234

Notes

1 Ansoff (1965) and Pessemier (1982) use similar classification schemes.2 See Sanderson and Uzumeri (1997) for examples. 3 See Tushman and Anderson (1986); Christensen (1997); Christensen and

Raynor (2003); and Henderson (1993).4 Conjoint analysis is a simple technique for measuring the trade off value of

various product attributes. It is explained in more detail below, at the endof Chapter 5.

5 Teece (1986) provides the classic analysis of many of these cases.6 For a description of this see Sanderson and Uzumeri (1997).7 See Zahra (1996).8 See Welch (2001). This is also the source of some of the other GE examples

given in this book.9 See the reference list at the end of this book for full citations.

10 See Baker and Hart, 1999.11 See Kono, 1999.12 See, for example, Dertouzos et al., 1989.13 Nakajo and Kono, 1989.14 On the three skills see Katz and Kahn, 1966.15 See Uchihashi, 1978.16 See Kawade, 1989 and Sull, 1999.17 Full information on the works cited here is given in the “References”

section at the end of the book.18 This case is based on Yamanouchi, 1989.19 Much of the general information on the pharmaceutical industry presented

here draws on Economist, “Survey: Pharmaceuticals.” June 16, 2005.20 This section was written by Professor Akihiro Takeda of Kansai Kokusai

University.21 The two cases here are based on presentations by Ajinomoto managers at

study group meetings of the Japan Productivity Center.22 This section was written by Professor Fumiko Kurokawa of Dokkyo

University.23 This section was written by Associate Professor Tatsuhiko Inoue of Waseda

University.24 This discussion is based on a visit to Sony Motion Pictures by the first

author.25 For a discussion and theoretical interpretation see Christensen (1997) and

Christensen and Raynor (2003).26 See Cooper, 2001.27 See Dertouzos et al., 1989.28 See Thomas, 1995.29 Much of this discussion is based on Lynn and Salzman (2005) and Lynn

and Salzman (2006).30 See United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2003).

31 This number, like other estimates of the number of engineering graduatesin China and India, has been disputed, and is likely inflated. Nonetheless, itseems hard to dispute the broader point that increasingly large numbers ofengineers are being trained in these and other emerging economies.

32 See Hicks, 2004.33 See Dalton, Serapio and Yoshida, 1999. 34 See McKendrick et al., 2000.35 See Prahalad, 2006.36 The literature in this area is growing fast as the technology develops. This

section draws particularly on a special issue on “Research issues in know-ledge management and virtual collaboration in new product development”in Journal of Engineering and Technology Management 20 Nos. 1–2, 2003.

37 See McDonough, Kahn and Griffin, 1999.38 Some of this discussion draws on Business Week On-line, 2005.39 See Roberts, 1999. 40 From Kimzey and Kurokawa, 2002. 41 See Business Week On-Line, 2005.42 See Mintzberg and Waters 1985.43 See Kotler, 2002; Nishikawa, 1990; Yasutake, 1997; Crawford and DiBenetto,

2003; etc.44 See Kurokawa, 1997.45 See Von Hippel, 1988.46 See Osborn, 1953 and 1979.47 Some of these ideas are from Urban and Hauser, 1987, Chapter 9.48 See Thomas, 1995.49 On conjoint analysis, see Muto and Asano, 1986; Ueda, 1987; Takahashi

and Hara, 1987; Okamoto, 1998; Asano and Yamanaka, 2000; and Kanda,2000.

50 See Mintzberg, 1973.51 See Prahalad and Hamel, 1990; Hall, 1993; Hamel & Heene, 1994; Ansoff,

1965; and Penrose, 1959.52 This section is largely based on a presentation by Naomi Tokunaga of

Fujitsu at the Japan Productivity Center.53 See, for example, Lorange and Ross, 1992 or Kono and Clegg, 2001.54 This model is based in part on Hamel and Prahalad, 1994 and Pearson,

2002, but is more generally based on our observations of many successfulcompanies.

55 On the importance of a sense of crisis, see Kono and Clegg, 1998 and Kotterand Heskett, 1992.

56 The classic English-language work on Japanese lean production is Womack,et al. (1991).

57 See, for example, Amabile, 1998; Arieti, 1976; Burns and Stalker, 1961;Kawakita, 1967; Kono, 2003; Osborn, 1953; Woodman, et al., 1993.

58 Based on Smith and Alexander, 1988 and interviews by the first author atPARC.

59 Research-Technology Management, various years.60 See MacMillan and McGrath, 2004.61 The companies had annual sales ranging from $300 million to over

$20 billion. We received 104 usable responses. We asked respondents to

Notes 235

classify the type of R&D done at their organization based on the goals forthe research, time horizon, evaluation method, organizational structureand mode of research. 15.7% of our respondents classified their primaryactivities as basic research, 28.6% as basic component research (researchaimed at developing new core technologies to support the firm’s long-range product-market strategy), 35.2% as new product development, 6.2%as production technology research, 10.3% as testing and safety research.3.6% did not include their research in any of these categories. Table 7.10gives information on the sample.

62 See Sternberg, 1999, page 3.63 See Arieti, 1976, for a review of some of the classic models.64 See Osborn, 1953. 65 On the spiral process, see Kono, 2003.66 This description is largely based on a presentation given by Rokumuro at

the Strategic Planning Study Group of the Japan Productivity Center inTokyo in 2002.

67 This description is based on Horii, 2003 and on a visit to the company bythe first author in 2003.

68 This classification follows Rumelt, 1984.69 See Houser and Clausing, 1988 and Crawford and DiBenedetto, 2003.70 For details, see Nakajo and Kono, 1989. 71 See Porter, 1985.72 See Aaker, 1996 and Shimaguchi, 1998.73 See Shimaguchi, 1999.74 Sugimura, 1986, based on responses from 247 researchers.75 For details on this theory, see general psychology texts and Kono and

Clegg, 1998.76 See Christensen and Raynor, 2003.77 Based on the first author’s discussions at Black and Decker.78 Konica and Minolta merged in 2003 to form Konica Minolta. Konica was

established in 1873, and at one time was the world’s third largest producerof photographic film. It also made cameras and office equipment. Minoltawas established in 1928, and had been a leading producer of cameras andoffice machinery.

79 This discussion is based on a detailed report by NHK, Japan’s public broad-casting system.

80 See Baker and Hart, 1999.81 See Miles and Snow, 1978. 82 On corporate culture, see Kono and Clegg, 1998.83 Mankins and Steele, 2006 review some of the limitations of the bottom up

approach.84 The information on Samsung is from a presentation by Prof. Hamada at a

study group meeting of the Japan Productivity Center in March, 2006.85 Fuji Xerox and Fuji Film are separate companies.86 This account is based on Ishii, 2005, and information gathered during the

first author’s visit to the plant. 87 See Thomas, 1995. 88 The account is based on information collected by the first author during a

plant visit, and from Fuji Xerox company reports.

236 Notes

89 See Simon, 1960.90 This is based on a report by Y. Oyama presented at the Conference of the

Japanese Academy of Management in 1997.

Notes 237

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Aaker, D.A., 235advertising, 18, 101, 225

The Body Shop, 215IT in, 208–9marketing intensive products, 57–8PoP, 57

Ajinomoto, 40, 157, 158, 234advertising outlay, 58case study: mayonnaise, 54–8, 101core competencies, 40market surveys, 102

Aiwa, 13, 98Alcan, 28, 119

cost advantage, 176small management committees, 28,

129, 204Alcatel, 83Alexander, R.C., 45, 235Allen, T.J., 15, 142alliances, 185, 196, 231

case study: NUMMI, 196effectiveness characteristics of,

114–17, 146mergers/acquisitions, 197product withdrawal, 193rigidity in, 35speeding development, 10, 21success factors, 127–8types of, 124vertical, 124, 125

Apple, 33, 134rapid customer feedback, 232vertical alliances/cooperation, 125

Amabile, T.M., 15, 44, 136, 235Amazon

internet for sales, 10, 232Anderson, P., 15, 234Ansoff, H.I., 234, 235

Armco, 130Arieti, S., 15, 235architecture (in development), 68, 70

see also integral architecture;modular architecture

standardization/changes, 190–1Asahi Breweries, 34, 98, 200

bootleg process, 72, 143case study: Super Dry Beer, 174–7core competency changes, 40knowing your rivals, 129market share, 34, 130product withdrawal, 193top down process, 72

Asano, N., 15, 235Astra-Zeneca, 83

Baker, M., 15, 234, 236Baldwin, C.Y., 45benchmarking

Emerson Electric, 95–6marketing intensive products,

60strategy formation, 94

Benetton, 119exclusive distribution policy, 173global sales channels, 69

BenQ, 92mobile telephone division, 196Motorola contract, 92

BMW, 103, 173, 192Boeing, 161, 185

outsourcing design, 92The Body Shop, 6, 72, 173, 214, 215,

231case study, 214–15environment

consciousness/responsibility, 6,73

respect for employees, 179

Index

Note: Page numbers in italics refer to charts/figures/tables

bootleg research/“bootlegdevelopment”, 143

new product conceptsAsahi “Honnama” beer, 72Casio digital camera, 71

technological uncertainty, 53–4bottom-up approach, 39, 236

unsuited for NPD, 203–4Bowmar

pocket calculator, 7brand image, 5, 17, 36, 43, 51, 90,

183, 191, 214, 233complaint response, 180–2, 185,

188, 232distribution policy, 173elimination problems, 15, 193–7,

199–201, 226factors in creation of, 178–81failure/decline of, 16, 23, 31

commoditization, 42inter-departmental cooperation,

33–5intellectual property rights, 89market share, 126marketing intensive products, 54marketing research, 59, 111outsourcing risks, 92synergy effects, 57

Bridgestone, 40, 45, 180defective product recall, 180Firestone acquisition, 39

Brown, S., 15Budweiser, 5, 26Burgelman, R.A., 15Burns, T., 235

Canon, 5, 12, 40, 47, 48, 98, 102,119, 121, 130, 141, 156, 163, 203

camerasAE-1 single lens reflex, 140automatic focus, 1, 7, 8, 43, 45,

195centralized NPD, 116concurrent engineering, 77copier development, 101

case study, 46–8core competencies, 117, 118, 206,

228“Synchro-reader”, 26

incubation department, 122marketing research, 27

demand forecast, 162patent office strength, 176pioneering vs improvement, 1product failure, 26–7product-market strategy, 131strategic planning, 33, 129, 204virtuous cycle, 205

Caterpillar, 129Casio, 72, 92, 98

bootleg developmentdigital camera, 71

Celestica, 191Cemex, 85centralization, 37, 131, 153, 204

authority, 116Japanese corporations, 120strategic decisions, 31

control, 11leadership, 32marketing functions, 31product failure, 31, 54R&D, 117, 146, 148, 151strategic planning, 115

China/Chinese, 79, 88, 91, 92, 125,176, 179, 207, 209, 235

cellular phone market, 9, 70, 84Motorola R&D centers, 83

IBM, 12, 42, 190intellectual property rights, 89–90investment in science education, 82production facilities in, 68, 86

Christensen, C.M., 16, 45, 234, 236Chrysler, 163, 191

integral architecture products, 191Cisco Systems, 83Clark, K.B., 15, 45Clausing, D., 236Clegg, S., 235, 236Coke/Coca-Cola, 7, 19–20, 26, 187

top management decision, 25commodity goods/commoditization,

73, 178competition, 191design, 92differentiated goods, 68–9low margins, 190modular architecture, 68

Index 247

commodity goods/commoditization – continued

older globalization, 80standardization/outsourcing, 42

competition/competitive, 8, 10, 17,21, 35, 40, 74, 159, 233 see alsobenchmarking; entry barriers;price competition; megacompetition

advantage/edge/strength, 11, 12,95, 117, 126

benchmarking, 60, 94cooperation, 177–8

for innovation, 11core competency base, 36, 38economies of scale, 43, 191entry barriers

patents, 175product differentiation, 42–3, 191

globalization/global trends, 9Triad firms, 11

innovative organizations, 129–32“inventing around” patents, 73Japanese steelmakers, 131–2technological paradigms, 8–9threats

project teams, 147concept creation/formation, 22, 47,

49, 55, 64, 75, 156, 178, 212, 233assessment of, 157–62

demand forecasting, 162–6strategic considerations, 168–70technical evaluations, 166–8

“dynamic market products”, 63fashionable apparel, 65, 70

ideas, 94, 101–2, 137counter-intuitive thinking, 107sources, 71, 96–9

marketing intensive products, 54,56, 59–60

launch lead time, 57human resource competency, 62

marketing research, 59–60, 74, 102–3information collection, 20, 48,

58, 100–1, 103–5Osborn’s checklist, 107–9product launch, 171–4

case studies, 174–7trials/tests, 18, 20

concurrent engineering, 63, 121, 209,214, 231

cooperation/coordination, 59, 76–7alliances, 127core competencies, 205–6feedback system, need for, 63involvement of suppliers/

customers, 78speed of development, 10–11, 76

conjoint analysis, 5–6, 15, 235evaluation of characteristics, 110–13IT use in, 208, 209

contingency plans, 181–5coping with uncertainty, 185group think decisions, 29

Cooper, R.G., 15, 234cooperation, 20, 21, 44, 95, 146, 153,

156, 227competition, 177–8economies of scale

alliances, 195–6inter-departmental/internal, 33–6,

76, 226, 229, 230company “politics”, 169cross-functional teams, 77–8

project teams, 121–2top management support, 121

NPD alliances, 127, 195, 223suppliers, 207, 214vertical cooperation, 125

product champions, 122speed of development, 76, 78, 205

barriers to, 77success factors, 49, 229–31

coordination, 20, 47, 84, 89corporate brand management

offices, 181cross-functional teams, 61, 62globalization

“virtual teams”, 86–7incubation model, 154, 231NPD issues, 230product champion, 121product divisions, 31–3R&D, 34, 148, 149speed of development, 76–8top management, 151

project teams, 121Toyota Corolla, 58–63

248 Index

core competencies, 9, 11, 26, 44, 45,62, 76, 128, 131, 191, 225

components of, 36–7concurrent engineering, 205, 206developing/acquiring, 36–41

loss in outsourcing, 91–3features of, 117–19NPD, 202

success factors, 226product differentiation

suppliers, 42product failures, 21R&D, 150speed of implementation, 203, 205–6strength and organizational fit, 227–8synergies, 159, 193, 224

Corning, 81corporate/company strategy, 15, 16,

22, 33, 134, 137, 144, 205alliances, 195–6basic values, 194bootleg research freedom, 72centralized authority, 32core competency basis for, 36failures

Japanese steelmakers, 131–2horizontal specialization, 73intrinsic motivation, 140mergers/acquisitions, 197new product concept/ideas, 72,

94–100fit with, 149, 153, 154, 202

NPD, xiiicoordination with, 86globalization of, 93stages of, 20

R&D, 143, 147, 154selection of projects, 145, 149,

150, 152, 153corporate failures, 6–7, 13, 21, 36–7,

40, 127–8, 169, 185, 188–9Dow Corning, 187–8Firestone, 38–9Japanese steelmakers, 131–2Konica Minolta, 19lessons learned, 26–7, 72Mazda rotary engine, 107Motorola/Iridium, 25Nippon Columbia, 24

punishment for, 154, 205“Seagire” project, 26, 72–3Showa Denko, 14, 15Sony Betamax, 35Westinghouse, 23–4Xerox PC, 33

corporate performance, 13–15human resources, 161, 205impact of

environmental changes, 8–12events, 183, 184

new product development, 12, 13cost reduction/control, 26, 34, 40, 43,

47, 50, 57, 91, 98, 153, 162, 231see also outsourcing

absolute cost advantage, 175, 176commodity goods, 68concurrent engineering, 78cooperation, 35information collection, 56Japanese steel firms, 130marketing intensive products, 61–3,

229outsourcing, 42, 127

OEM/ODM, 91Triad firms, 80–1value engineering, 62workforces/human resources, 83,

84, 85counter-intuitive thinking

re-interpreting information, 105,107

examples of, 106Osborn’s check-list, 107–9

Crawford, M., 15, 235, 236creativity, xv, 9, 26, 31, 138, 139,

202, 219, 227 see also conceptcreation/formation

definition of, 136information sources, 140–3key elements of, 137–40Osborn’s checklist, 107–8, 137R&D organization, 11, 146–54

balance between freedom andcontrol, 10, 33

bootleg research, 72organic structure, 133–4

Stage-Gate system, 75“T-shaped knowledge”, 137

Index 249

cross-functional teams, 34, 47, 78,141

cost reduction, 61innovative organizations, 131process engineering, 62project teams, 59, 77Toyota, 62–3

Daiichi Pharmaceutical CompanyTarivid, 49–54

Dalton, D., 235decision-making process, 21, 28, 32,

42, 129, 133, 162, 204, 224, 225see also decisions, types of

bottom-up approach, 39, 203, 236defects in, 20defining goals/policies, 101design, 60–1fashionable apparel, 65group decision, 29

alliances, 195–7“group think”, 30–1, 44, 189, 226middle up approach, 96, 114, 203NPD

Canon copier, 47Toyota Corolla, 59–60

top managementproduct failure, 25–7success factors, 226–7, 228–9

decisions, types of, 185operational, 27, 44

delegation, 31, 32, 204environment changes, 117

strategic, 32, 47, 202, 203–4alliances, 125centralized authority, 31categorization of companies,

202–3changes in the environment, 117top down process, 203–4top management, 129, 148

De Havillandcommercial jet liner, 7

Dell Computer, 42, 73, 232internet for sales, 10

Dertouzos, M.L., 234Di Benedetto, A., 15, 235, 236differentiated goods, 69

and commodity goods, 67–8

Disneyland, 179, 180distribution policies, 171

types of, 173distribution systems/channels, 3, 7, 8,

43, 127, 171, 172, 208commodity goods, 69concept creation, 101location, 232policies, 173product launch, 57

Dow Corning, 210suspension after launch, 187–8

drug development, 10, 131, 146, 207,224 see also pharmaceuticalindustry

assessment criteria, 155, 156bootleg research, 53–4case study: Tarivid, 49–54contingencies, 181costs, 15, 91

investment, 161development, 10, 50

computer simulations, 71, 229testing, 51

information collection, 47–8pricing/protection, 169

Dupont, 140strategic reshuffling, 190

“dynamic market products”development, 63–4, 70, 72–4,155, 163, 173

case study: World Company, 65–8profitability characteristics, 69specialized knowledge for success,

176

Edison, Thomas, 23Eisenhardt, K., 15Eizai, 134, 176Eli Lilly, 92emerging economies, 91, 235 see also

China/Chinese; global NPD;globalization/new globalization;India/Indian

aggregate purchasing power, 85centers of technological excellence,

79intellectual property rights

protection, 89–90

250 Index

issues of equity, 88new globalization, 81–3

Emerson Electric, 32, 95, 203, 204, 228benchmarking strategy, 95–6innovations, 129market share principle, 190small management committees, 28

Enron, 29, 188EMI, 7, 44

CAT scan, 6, 42, 43, 132, 171, 175,232

entry barriers, 175, 177 see alsobenchmarking;competition/competitive

high exit barriers, 176innovative organizations, 131–2product differentiation, 42types of, 43–4

environmental considerations, xv,10–12, 77, 165, 182, 184, 215–16see also environmentally-friendlyproducts; environmentalprotection

factors, 6, 77demands on products, 8–9

needs, 100contradictory product features,

109paradigmatic shifts in technology, 8protection, 217–19responsibility, 73

environmentally-friendly products,12, 109, 202, 217–19, 231 see alsoenvironmental considerations;environmentally friendlyproducts

impact minimization, 211–12problems/opportunities

case study: The Body Shop,214–15

Toyota hybrid car, 212–13success factors, 213–14, 215–16

regulationscase study: Fuji Xerox, 215–16closed loop system, 216–17

setting standards, 210–11social responsibility, 209, 220–3

environmental protection, 217–19product life cycle, 222–3

evaluations, 18, 21, 47, 65, 110, 116,129, 137, 153, 154, 187, 204, 221

advertising/promotion, 57drug tests, 51, 53ideas for new products, 71

Stage-Gate system, 74, 75market information, 94, 96, 100new product concept, 101, 103new products, 168–70, 213, 227

assessments, 155–62demand forecasting, 162–6technical, 166–8

projects, 143–6, 154R&D, 149, 236

extranet, 10, 71, 127 see also internet;intranet

Five Fox Company, 64, 73, 155factor analysis, 111, 137, 208

IT use in, 209fashionable apparel

demand peculiarities, 63–5NPD principles, 67–8women’s apparel

case study: World Company, 65–8feedback process/system, 46, 68, 87,

154 see also spiralsystem/processes

after launch, 64car development, 63customers, 229, 232distribution channels, 173R&D, 142Stage-Gate system, 74

Firestone, Harvey, 38Firestone, 38, 39, 40, 45, 77, 180

incrementalism, 38Flextronics, 91, 92Ford, Henry, 38Ford Motor Company, 24, 38, 39,

124, 191cross-functional NPD, 77defective product recall

Explorer, 180Firestone, 38–9

Mazda relationship, 127Model T, 58Mondeo, 80outsourcing, 42

Index 251

Fuji Electric Co, 123Fuji Film, 98, 213

digital camera, 161recyclable camera, 12single-use camera, 6, 12, 77, 99,

177, 233Fuji Xerox see Xerox PARC/Fuji XeroxFujisawa, Takeo, (Co-founder, Honda

Motors), 25, 129Fujitsu, 124, 142, 148, 206, 235

spin off, 123

Galvin, Chris (former CEO,Motorola), 24, 25

Galvin, Robert, (Founder, Motorola),24

Gannet Company see USA TodayGap, 69, 173

distribution policy, 173General Electric (GE), 11, 23, 24, 43,

83, 95, 119, 128, 131, 132, 151,190, 192, 200, 201, 203, 220, 234

CAT scanners, 7changing core competencies, 39divestiture, 194elimination of old products, 226Halarc failure, 27outsourcing, 42product improvement, 7project teams, 84spin off/“window product”, 124strategic reshuffle, 190, 194

General Motors (GM), 84, 196NPD alliance risk, 127outsource design work, 92

General Motors-Toyota NUMMI, 127,194 see also NPD alliances

case study, 196switching products, 194

Genetics, 35DNA map of mankind, 35

Gerstner, Louis, (former CEO, IBM),226

GlaxoSmithKline, 84, 92global markets, 79, 93

diversity of, 92mega competition, 9new products for, 11, 22Triad firms, 80

global NPD, 79–81 see also emergingeconomies; globalization/newglobalization

composition of teams, 81coordination

“virtual teams”, 86–7, 88risks of

intellectual property rightsviolations, 89–90

loss of core competencies, 91–3special problems in, 85–9

globalization/new globalization, xv,11, 78–83, 85–93, 233 see alsoemerging economies; globalNPD

cross-national virtual NPD teams,88–9

old and new, 79–85outsourcing

loss of core competencies, 91–3markets and competition, 9proximity to markets, 84

Griffin, A., 235“group think”, 30

advantages of, 31decision failures, 29, 189definition of, 29problems in group decision-making,

44top management, 205, 226

Hall, R., 235Hamel, G., 45, 235Hara, K., 235Hart, S., 15, 234, 236Hauser, J.R., 235HCL, 92Heene, A., 235Henderson, R., 15Heskett, J.L., 235Hewlett-Packard, 84, 92high-end products, 118, 191, 192

cosmetics, 17Shiseido “Brava”, 16

Hicks, D., 235Hill, C.W.L., 15Hitachi Ltd., 35, 39, 126, 142, 148

alliances, 196divestiture, 194

252 Index

portable radio, 74profitability goal, 189R&D strategy department, 151

Honda, Soichio (Founder, HondaMotors), 25

Honda Motor Company, 25, 89, 98,157, 178, 192

control by entrepreneur-founder,151, 204

cross-functional NPD, 77front wheel drive mini-car, 99hybrid car, 212, 213increasing decision alternatives,

30“idea rooms”/“idea contest”, 141integral architecture, 191researchers freedom, 143top management decision-making,

129Horii, H., 236Houser, J.R., 236human resources, 85, 161, 205

competency, 62globalization, 80

global economies of scale, 93Hyundai, 191

IBM, 13, 42, 83, 151, 206, 220change in product mix, 12, 228

strategic reshuffling, 190domination, 8elimination of old products, 226outsourcing from Honeywell, 92“smile curve” principle, 190

Ibuka, Masaru (former CEO/co-founder, Sony), 8, 99, 129

ICI, 131, 200change in core competencies, 40change in product mix, 39, 41divestiture, 194reshuffling of product line, 190

Ikea, 231–2incrementalism, 4, 32, 45, 85, 86,

152, 153, 189core competencies, 37Firestone, 38NPD globalization, 93

incubation department, 231NPD, 122–3

incubation model (of researchorganization), 152–4 see also R&D

intellectual property rights, 85, 89–90internal ventures, 119, 122

spin offs, 123–4India/Indian, 79, 82, 83, 90, 125, 209,

235 see also China/Chinese;emerging economies

global center of softwaredevelopment, 84

intellectual property rightsprotection, 89

low labor costs, 68major factors ODMs, 92

information collection, 47, 48, 55, 66,100–1, 121, 142 see alsomarketing research/marketresearch; surveys

limitations/advantages of, 103–5ideas for new products, 96–9product concept formation, 56, 58reinterpretation of, 105–7seeds or needs, 70sources

creativity, 140–3new products, 96–9

Inland Steel, 130Inoue, Professor Tatsuhiko (Waseda

University), xv, 234innovative organizations, 128

entry barriers, 131–2price competition, 42sense of crisis lacking, 130

innovations, 15, 99–100 see alsoinnovative organizations; NPDprocesses; NPD alliances

bottom-up market entry, 192competition

market disruption, 178price, 42

creativity, 136cross-functional teams, 131imitation of, 7new applications for technologies,

70, 99, 181NPD globalization, 84top management decision-making,

129intangible satisfactions/factors, 54

Index 253

“integral architecture”, 42, 45 see alsoarchitecture; modular architecture

characteristics of, 190–1differentiated goods, 69

price premium, 68raw materials

specialized, 69Intel, 42, 83, 152, 190

“smile curve” principle, 69internet, 69, 76, 207 see also extranet;

intranetadvertisement in, 206, 208NPD process, 70sales channel, 10, 172, 232source of information, 140

intranet, 71, 151, 207 see alsoextranet; internet

Ishii, M., 236information technology (IT), 10, 76,

125, 225 see also marketingresearch; surveys

advertising, 208–9conjoint analysis, 209internal communications, 207–8

shortening development time, 61,62, 71

NPD process, 70environmental implications, 9impact on, 206–9R&D, 202

JD Power Co, 62Janis, Irving, 29, 30, 31, 44Japan Productivity Center, xv, 234,

235, 236Japan Victor Company (JVC), 13, 170,

177, 227, 233cooperation with competitors, 177

Jobs, Steve, 7Newton PDA, 7

Jonash, R.S., 16

Kahn, K.B., 234, 235Kanda, N., 235Kawade, T., 45, 235Kawakita, J., 15, 235Kawasaki, 130Kewpie, 56

mayonnaise, 56Kimzey, C.H., 235

Kirin Brewery, 129Kobe Steel, 130Kodak, 81

environment awareness, 77Komatsu, 129Konica

automatic focus cameras, 7, 43,171, 175

divestiture, 194Minolta merger, 192, 236

Konica Minolta, 192, 195, 201, 203,232

sale to Sony, 206Kono, T., 15, 234, 235, 236Kotler, P., 15, 235Kotter, J.P., 235Kurokawa, A., 235Kurokawa, Professor Fumiko (of Dokkyo

University), xv, 15, 235Kurokawa, S., 235Kyorin, 53

Lenovo, 190Leonard, D., 15Leonard-Barton, D., 45Levitt, T., 15, 44low-end products, 91, 192Lorange, P., 235LTV, 130Lynn, L.H., xvi, 235

MacMillan, I., 235Mabuchi Motor, 190

“smile curve” principle, 190Macadoc, R., 15management committees

group decision-making, 29–31Mankins, M.C., 236manufacturing capability, 7 see also

concurrent engineeringCAD/CAM, 1, 10, 70, 207, 208

product design, 207, 209 concurrent engineering, 77

manufacturing plants, 57, 59, 78cost control/reduction, 218closures

excess capacity, 200–1environmental factors, 212, 219switching products, 194

case study: NUMMI, 96

254 Index

marketing, 2, 21, 32, 40, 73, 77, 101,114, 120, 140, 175, 193, 214, 227see also distribution policies;distribution systems/channels;sales channels

centralization, 116control over, 11

cost allocation, 117patents/proprietary knowledge, 43

desirable competitors, 178globalization, 84inter-departmental cooperation,

33–5, 122, 142, 230NPD core competencies, 36, 39, 62product concepts

seeds or needs, 70product entry, 192–3reinterpretation of information, 105–7success factors

after product launch, 171–7marketing intensive products, 62technologically intensive

products, 49, 53marketing intensive products, 46, 68,

224concept creation, 59–60cost reduction, 61–3NPD, 54–9testing, 46, 58

marketing research/market research,27, 29, 49, 60–1, 173, 186, 225,229 see also informationcollection; surveys

“missile-type”/“spiral-type”projects, 72, 73

Asahi Breweries, 34, 72, 175Canon copiers, 47–8

case studies, 102concept creation, 59–60

concept test, 101defective decisions, 20, 21, 73demand potential

hidden needs, 228information collection, 47–8, 56, 58IT, 61limitations/advantages, 103–5

surveys, 17, 26Toyota Lexus, 103–5

trial production/testing, 49, 56–7USA Today, 174

market segmentation, 2, 4, 5 ,6, 21,22, 110, 225 see also marketing;markets

case study: Shiseido, 16–18commodity/differentiated goods,

68–9“dynamic market products”, 63–4

case study, 65–8fashionable apparel

case study: World Company,65–8

marketing intensive products, 54case studies, 54–63

technology intensive productscase studies, 46–54

markets see also marketingdemands on product development,

8–12environmental factors, 6globalization of, 11traditional, 3, 4

Marriot Hotels, 113conjoint analysis

“Courtyard by Marriot”, 113Matsuda, Kohei (former President,

Mazda Motor Corporation), 24Matsushita/Matsushita Panasonic, 11,

86, 98, 128, 173, 213“black box” technology approach,

90bottom-up approach problems, 203brand image, 179, 188, 200centralization, 31, 32, 130control by entrepreneur-founder,

151, 170data base, 222, 223distribution policies, 173incrementalism, 37NPD allianceproduction/marketing efficiency,

175, 231restructuring, 116

strong strategic planning, 33Toyota, 124

VHS video recorder, 35, 126Mazda Motor Corporation, 24, 60,

127counter-intuitive thinking failure,

106, 228McDonough, E.F., 235

Index 255

McGrath, R.G., 235McKendrick, D.G., 235Michelin, 38Microsoft, 42, 69, 92, 151

“smile curve” principle, 190middle-up approach, 96, 114, 203 MITS, 7

first PC, 7Miles, R.E., 202, 236Minebea, 190

market share principle, 190Mintzberg, H., 113, 235mega competition, 9, 10 see also

competition/competitiveMercedes, 173modular architecture, 45, 190–1 see

also architecture; “integralarchitecture”

manufactured commodity goods, 68standard interfaces, 68

modularization (of products), 101,125

characteristics, 190–1product differentiation, 42standardization, 69

Morita, Akio (former President/co-founder, Sony), 98

motivation, 29, 135, 201creativity, 136evaluation/rewards, 154intrinsic, 137, 138, 139, 140, 153NPD approaches, 84operational decision

implementation, 44Motorola, 12, 30, 83, 92

Iridium project, 20, 24, 25ideas for patents, 90

Muto, S., 235

Nakajo, T., 234, 236Nakamura, Kunio (President,

Matsushita), 31Narayanan, V.K., 15National steel, 130NEC

switching plants, 194new products

concept formation, 17, 48, 59–60demands on development, 8–12

pioneering vs improvement, 1, 7types of, 2–6

New York Timessequential strategy, 171

Nihon Sanso, 99, 120stainless steel vacuum bottle, 99, 120

Nikkei (Nihon Keizai Shimbun), 45Nippon Columbia (Denon brand), 24,

226electronic audio equipment, 24

Nippon Denso, 42Nippon Steel, 12, 130, 169Nintendo, 7, 119, 125, 228

NPD alliance risk, 127trust relationship, 127–8

Nishikawa, T., 235Nissan Motors, 60, 130, 200, 201

“bootleg development”, 71, 72, 143cross-functional teams, 131NPD alliance

Toyota, 124, 129top management interference, 157

Nitto Denko, 12, 146–8creativity, 136R&D success, 146–50, 152small management committees, 28

Nordstrom, 17“first fifteen seconds”, 179

NKK, 130, 197NPD processes, xiii, 16, 26, 46, 48–70,

76, 79–81, 119–24, 227–8 see alsoglobal NPD; NPD alliances;project teams; innovativeorganizations; marketingintensive products; “seeds”oriented development;technology intensive products

basic concepts of, 69–71concept formation, 59–60

information collection, 47–8, 56company strategy link, xiv, 20, 129

outsourcing, 93cross-functional teams, 34, 77–8

Task Force, 47environmental implications, 9fashionable apparel, 67–8incubation departments, 122–3objective-setting criteria, 16marketing intensive products, 54–9

256 Index

“missile-type”/“spiral-type”projects, 72

new globalizationemerging economies, 81–3

product launches, 41–4product life cycle, 2spiral system, 64Stage-Gate system, 74–5stages in, 20, 22stoppage in, 186–90

after launch suspension, 187–9sub-processes, 71–5technology intensive products, 46–54top management, 28

NPD alliances, 125risks in, 126success factors, 127–8, 224–33types of, 124

NPD stoppage/suspension, 186after launch sales, 187–9product mix considerations

case study: NUMMI, 196–7elimination, 189–90methods, 193–6problems, 188–9, 199–201strategic changes, 190–3unsuccessful products, 153, 154

Stage-Gate system, 74–5NTT, 35, 142, 207

NPD risks, 127Nutt, P.C., 44

Okamoto, S., 15, 235, 236Osborn, A.F., 235, 137

checklist, 107–9Otsuka, 53organizational structure, 155, 203, 227–8

centralized authorityNPD, 117project teams, 120

cross-functional teams, 131function-based/product-based, 116,

117innovative organizations, 128–32R&D

“mechanical”/“organic”, 133–4,122, 146–7, 148, 152

social responsibility, 220–3top management, 233

outsourcing, 92, 125, 191components, 42cost reduction/control, 91horizontal specialization, 73globalization

loss of core competencies, 91–3ideas for new products, 71“smile curve” principle, 190

Oyama, T., 237

Palm, 7improved PDA, 7

patents/copyrights, 23, 35, 47, 82,144, 149, 172, 194

Canon Task Force, 49commodity goods, 68–9control over assets, 7Daiichi

monitoring for new compounds,53

emerging economies, 89entry barrier, 43“inventing around”, 73Motorola’s generation of, 90product protection, 73, 175–6pricing consideration, 169sources of information, 140, 147, 206

Pearson, A.E., 235Pepsi, 7, 25, 130Perrier, 182, 185Peugeot, 60Pelz, D.D., 15, 236Penrose, E., 235Pessemier, E.A., 15, 235Pfizer, 127

NPD alliance risk, 127pharmaceutical industry, 8, 19, 41,

176, 207, 234 see also drugdevelopment

complaint response, 181emerging economies, 84information collection, 104NPD process, 19, 186

case study: antibacterial agent,49–54

cost/risk sharing, 91, 124, 127development costs, 35, 169

R&D investment, 10, 134technology intensive products, 46

Index 257

Philips, 11, 43, 132product improvement, 7vertical cooperation

Sony, 125, 127pioneers/pioneering, 1, 6, 7, 23, 33

absence of entry barriers, 42–3“experience goods”, 8internet for sales, 10risks and rewards of, 6–8

Point of Sales (POS), 65, 206, 208, 209internet as a medium, 70

Porter, M.E. (management strategytheorist), 177, 236

PPM (BCG) strategy/matrix, 94, 100,192–3

“cash cows’ exploitation, 192ideas for new products, 100planning insights, 193strategy formation models, 94

Prahalad, C.K., 45, 85, 235price competition, 6, 21, 64, 101,

102, 132, 172, 179, 185, 208,209, 213

commodity goods, 68, 191counter-intuitive thinking, 106differentiated goods, 42, 44diffusion of product, 163, 178innovation, 42, 58integral architecture, 191intellectual property rights, 89

low-end products, 91outsourcing

premium, 17, 54, 57, 68, 111, 112“penetration pricing”, 169, 177strong brand image, 54, 178, 179top management involvement, 98

process engineering, 62, 63Procter and Gamble, 80, 83, 92

Liquid Tide, 80profit/profitability, 1, 2, 11, 13, 26,

41, 55, 102, 115, 130, 147, 151–2,160, 206, 218

alliances/cooperation, 35, 77commodity goods, 73cost-benefit analysis, 74definition of failure, 19, 20globalization, 85horizontal specialization, 73ICI, 200

“missile-type”/“spiral-type” projects,72

NPD, 76outsourcing, 91pioneering, 7social responsibility, 39“smile curve” 69USA Today, 174

product champions, 23, 170, 227inter-departmental cooperation, 77,

122product characteristics, 5, 4, 22, 34,

50, 51, 68, 225concept formation, 17evaluation of

conjoint analysis, 111–13segment maps/product traits,

110–11technology intensive products, 46testing/trials, 57

product concepts/ideas, 63, 94–5,100–13

core competencies, 117–19creation of, 101–2contradictory product features,

109–10information collection seeds or

needs, 70speed of development, 75–8, 202–6sources of, 72, 96–9

“bootleg development”, 71organizing for, 114–17

product differentiation, 21, 22, 44,63, 99, 172, 225

entry barrier, 43, 175commodity goods, 67

price premium, 8marketing intensive products, 54,

56modularization, 42pricing, 191

product failure, 24, 32, 44, 205causes/factors, 17–19, 21, 23–7cooperation

inter-departmental, 33–6coordination, 31–3core competencies, 21

developing/acquiring, 36–41definition of, 17

258 Index

R&D interface, 34top management, 54

composition of, 27–31decision-making, 25–7passivity/arbitrariness, 23–5

product launch, 20, 41, 43–4, 56–7,178–85 see also contingencyplans; distributionsystems/channels; sales channels;sequential strategy

differentiation problems, 42problem handling, 188

stoppage/suspension, 186–93problems with, 22success factors

case study: Asahi, 173–7case study: USA Today, 174effectiveness of, 231–3post-launch, 171–3

trial production/testing, 49, 56IT, 61

product life cycle, 2environmental considerations,

222–3extension by

older globalization, 80outsourcing, 91–3

product mix, xv, 118, 119, 131, 202analysis of, 3centralization for, 116

planning department role, 149,204

R&D role, 151top management role, 20–2, 227

changes in, 41, 186–9, 194–201,227, 228

“cassette merchandizing”, 65–7environment, 40, 226strategic models for, 190–3

elimination, 197–9, 200post-launch, 189–93problems of, 199–200strategic reshuffling, 12, 23, 39,

190strategic focus, 11

product planning, 63, 68, 149, 204fashionable apparel, 65–7

product portfolio matrix (PPM) seePPM (BCG) strategy/matrix

product/market protection, 73–4“absolute cost advantage”, 176intellectual property rights, 73, 89

project teams, 4, 54, 78, 120, 128,131, 147, 230

cross-functional, 58–9, 77incubation departments, 122–3marketing intensive products, 56NPD effectiveness, 114

internal ventures, 119, 123–4success factors, 122virtual teams, 87

Quanta Corporation, 92

radar chart, 5hotels, 6product evaluation, 111

R&D, xiii, 10, 11, 34, 227 see alsoincubation model (of researchorganization)

collaboration, 35management

survey of, 134–40organizations

characteristics of, 134–6, 138creativity in, 133, 137–9examples of success, 146–7innovative, 128–32“organic” structures of, 133–5project selection/evaluation by,

143–6raw materials, 119, 183

competitive advantage, 43absolute cost advantage, 176

commodity goods, 68, 69fashionable apparel, 69

Raynor, M., 16, 45, 236RCA, 74rewards, 153, 219

evaluation, 154intrinsic motivation, 137, 154technological success, 27, 125

allocation in collaborative effort,35

risks and rewardspioneers, 6–8

Roberts, E.B., 235Roddick, Anita, 214

Index 259

Roddick, Gordon, 214Rogers, E., 15Ross, J., 235Rumelt, R., 44, 236

sales channels, 21, 55, 62, 97, 158,160, 162, 174, 176–7, 196, 225

commodity goods, 69competition

entry barriers, 132, 175elimination problems, 198, 199price considerations, 57product concept, 101, 102product launch, 172–3, 231–3retail

direct outlets, 64, 227exclusive, 69Point of Sales (POS) system, 65

Salzman, Dr H. (Urban Institute,Washington), xvi

Sanderson, S.W., 234Sanyo Electric, 148–52

small management committees, 28Sapporo, 105–6

“Draft-One” beer, 105–6Schilling, M.C., 15Schlitz Beer, 26

“green beer”, 26science and technology human

resources, 81, 82, 84, 85, 93“Seagire” project/amusement center,

26, 70, 72Sears, 36, 131“seeds” oriented development, 69, 98,

153, 206 see also NPD processesmatrix for new product ideas, 100new fashions, 70technological possibilities, 96, 142,

150segment map, 4, 5

product characteristic evaluation,110–11

sequential strategy, 171–2, 174risk in use of, 232

Seiko, 36, 38, 40, 98, 121, 130, 227Crystal Quartz Chronometer, 99

Selera Genomics, 124NPD alliance

Takeda Pharmaceutical, 124

Senge, P.M., 15Serapio, M., 235Sharp, 7, 98, 126, 175, 230

project teams (“Kinpro”), 122Shimaguchi, M., 236Shinetsu Chemical, 191

integral architecture, 191Shiseido, 14, 21, 22, 33

advertising, 18brand image, 178–81case study: Tactics hairdressing,

16–19Showa Denko, 15, 210

suspension after launch, 187Siemens, 12, 42, 83

CT scanners, 43, 132product improvement, 7

Simon, H.A., 237Smith, D.K., 33, 45, 235Snow, C.C., 202, 203, 236Snow Brand Products Co., Ltd., 181,

182, 185, 188Solectron, 91social responsibility, xv, 39, 179, 210,

233environmentally-friendly products,

159, 209–20product life cycle, 222–3“good enough” solutions, 218systems and organizations of, 220–2

Sommerlatte, T., 16Sony, 24, 73, 99, 117, 121, 151, 170,

178, 194, 195, 201, 206, 243PlayStation, 7, 98, 99, 125, 127failure

Betamax video recorder, 35, 126,127, 177, 227

portable transistor radio, 74, 192selective distribution policy

feedback sources, 173, 232strategic planning departments, 33top management involvement, 129

small team, 204vertical cooperation

Philips, 11, 125Walkman, 6, 8, 43, 44, 96, 98, 101,

132, 157, 171, 175, 227, 232specialization, 23, 59, 73, 117

assets, 176, 178

260 Index

conceptual skills, 29corporate knowledge, 176differentiated and commodity

goods, 68integral architecture competencies,

191life cycle extension, 91project team members, 147raw materials, 69“smile curve” profits, 190

spin offsinternal ventures, 123–4

spiral system/processes, 48, 64, 236see also feedback process/system;concept creation/formation

constant information feedback, 142“dynamic market products”, 63NPD type, 72–3

Stalker, G.M., 235standardization, 69, 191

commoditization, 42cost reduction, 61–3machine-like organizations, 133modular architecture, 190–1

Starbucks, 179Steele, R., 236Steiner, G., 15Sternberg, R.J., 15, 236strategic decisions see decisions, type

ofstrategic planning, 114, 119, 204–5

centralized authority, 31, 115, 116groups/departments, 11, 33, 114,

115–17, 128, 204–5, 226Canon/Sony, 129support to internal ventures, 123

Japanese steelmakers, 130–1long-range strategy, 150NPD

speed of development, 203success, 225

strategy formation, 94, 203success factors, 53, 57, 68, 223, 226

cooperation, 229–31core competencies, 227–8decision-making, 228–9“dynamic marketing products”

fashionable apparel, 65integral architecture, 191

marketing intensive productsToyota Corolla, 62

NPDalliances, 127–8processes, 224–33

product launch effectiveness, 231–3after launch, 171–7

project teams, 122technology intensive products

Canon copier, 49drug development, 53

Sugimura, K., 236Sumitomo Metals, 130surveys, 28, 66, 96, 100–1, 103 see

also information collection;marketing research/marketresearch

corporate performance, 13decision-making, 29factor analysis, 110

failures, 20, 21, 23, 27, 33, 42information collection, 58

marketing intensive products, 56new products, 13, 17, 121R&D, 134–40, 142reinterpretation of, 105–7

technology intensive products,47–8

responses to, xiii, 14SWOT analysis, 94, 96, 182–3

Taisei Construction, 95Sylvania, 74synergy, 57, 158, 159

competence development, 26product mix changes, 193role in diversification, 44

Taisei Corporation, 94, 95SWOT analysis, 94

Takahashi, T., 235Takeda, Professor Akihiro (of Kansai

Kokusai University), xvi, 234Takeda Pharmaceutical

NPD allianceSelera Genomics, 124

task force concept, 47technological success/excellence, 119,

125, 133, 134, 192, 213–14centers of, 79, 80, 81, 84

Index 261

technological success/excellence – continued

competitive success, 134contradictory product features, 109–13core competencies, 117–19globalization, 80market failure, 27product failure, 33

EMI CAT scanner, 42–3, 44Xerox PC, 33, 230

speed of development, 76factors affecting, 145–6

technologies/technology-based, 2, 3,4, 36, 46–54, 82, 84, 99, 117, 141,191

competitive edge, 43, 134, 175entry barriers, 43

disruptive, 3, 16IT, 70manufacture, 10, 15, 38, 39

decline in, 13modularization, 42new product concept, 2, 125, 126,

207, 233breakthroughs, 33, 109, 134, 167,

216–17challenges, 228“seeds”, 69, 99, 100, 142, 150

offshoring, 83paradigmatic shifts in, 8

technology intensive products, 46, 64,146, 156

categorization, 68, 75development of

case study: Canon, 46–9drugs, 49–54

NPD cycle time, 64processes of, 224, 228

Teece, D.J., 234Teijin, 194

plant closures, 194Texas Instruments, 83, 220Thomas, R.J., 15, 234, 235, 236top management, 4, 34, 47, 49, 72,

99, 128, 130–1, 137, 138, 143,205, 227

composition of, 130, 203size, 32, 129, 204teams, 27–31

conceptual skills of, 28–9control, 33cooperation, 121corporate ethics/business conduct,

220–1environmental matters, 222

decision-making, 25–7, 129, 148investment, 157product elimination, 161strategy, 149, 151, 225

new products, 233evaluation of, 18ideas for, 114speed of development, 145success factors, 225, 226

product failure, 20, 205accountability, 26arbitrariness, 24–5composition of, 27–31narrow specializations, 28passivity, 23–4

R&D support, 11, 54, 60, 76, 77,135, 150, 156

bootleg research, 62project teams, 78

Tokunaga, Naomi, 236Toray, 78, 98, 120, 122, 159, 176

carbon based fiber compositematerial, 70, 99

soft contact lens, 78, 99, 12contradictory product features,

109“Sarahara” amphibian swimming

suits, 106Toshiba, 39, 74, 128, 148, 176, 189,

196divestiture, 194

Toyota, 11, 75, 101, 102, 103, 104,127, 129, 130, 157, 212, 213,229

benchmarking, 60concurrent engineering, 59, 63, 77,

78, 214, 231contradictory product features

Yaris model, 109–10cooperation

case study: Corolla, 58–63, 78cross-functional teams, 77success factors, 62

262 Index

cost reduction, 61–3firm prices, 191HOQ (house of quality), 167hybrid car, 212–14Lexus, 101, 173

case study, 103exclusive/selective distribution,

173NPD alliance

GM (NUMMI), 127, 194, 196Matsushita Panasonic, 124risk in, 126

outsourcing, 42traditional markets, 3, 4

internationalization, 16Triad economies/multinationals, 79,

80, 83–4, 88, 91economic slow down, 11new globalization, 81, 82rapid growth, 9

Tushman, M., 15, 234

Uchihashi, A., 15, 234uncertainties, 46, 77, 232

contingency plans, 185drug development, 52, 53small market launch, 172technological, 53–4, 124

Ueda, T., 235Urakawa, T., 15Urban, G.L., 235USA Today, 165, 172, 185, 229, 232

limited advertising, 174sequential strategy, 171–3

US Steel, 130Uzumeri, M., 234

virtual teams, 86–7, 88Von Hippel, E.A., 235VW, 60

Wall Street Journal, 174sequential strategy, 171–3

Waters, J.A., 235Welch, Jack, 11, 190, 194, 201, 226,

234Westinghouse, George, 23Westinghouse Electric, 12, 23, 24, 39,

203, 226

Wheelwright, S.C., 15Winthrop Laboratories, 52

Wintomylon, 51Wipro, 92Womack, J., 235Woodman, R.W., 235World Company, 142, 155, 176

“cassette merchandizing”, 65–7NPD principles, 67–8quick response system, 65

withdrawal/elimination (ofproducts/brands), 9, 12, 14, 25,161, 177, 198, 213

environmental considerations, 219

methods of, 193–7post-launch, 189, 191–3problems of, 199–201product mix, 189, 204unprofitable products, 203

strategic reshuffle, 190World Trade Organization (WTO), 9,

90

Xerox PARC/Fuji Xerox, 45, 92, 133,134, 236

corporate planning/strategy, 72, 86

first personal computer, 33, 133–4,230

NPD capabilities, 92case study, 215–17

recycling parts, 211

Yamaha, 6, 12hand roll up piano key board,

106“silent piano”, 98, 99, 106

Yamanaka, N., 15, 235Yamanouchi, A., 15, 234Yasutake, K., 235Yoshida, P., 235Yoshida, Takeshi (Chief Engineer,

Toyota), 59Yoshikuni, Yozu (NTT researcher),

207

Zahra, S., 234Zenith, 12

Index 263