in M. B. Jansen (ed.), Changing Attitudes, p. 470.

4· Kato Shiiichi, 'Japanese Writers and Modernisation', in M. B.Jansen(ed.), Changing Attitudes, p. 426.

Notes

5· Maruyama Masao, 'Patterns oflndividuation', in M. B.Jansen ( ed.), Changing Attitudes, p. 498.

6. Ibid., p. 508. 7· K. Pyle, The New Generation in Meiji Japan, pp. I83-99· 8. R. Williams, The Long Revolution (New York: Harper & Row, I966) p. 109. 9· M. Bradbury, The Social Context rif Modern English Literature, pp. I 7-I8.

10. Arima Tatsuo, The Failure rif Freedom: a Portrait of Modern Japanese Intellectuals (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, I969)p. 6.

II. Ito Sei, Bungei tokuhon, in Zenshii., vol. I7, p. I56. I2. Kokuminha-the group of writers gathered round Tokutomi Soho. Kunikida

Doppo was one of the main contributors to Tokutomi's magazine Kokumin no to mo.

I 3· Bungakukai- a literary group gathered round the coterie magazine of the same name which appeared between I89g-8. The founder members included Shimazaki Toson, Kitamura Tokoku, Hoshino Tenchi, Ueda Bin and others. Among the contributors were Higuchi Ichiyo and Tayama Katai. Almost all members of Bungakukai were Christians at one time. Their main objective as a group was a search for the spiritual values of the West through studies of Western Renaissance romantic literature, and this made them quite distinct from Ken'yii.sha.

I4· Quoted in Yoshida Seiichi, Gendai Nihon bungakushi (Chikuma Shobo, I965) p. 62.

I5· Ito Sei, Shosetsu no hoho, p. 82. 16. Maruyama Masao, 'Patternsoflndividuation', in M.B.Jansen (ed.), Changing

Attitudes, p. 508. I 7. Nakamura Mitsuo, Modern Japanese Fiction, vol. I, pp. 7-8. I8. Ibid., p. 4· I9- Ibid., PP· 2-g. 20. Ito Sei, Bungaku nyii.mon, in Zenshii., vol. 2 I, p. 3 I 7. 21. Ito Sei, ShOsetsu no hoho, pp. 82-3. 22. Nakamura Mitsuo, Modern Japanese Fiction, vol. I, p. I g. 23. Ito Sei, Shosetsu no hoho, p. 73· 24. Maruyama Masao, 'Patternsoflndividuation', in M. B.Jansen (ed.), Changing

Attitudes, p. 5I2. 25. Ito Sei, ShOsetsu no hohO, p. 73· 26. Hirano Ken, 'Shish6setsu niritsu haihan' (The Antinomy of the 1-novel), in

Hirano Ken, Geijutsu to Jisseikatsu (Shinchosha, I964) pp. I7-I9- This is an important article discussing the history and theory of the 1-novel.

27. Ito Sei, Shosetsu no hohO, p. 72. 28. Ibid., PP· 74-5. 29. Ibid., pp. 6g-4. go. Nakamura Mitsuo, Modern Japanese Fiction, p. 5· 3I. Ito Sei, Shosetsu no hohO, p. 74·

Notes to Chapter Three: From Flight to Self-clestructioa

I. For further discussion on the shinkyo shosetsu see chapter 4· 2. Ito Sei, Bungaku nyii.mon, in Zenshii., vol. 2 I, p. 330.

498.

Notes 139

3· Yamamoto Kenkichi, Shishosetsu sakka ron (Kadokawa Shoten, I9S7)· 4· Translated from Kasai Zenzo, Ko o tsurete, in Nihon bungaku zenshu, vol. 3I

(Shueisha, Ig6g). S· Ito Sei, 'Kindai Nihonjin no hasso no shokeishiki.' The quotation is taken from

a partial translation of this essay entitled 'Modes ofThought in Contemporary Japan', Japan Q.uarter{y, vol. I 2 ( Ig6s) P· soB. All quotations from this article will be referred to hereafter as 'Modes of Thought', JQ..

6. Ito Sei, 'Modes of Thought', JQ., p. sn. 7. 'Logic of negation' is a term used by the historian lenaga Saburo in his work

Nihon shisoshi ni okeru hitei ronri no hattatsu (The Development of the Logic of Negation in the History of Japanese Thought), and with it Ienaga defines the categories of negation in Japanese Buddhism.

B. Kato Shiiichi, A History qf Japanese Literature: The First Thousand Years (Kodansha, I979; London: Macmillan, I979) p. I6.

g. Ito Sei, Shosetsu no hoho, p. I04. IO. See Ito Sei's work Tobo dorei to kamm shinshi, in Gendai bungaku taikei, v.ol. 49

(Chikuma Shobo, Ig6s). The expression kamen shinshi is rather elliptical and 'gentleman in a mask' is only an approximate translation. It could equally denote someone hiding behind a 'gentleman's mask'.

I I. Ibid., P· 400. I2. Ito Sei, Shosetsu no hohO, p. I02. I3· Ito Sei, 'Modes of Thought', JQ., p. soB. I4· The critics who developed the theory of histrionics in the !-novel are Hirano

Ken, Ito Sei, Nakamura Mitsuo and Fukuda Tsuneari. IS· Ito Sei, Honshitsu iten ron, in .<;.enshu, vol. I 7, pp. 46-so. I6. Hirano Ken, 'Shish<isetsu niritsu haihan', in Geijutsa to Jisseikatsu, p. 41. I7· Ito Sei, 'Modes of Thought', JQ., p. sog. I8. Ibid., p.sog. Ig. Fukuda Tsuneari, 'Kamura lsota', in Fukuda Tsuneari hyoronshu, vol. I3

(Shinchosha, Ig66) p. I37· 20. Dazai Osamu, Villon's Wife, in D. Keene (ed.), Modern Japanese Literature

(Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, I9S7)· 2 I. Dazai Osamu, No Longer Human; quoted by Minami Hiroshi, Psychology of the

Japanese People (University of Tokyo Press, I97I} p. 71. 22. Ito Sei, Bungaku nyumon, in .<;.enshu, vol. 2 I, p. 336. 23. Hirano Ken, 'Kamura lsota to Kasai Zenzo', in the introduction to Nihon

bungaku zenshu, vol. 3 I. For further criticism of the feudal aspects oflife in the bundan see chapters 6 and 7.

24. Ito Sei, ShOsetsu no hohO, I I I- I 2.

Notes to Chapter Four: Ia Search of Logic aad Social Hllrmoay

1. Ito Sei, ShOsetsu no hohO, pp. 7I-86. 2. Ito Sei, 'Modes of Thought', JQ., p. so3. 3· Ibid., p. so3. 4· Ibid., pp. 503-4. S· Ibid., p. so4. 6. See above chapter 3·

qo Notes

7. Ito Sei, Tobo dorei to kamen shinshi, in Gendai bungaku taikei, vol. 49, p. 399· 8. Ito Sei, Shosetsu no hoho, p. 2oi. 9· See his work Fushinchu (Under Construction, I910).

10. Ito Sei, Shosetsu no hoho, p. 202. II. Ibid., P· 203. I2. Ibid., p. 204. I3· Ibid., p. 204. I4. Ito Sei, 'Modes of Thought', ]Q., p. 505. I5. Among the close associates of Natsume Soseki were Nogami Toyoichiro,

Nogami Yaeko, Terada Torahiko, Watsuji Tetsuro, Komiya Toyotaka, Akutagawa Ryiinosuke and Abe Jiro.

I6. Even after Soseki had made a name for himself as a professional writer, he kept up an abnormally high rate of production. He worked more than ordinary health could possibly bear, and early started suffering from severe stomach ulcers, which became the ultimate cause of his death at the age of fifty.

I7· Ito Sei, 'Modes of Thought', ]Q., pp. 504---9· I8. Maruyama Masao, Nihon no shiso, p. 74· I9· Ito Sei, 'Modes of Thought', JQ., p. 506. 20. Ito Sei, Bungaku nyumon, in .<:,enshu, vol. 2I, p. 348. 21. Ito Sei, 'Kindai nihonjin no hasso no shokeishiki', in Gendai Nihon bungalu

zenshu, vol. 44 (Chikuma Shobo, I955) pp. 285-6. 22. Arima Tatsuo, The Failure rif Freedom, pp. IOI-2. 23. Ito Sei, Shosetsu no hoho, p. 2I6. 24. Hirano Ken, 'Shishosetsu niritsu haihan', in Geijutsu to Jisseikatsu, p. 21.

25. Ito Sei, Shosetsu no hoho, p. 2I6. 26. Ibid., p. 2I7. 27. This process is fully discussed by Hirano Ken in Waga sengo bungakushi, in

Hirano Ken zenshu, vol. 4 (Shinchosha, I975) pp. 236-57. 28. Hirano Ken, 'Shishosetsu niritsu haihan', in Hirano Ken, Geijutsu to

Jisseikatsu, p. 26. 29. Translated by E. Seidensticker in D. Keene (ed.), Modern Japanese Literature. 30. Hirano Ken, 'Shishosetsu niritsu haihan', in Geijutsu to Jisseikatsu, p. 28. 31. Ito Sei, Bungaku nyumon, in .<:,enshu, vol. 2 I, pp. 365-73. 32. Ito Sei, Honshitsu iten ron, in .<:,enshu, vol. J7, pp. 47-50. 33· Ito Sei, Bungaku nyumon, in .<:,enshu, vol. 2I, p. 373· 34· Ibid., p. 374· 35· Tsurumi Shunsuke and Kuno Osamu, Gendai Nihon no shiso (I wan ami Shinsho,

I956) P· 9· 36. Ito Sei, Shosetsu no hoho, p. 2 I 7. Tsurumi Shunsuke, in Tsurumi Shunsuke and

Kuno Osamu, Gendai Nihon shiso, pp. I4, I6, 28, writing about Mushanokoji's failure, points out two factors: the imperfect, disappointing human relations between the members of the village, and Mushanokoji's lack of understanding of the laws of capitalistic economics.

37· Ito Sei, Shosetsu no hoho, pp. 2I7-I8. 38. Ibid. 39· Ito Sei, 'Kindai nihonjin no hasso no shokeishiki', in Gendai Nihon bungaku

zenshu, vol. 44, p. 286. 40. Ibid. 4 I. I to Sei considered the appearance of a writer like Miyamoto Yuriko to be part

Notes 141

of the natural development from the Taisho concept of individual harmony towards the Showa concept of social harmony. By contrast, Hirano Ken, for instance, felt that the gap between the concept of art in the Taisho and Showa periods, between the humanism of Shirakaba and the socially-engaged proletarian literature, was so deep, that the existence of Miyamoto Yuriko should be considered an exception rather than the rule in the development of

Japanese literature (Hirano Ken, Waga sengo bungakushi, in Hirano Ken zenshu, vol. 4, p. 24I).

42. Ito Sei, 'Modes of Thought', JQ, p. 507.

Notes to Chapter Five: In Search of Beauty

1. Ito Sei, 'Modes of Thought', ]Q., p. 5I3. 2. Ito Sei, Bungaku nyumon, in Zenshu, vol. 2I, pp. 3I8-I9-3· The title Uta andon actually means a paper lantern, on which for decorative

reasons a slip of paper with the text of a traditional uta (poem or song) is stuck.

4· Ito Sei, Shosetsu no hoho, p. I97· 5· Shinkankakuha, a literary movement formed by a group of writers, including

Yokomitsu Riichi and Kawabata Yasunari, who gathered round the ma­gazine Bungei jidai (founded in I924).

6. Ito Sei, Shosetsu no hoho, p. I99· 7· Ibid., P· I98. 8. Ibid., P· I98. 9· Ibid., p. 2oo.

IO. Ibid., p. 2IO. II. Ibid., P· 2IO. I 2. Ito Sei, Bungaku nyumon, in Zenshu, vol. 2 I, p. 346. I3. Ito Sei, Shosetsu no hoho, p. 2I2. I4. Ibid., p. 209. I5. W. Norman (trans!.), Hell Screen, in D. Keene (ed.), Modern Japanese Literature,

P· 331. I6. Ito Sei, Bungaku nyumon, in Zenshu, vol. 2I, pp. 3I8-22. I 7. I to Sei, Kindai Nihon no sakka no sosaku hoho, in Zenshu, vol. I 7, p. I 65. I8. Ibid., pp. I60-I. . I9. On the changing conditions in the bundan after the Russo-Japanese war, see

chapter 2. 20. Ito Sei, Kindai Nihon no sakka no sosaku hohO, in Zenshu, vol. I 7, p. I 70.

21. See chapter 3· 22. Hirano Ken, Waga sengo bungakushi, in Hirano Ken zenshu, vol. 4, p. 203. 23. Ibid., p. 204. 24. Ibid., p. 204. 25. See for example Akagi Kohei's article 'Yiito bungaku no bokumt:tsu'

(Eradication of the Literature of Dissipation, I926). In the same article he criticised the works of both the naturalist !-novelist Chikamatsu Shiiko and of

some aesthetic school writers like Goto Sueo and Kubota Man taro. In his view both tended to pursue purely sensual effects, pampering to popular taste in a fashion not dissimilar to the pornographic type (harubon) ofEdo period gesaku literature.

Notes

26. Nakamura Mitsuo, Modem Japanese Fiction, vol. 1, p. 11. 27. Ito Sei, SliiJsetsu no liiJ!iiJ, p. 207. 28. Ibid., p. 209. 29. Ibid., p. 205. 30. Kato Shiiichi, 'japanese Writers and Modernisation' in M. B. jansen (ed.),

Changing Attitudes, p. 432 n. 31. Ito Sei, SliiJsetsu no liiJ!iiJ, p. 2o6. 32. Ibid., p. 208. 33· Ito Sei, 'Kindai nihonjin no hassii no shokeishiki', in Gendai Nihon bungaku

z;enshii, vol. 44, p. 207. 34· E. Seidensticker, Kafi the Scribbler (Stanford, Cal.: Stanford University Press,

1965) P· 123· 35· Arima Tatsuo, The Failure of Freedom, p. 168. 36. Ibid., p. 153· 37· On the impact of the proletarian literary movement see chapter 6. 38. Ito Sei, 'Modes of Thought', JQ., p. 505. 39· Ito Sei, SliiJsetsu no holiiJ, p. 212. 40. Ibid., p. 213-14. 41. Ibid., p. 214.

Notes to Chapter Sbu The Revolutio-ry Ideal

1. Ito Sei, 'Kindai nihonjin no hassi> no shokeishiki', in Gendai Nihon bungaku z;enshii., vol. 44, p. 2g6.

2. Maruyama Masao, 'Patterns oflndividuation' in M. B.Jansen (ed.), Changing Attitudes, p. 521.

3· Arima Tatsuo, The Failure of Freedom, p. 175. 4· Ibid., p. 176. 5· Quoted in Maruyama Masao, Nihon no shiso, p. 81. 6. Ito Sei, SliiJsetsu no liiJho, p. 103. 7· Maruyama Masao, Nihon no shiso, p. 81. 8. Ibid., p. 75· 9· Maruyama Masao, 'Patterns oflndividuation' in M. B. jansen (ed.), Changing

Attitudes, p. 522. 10. Arima Tatsuo, The Failure of Freedom, p. 179. 11. Ito Sei, Tobo dorei to kamen shinshi, in Gendai bungaku taikei, vol. 49, p. 399· 12. Hirano Ken, 'Kobayashi Takiji to puroretaria bungaku', in Nihon no kindai

bungaku (Yomiuri Shinbunsha, 1964) p. 233· 13. Hirano Ken, Bungaku-SiiiJwajii.nen z;engo, in Hirano Ken z;enshii., vol. 4, pp. 428-g. 14. Ito Sei, SliiJsetsu no liiJ!iiJ, p. 109. 15. The concept of harmony rather than open conflict was also a central feature of

the legal system, and every effort was made by conciliators to prevent cases from coming into court. Seej. George, 'Law in Modernjapan', inj. H. Hall and R. K.Beardsley, TwelveDoorstoJapan (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965) p. 494·

16. Ito Sei, 'Kindai nihonjin no hassO no shokeishiki', in Gendai Nihon bungaku z;enshii., vol. 44• p. 28g.

17. Minami Hiroshi, Psychology of the Japanese People, p. 71.

Modem

.Notes 143

18. Ito Sei, 'Kindai nihonjin no ha.ssO no shokeishiki', in Gendai Nihon bungaku zenshu, vol. 44, p. 289.

19· Ito Sei, Shosetsu no hoho, P· 132· 20. Ibid., p. 133.

Not"s to Chapter Seven: Decline

1. Maruyama Masao, 'Patternsoflndividuation',in M. B.Jansen (ed.), Changing Attitudes, p. 517.

2. Ibid., p. 517. 3· Ibid., p. 518. 4· Ibid., p. 518. 5· Quoted in Hirano Ken, Bungaku- Showajunen zengo, in Hirano Ken zenshu, vol. 4,

P· 415· 6. Ibid., p. 420. 7. Ito Sei, 'Kindai nihonjin no hasso no shokeishiki', in Gendai Nihon bungaku

zenshu, vol. 44, p. 288. 8. Ito Sei, Kyudosha to ninshikisha (Shinchosha, 1962) p. 16g. 9· Shuppan kinenkai- a party commemorating publication of a work by a new

author, given by his literary friends and elders. 10. Oya Soichi, 'Bundan girudo no kaitaiki', in Showa hihyo taikei, vol. 1 (Bancho

Shobo, 1974) pp. 348-52. 1 1. Ito Sei, 'Kindai nihonjin no hasso no shokeishiki', in Gendai Nihon bungaku

zenshu, vol. 44, p. 290. 12. Ito Sei, is considered by Hirano Ken to be a writer who broke the deadlock of

the 1-novel by introducing Western methods of objectivity and psychological analysis into the description of the '1'. Due to Ito Sei's efforts the Western literary method was firmly rooted in modern Japanese literature.

13. Ito Sei, 'Kindai nihonjin no ha.ssO no shokeishiki', in Gendai Nihon bungaku zenshu, vo!. 44, p. 291.

14. Maruyama Masao, 'Patterns oflndividuation', in M. B.J ansen ( ed.), Changing Attitudes, pp. 496-531.

15. Ibid. 16. Hirano Ken ( Waga sengo bungakushi, in Hirano Ken zenshu, vo!. 4, p. 234)

suggests that the attitude of histrionic self-destruction that characterised Dazai's life and work, was partly an effect of his deeply-felt personal failure in the revolutionary movement. In this sense a work like Doke no hana could be read as a variant on tenko bungaku. Takamijun's Kokyu wasureubeki and Dazai's Doke no hana give, in different ways, expression to the same spirit of tonversion.

17. B. Crick, In Defence of Politics (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1964) p. 40. 18. Hidaka Rokuro, 'Bundan to jarunarizumu' in Bungaku Iwanami koza, vo!. 2

(lwanami, 1952). 19. Togaeri Hajime, '"Bundan" hokai ron', in Showa hihyo taikei, vo!. 4, (Bancho

Shobo, 1974) pp. 84-5. 20. Ibid. 2 1. Ito Sei, Soshiki to ningen, in Zenshu, vo!. 1 7, pp. 13 7--8. 22. Ibid., p. 139. 23. Ibid., p. 141.

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(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, I969). Chie Nakane Japanese Sociery (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, I97o). Doi Takeo, The Anatomy if Dependence (Tokyo: Kodansha, I977). Fukuda Tsuneari, Fukuda Tsuneari hyoronshu (Tokyo: Shinchosha, I966). Fukutake Tadashi, Man and Sociery in Japan (University of Tokyo Press, I962). Hirano Ken, Hirano Ken zenshu (Tokyo: Shinchosha, I975), in particularvols I, 2, 4

and 6. --, Odagiri Hid eo and Yamamoto Kenkichi ( eds), Gendai Nihon bungaku ronsoshi

(Tokyo: Miraisha, I 956). Hirotsu Kazuo, Nengetsu no ashioto (Tokyo: Kodansha, I 969) . Honda Shiigo, Monogatari sengo bungakushi (Tokyo: Shinchosha, 1965). Ito Sei (ed.), Bungaku Iwanami koza (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1952). --, Ito Sei zenshu (Tokyo: Shinchosha, I973), in particular vols I6-I8, 21. --, Nihon bundanshi (Tokyo: Kodansha, I979), contains 24 volumes of which the

first 18 were written by Ito Sei himself, and the remaining six by his close friend and co-operator Senuma Shigeki after Ito Sei's death.

Kamei Hideo, Ito Sei no sekai (Tokyo: Kodansha, I969). Karaki Junzo, Muyomono no keifu (Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo, 1964). Kindai Nihon Bungakkan (ed.), Nihon no kindai bungaku: hito to sakuhin (Tokyo:

Yomiuri Shinbunsha 1964). Kosaka Masaaki, Japanese Thought in the Meiji Era (Tokyo: Pan-Pacific Press,

I958). Maruyama Masao, Thought and Behaviour in Modern Japanese Politics (Oxford

University Press, I 963). --, Nihon no shiso (Tokyo: lwanami Shinsho, I96I). Minami Hiroshi, Psychology if the Japanese People (University of Tokyo Press, I 97 I). Muramatsu Takeshi, Saeki Shoichi and Okubo Norio (eds), ShOwa hih:Jo taikei

(Tokyo: Bancho Shobo, I974l· Nakamura Mitsuo, Fuzoku shosetsuron (Tokyo: Kawade Shobo, 1954). --, Modern Japanese Fiction (Tokyo: Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai, I968). Nakamura Shinichiro, Kono h:Jakunen no shosetsu (Tokyo: Shinchosha, I974)· Odagiri Hid eo, Bungakushi (Tokyo: Toyo Keizai Shinposha, I96I). --, Gendai Nihon no sakkatachi (Tokyo: Hosei University Press, I962). Okazaki Yoshie, Japanese Literature in the Meiji Era (Tokyo: Obunsha, I955)· Okubo Fusao, Bunshi to bundan (Tokyo: Kodansha, I970).

I970).

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Shuichi Kato, A History tif Japanese Literature: The First Thousand Years (London: Macmillan, I979; Tokyo: Kodansha, I979l·

Tsurumi Shunsuke and Kuno Osamu, Gendai Nihon shiso (Tokyo: lwanami Shinsho, I 956).

Yoshida Seiichi, Gendai Nihon bungakushi (Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo, I965).

Westerm Sources Albrecht, Milton C., Barnett, james H., and Griff, Meson (eds.), The Sociology of Art

and Literature: A Reader (London: Gerald Duckworth, I97o). Berger, Peter L., Invitation to Sociology: A Humanistic Perspective (Harmondsworth:

Penguin Books, I 966). Bottomore, E., Elites and Sociery (London: C. A. Watts, I964). Bradbury, Malcolm, The Social Context tif Modern English Literature (Oxford: Basil

Blackwell, I97I). Coser, L., Men tif Ideas: A Sociologist's View (New York: Free Press, I965). Crick, Bernard, In Difence of Politics (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, I964). Dore, R. P., Aspects of Social Change in Modern Japan (Princeton University Press,

I967)· Hall,J. H., and Beardsley, R. K., Twelve Doors to Japan (New York: McGraw-Hill,

I 965). Jansen, Marius B. (ed.), Changing Japanese Attitudes toward Modernisation (Princeton

University Press, I969). Keene, D., World within Walls (London: Seeker & Warburg, I976). -- (ed.), Modern Japanese Literature (Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, I957)· Lifton, R., Kato, S., and Reich, R., Six Lives, Six Deaths: Portraits from Modern Japan

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(Stanford University Press, I969). Ryan, M., Japan's First Modern Novel (New York: Columbia University Press,

I967)· Morris, I. (ed.), Modern Japanese Stories (Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, I962). Sansom, G., The Western World and Japan (New York: Cresset Press, I950). Seidensticker, E., Kafo the Scribbler (Stanford University Press, I965). Shively, D. H. (ed.), Tradition and Modernisation in Japanese Culture (Princeton

University Press, I 97 I). Sibley, W. F., The Shiga Hero (University of Chicago Press, I979). Ward, Robert E. (ed.), Political Development in Modern Japan (Princeton University

Press, I 968). -- (ed.), Political Modernisation in Japan and Turkey (Princeton University Press,

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I978). Williams, Raymond, The Long Revolution (New York: Harper & Row, I966). --, Culture and Sociery I78o--1950 (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, I961).

(Tokyo:

Index

aestheticists, 85-102, 141 n. 25; Akuta­gawa, g8-Ioi; Izumi Kyoka, 88-9; Kafii, g~-8; language and themes, 8g--go; Ogai's influence, 86; sup­remacy of art and KOda Rohan, 86, 87; Tanizaki, go--5 passim; writers and magazines, 85

Akutagawa Ryiinosuke, 63, 85, 91, 93, 94, 95, !)B-IOI, 102, 115, 121, 132

Ara Masahito, xiii; on post-war bundan, 131; on Shirakaba, 79

Arahata Kanson, 103 Arishima Takeo: see Shirakaba atarashiki mura, 8o, 140 n. 36

bundan: aestheticists, 8 5--go, 91, 94, 10 I; approach to the study of, xi-xii; ascending and descending mentality, 79-8o; cliques, 13, 26, 136 n. 23; decline, 13o--4; escapist mentality (see also tobo dorei), 38-40, 44-7; Futabatei's view of, 14-15, 16; guild, 10,122-3, I3I;hametsugata,51-5,59; 1-novel as a bundan form, 33--6, 47; Ito Sei's position in, xv; jiko shOsetsu, 74; and journalism, 5, 8, 25, 36, 53, 113, 114, 121-4 passim, 131, 133; Kafii's view of, 97-8; k(Jyuroku shOs­etsu, 74; literary critics, xiii-xiv; Meiji, 8-14; naturalistic revolution, 25--6, 28--9, 3o--3, 37; Oya Soichi's criticism of, 122-4; and proletarian literature, 105-7, IIQ--16; pre-war and war-time, 124--9; as a religious order' 58, 91 ; shinkyo shOsetsu, 76-8; Shirakaba's supremacy, 73-4, 82; significance of Akutagawa's death, gg; Soseki and Ogai's case, 64, 72;

Toson's case, 61, 63; and taishu bun­gaku, I16-21 passim; Togaeri Hajime's view, 131-2; Uchida Roan's satire, I6-I8; andyakuza, 58-

9 Bungakukai, 26, 137 n. 2, 138 n. 13

Chikamatsu Shuko, 33, 39, 55 chOwa (harmony), 38; through self­

abandonment, 71, 72, 75, 84; in shinkyo shosetsu, 76-8; in social re­lations, 112, 142 n. 15; writers, 6o; see also Mori Ogai, Natsume Soseki, Shirakaba, Toson

Dazai Osamu, 39, 51, 54, 71 , 79; Doke no kana, 128, 143 n. 16; left-wing ac­tivity, II$ excerpt from Vryon no tsuma ( Villon' s Wife), 55-7

engisetsu (theory of histrionic behav­iour), 52

Futabatei Shimei, 12, 14-16, 18, 47, 67, 137 n. 2

gesaku (popular fiction m Tokugawa period), 3

Hidaka Rokuro, 131 Hirano Ken, xiii, 38; on Doke no kana,

143 n. 16; on 1-novel, 33-4, 52, 59, 79; on Ito Sei, 143 n. 12; on Kobayashi Takiji, IIo--II; on shinkyo shOsetsu, 76

Imperial japan, 23,135 n. 1 1-novel (watakushi shOsetsu), xiii, 27; and

aestheticists, 85, 93, 94, 101; as a bundan form, 32, 33--6, 37; changing character of, 55> 57> 58, 71; decline,

147

Index

I -novel-continued 124, 125, 127; escapist nature, 38, 46, 47, 48; hametsugata, 51, 52, 54; in­fluence on author's life, 79; Miyamoto Yuriko, 112, 115; and proletarian novel, 1 o8, 1 og, 1 1 o, 11 1; and shinkyo shOsetsu, 76

Ishikawa Takuboku, 33, 103 Ito Sei, xiii, xiv-xv, 143 n. 12; on

Akutagawa, gg, 100, 101; on artistic freedom, 133, 134; on chOwa writers, 6o-84; on Dazai, 58, 59; on Futabatei and Kitamura Tokoku, 19; on hametsugata, 51, 53; on 1-novel, 44, 46; onjournalism, 121; on Kafii, g6, 97; on kamen shinshi, 48-51; on Kamura Isota, 54; on Ken'y!Jsha and Meiji bundan, 12, 15, 21; on Izumi Kyoka and bundan methodologists, 88-g4; on naturalistic bundan, 33, 34, 35, 36; on Miyamoto Yuriko, 83-4; on proletarian novel, 104, 105, 10g-16; on Shinkankakuha, 125, 126; on tobo dorei, 38, 39; on vertical method in japanese literature, 79--80

lwano Homei, 26, 39, 55 Izumi Kyoka, 86, 87, 88, 8g, 91, 92

Journalism: and bundan, 5, 8, 25, 36, 53, 113, 114, 121, 123, 131, 133

Kafii: see Nagai Kafii Kamura lsota, 39, 51, 53-4, 59; and

Kobayashi Takiji, 111; and Soseki, 71

Kanagaki Robun, 3, 5 Kasai Zenzo, 39, 40, 51, 59; excerpt

from Ko o tsurete (Taking the Children), 4o-4

Kawabata Yasunari, 85, 88, go, 91 Ken'y!Jsha, 8-14, 25, :z6; Hirotsu Ryiiro,

12, 136 n. 18 Kikuchi Kan, 121 Kitamura Tokoku, 18-21, 22, 25 Kobayashi Hideo, 125 Kobayashi Takiji, 108, 109, 110, III,

115, 119 Kooa Rohan, 87, 92 Kunikida Doppo, :zo, 26, 36

Maruyama Masao: on aftermath of 1923 earthquake, 117, 118, 126-7; on Marxism, 104, 1o8; on naturalist novel, 23-4, 28

Marxist literary movement (puroretaria bungaku), 27, 32, 103-16; and Dazai, 113; impact on bundan, 103-7; and journalism, 113; proletarian 1-novel, 108-9, 110, 111; Miyamoto Yuriko, 83, 112-13; writers, 103, 108-g

Masamune Hakucho, 25, 106, 137 n. 2 Meiji Japan; aftermath of Sino­

japanese war, 22, :zs; definition, 135 n. 1; emperor system, 19; minken and kokken, 23; newspapers and writers, s-6; as a transition period, :z; Uchimura incident, 19; 'Meiji youth', 6-7

Miyamoto Yuriko, 83-4, 112, 140 n. 41 mon (master's school), 11; see also bundan

cliques Mori Ogai, 47, 6o, 64-9; and Izumi

Kyoka, 86, 88; and S<>seki, 64, 72, 75 Muro Saisei, 88, go Mushanokoji Saneatsu: see Shirakaba

Nagai Kafii, 30, 32, 85,95--B, 102, 129, 137 n. 2

Nakamura Mitsuo, xiii, 38; on bundim, :zg; on Kafii, 95-6; on Showa litera­ture, 118; on Tanizaki, 94, 95

Nakane Chie: on teacher-student re­lationship, IQ-II, 136 n. 16

Nakano Shigeharu, 105, 115 Natsume Soseki, 6o, 64, 6!)-72, 75, 140,

n. 15, 140 n. 16 naturalism: formation of bundan, 28-33;

1-novel, 33-4; rise of, 25--8

Ogai: see Mori Ogai Okamoto Kido, 92 Oya Soichi: on bundan, 122-4, 131 Ozaki Koyo, 7, 8-14passim, 15, 25, 71;

see also Ken'y!Jsha

political novel, 6

risshin shusse (advancement in life), 14, 54,87

124,

Index 1 49

Sa to Haruo, 88, gi, 92 Shiga Naoya, 52, 6o, 106; and

Shirakaba, 72-82, 83; Kinosaki nite, 76-8, 79

Shimazaki Tason, 25, 26, 27, 36, 47, 6o, 61-4, 75

Shinkankakuha (New Impressionists), II8, I25, I4I n. 5

shinkyo shOsetsu (contemplative novel), 76-8; writers, 78

Shirakaba, 47, 6o, 72-82; Arishima Takeo, 72, 8o, 8I, Io6, II5; Mushanokoji Saneatsu, 72, 74, 8o, 8I; Nagayo Yoshio, 72; see also Shiga Naoya

shosei (disciple), II, I2 Soseki: see Natsume Soseki

taishu bungaku (popular mass literature), II6, IIg--2I; Nakazato Kaizan, I2o; Shirai K yoji and other writers, I20

Takami Jun, I27 Tanaka Hidemitsu, 55, 79 Tanbiha: see aestheticists Tanizakijun'ichiro, 32, 85, 88, go, go--

I, 92, I2g; affinity with 1-novel, 94-5; see also aestheticists

Tayama Katai, 25, 26, 27, 28, 36, 39, 55, 7I, 94, Ios; on /zawa Ranken, 68; on Tason, 63

tenko bungaku (literature of conversion), I27, I43 n. I6

tobo dorei (fugitive slave), 38-g, 46, 55; escapist tradition, 44--6; life-style, 39-40; writers, 39

Togaeri Hajime: on decline of bundan, I3I-3

Tokuda Shiisei, 25, I29 Tokugawa literature, 2-3; gesaku, 3;

writer's life, 3-4 Tokutomi Roka, 7, 7I Tokutomi Soho, 6, I36 n. I2 Toson: see Shimazaki Toson tsu<.oku shosetsu (popular fiction):

Kikuchi Kan, I2I; and naturalists 28; in newspapers, 5; split between pure and, 36; and taishu novel, llg--20

Uchida Roan, I6-I8 Uchimura Kanzo, I8, I9

Yokomitsu Riichi, 85, 88, I25, I26, I28