NIDEA

NIDEAWORKINGPAPERS

NationalInstituteofDemographicandEconomicAnalysis

No.8,July2020

NewZealandersinAustralia:migration,lifeandaspirations

FrancisL.CollinsandGauriNandedkar

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NIDEAWorkingPapersareintendedasaforumforthepublicationofselectedpapersonresearchproducedwithintheInstitute,fordiscussionandcommentamongtheresearchcommunityandpolicyanalystspriortomoreformalrefereeingandpublication.

The National Institute of Demographic and Economic Analysis is the only national institute ofdemographicandpopulation-focusedresearchinAotearoaNewZealand.Itundertakesresearchthathelpsinformchoicesandresponsestothedemographic,socialandeconomicinteractionsthatareshapingAotearoaNewZealand'sfuture.NIDEAisalsotheonlynationalresearchinstitutethatoffersa research-led major in population studies and graduate degrees in population studies anddemography.NIDEAresearchersareinternationallyandlocallyrecognisedandworkacrossthefourinter-connected themes: Māori and Indigenous Populations; Population Health and Equity;PopulationChange;andMigration.

DisclaimerTheviewsexpressedinthisreportarethoseoftheauthorsanddonotreflectanyofficialpositiononthepartofNIDEAortheUniversityofWaikato.

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NewZealandersinAustralia:migration,lifeandaspirations

FrancisL.Collinsa

GauriNandedkarb

aNationalInstituteofDemographicandEconomicAnalysis,Privatebag3105,Hamilton3240,AotearoaNewZealand;email:francis.collins@waikato.ac.nz

bNationalInstituteofDemographicandEconomicAnalysis,Privatebag3105,Hamilton3240,AotearoaNewZealand;email:gauri.nandedkar@waikato.ac.nz

© TeRūnangaTātariTatauranga|NationalInstituteofDemographicandEconomicAnalysis

TeWhareWānangaoWaikato|TheUniversityofWaikato

PrivateBag3105|Hamilton3240|Waikato,NewZealand

Email:nidea@waikato.ac.nz|visitusat:www.waikato.ac.nz/nidea/

ISSN2230-441X(Print)ISSN2230-4428(Online)

Referencinginformation:

Collins,F.L.andNandedkar,G.(2020).NewZealandersinAustralia:migration,lifeandaspirations.NIDEAWorkingPapersNo.8,UniversityofWaikato,NationalInstituteofDemographicandEconomicAnalysis.

Acknowledgements:ThisresearchwasfundedbyTeApārangiRoyalSocietyaspartofaRutherfordDiscoveryFellowshipprogramme:‘NationandMigration:populationmobilities,desiresandstatepracticesin21stcenturyAotearoaNewZealand’(UOW1401)ledbyFrancisL.Collins.TheauthorsaregratefultoShefaliPawarforcollatingdataandpreparingthepresentationofinformationonNewZealandcitizens’migrationtoandpopulationinAustralia;toRenaeDixonforsupportinpreparinginterviewsforanalysis;andProfessorRichardBedfordforprovidingathoroughpeerreviewofthisworkingpaper.TheauthorsalsowishtothankalloftheparticipantswhogenerouslyprovidedtheirtimetotelltheirstoriesofmigratingtoandlivinginAustralia–wewishyoualltheverybest.

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TableofContents

ExecutiveSummary 5

1.0Introduction 8

2.0LiteratureReview 9

3.0PopulationandMigrationofNewZealandersinAustralia 113.1RecentMigrationfromAotearoaNewZealandtoAustralia 113.2NewZealand-bornPopulationinAustralia 13

4.0MediaAccountsofTrans-TasmanMigration 17

5.0MigrationAspirationsandExperiences 215.1PathwaystoAustralia 225.2Transferabilityofskills 245.3Socialsupportandchanginglifecircumstances 265.4Familyandchildren 275.5Belonging,EthnicityandInclusion 295.6Futureplansandintentions 32

6.0Conclusion 34

References 37

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ExecutiveSummaryThisworkingpaperreportsonthemotivationsandaspirationsofNewZealanderslivingandworkinginAustralia.Thereportdrawsonresearchwith61NewZealandcitizensworkingandlivinginthreemajorAustralianurbanregions,Brisbane/GoldCoast,PerthandSydney.Participantswererecruitedforsemi-structured,biographically-orientedinterviewstoexploretheirmotivations,everydaylivesandfutureplans.Thereportaddressessixmajorthemesthatemergedacrossthethreestudysites:1)pathwaystoAustralia;2)transferabilityofskills;3)socialsupportandchanginglifecircumstances;4)familyandchildren;5)belonging,ethnicityandinclusion;and6)futureplansandintentions.

MigrationflowsbetweenAotearoaNewZealandandAustraliahavebeenongoingforovertwocenturies.Intheearly1970stheTrans-TasmanTravelArrangement(TTTA)formalisedandcodifiedthemovementofcitizensbetweenthetwocountries.Nearlythirtyyearslaterintheearly2000s,AustralianlegislationpassedundertheLiberal-NationalgovermentplacedrestrictionsontheabilityofNewZealandersmigratingtoAustraliatoaccesssocialwelfarebenefits,tertiaryeducationschemesandpathwaystocitizenship.Aninitialdownturninmigrationflowswasobserved,althoughthiswasrelativelyshort-termasmigrationflowsgrewagainparticularlyafter2008asaresultoftheAustralianminingboom.

Mediareportshavelongexplainedtrans-TasmanmigrationbasedonperceivedhighersalariesandwagesinAustralia,focusingoneconomicfactorsasprimarydriversofmigration.Significanteventsineachcountry,suchastheChristchurchearthquakesin2010and2011andtheminingboominAustraliaalsohelpexplainmovementflows.Inaddition,lifestylefactors,includingwarmerweatherandaccesstoleisureactivitiesaswellasfamilyreunificationalsounderpintheongoingmigrationofNewZealanderstoAustralia.

Existingresearchontrans-TasmanmigrationhaspaidcloseattentiontotheeconomicrelationshipbetweenAustraliaandAotearoaNewZealand,andsignificantemphasishasbeenplacedontheeconomicbasisofcyclicalmigrationflows.OtherresearchhasexaminedtheTTTAframework,itsimpactonmigrationflowsandthelivesofNewZealandcitizensinAustralia.WiththeintroductionoflegislativechangesinAustraliain2001,researchersnotedtherewerenosignificantlongtermimpactsontheflowofNewZealandcitizenstoAustralia.However,therewasanotablediminishmentoftherightsofsomeNewZealanderswhowereunabletoaccesscitizenshipandcouldincreasinglybecharacterisedas‘indefinitetemporaries.’

PathwaystoAustraliaTrans-Tasmanmigrationoccursformultiplereasons,takingshapearoundshiftingeconomiccircumstances,aspirationsforcareeradvancementandopportunitiestotravel,aswellasinrelationtodifferentlifestageexperiencesandopportunities.Inmanyinstancesthebiographiesofparticipantsinthisresearchhighlightedmigrationpathwaysthatrelatedtoadesireforchangeinlifecircumstances,respondingtochangingconditions,

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and/orfollowingfamilyandfriendswhohadalreadymovedtoAustralia.Severalthemeswereparticularlyconsistentinthenarrativesofparticipants:perceptionsthateconomicconditionswerebetterinAustralia,especiallyassociatedwithhigherwagesandlowercostofliving;experiencesofinequalityanddiscriminationinAotearoaNewZealand;migrationtoAustraliabeingundertakeninresponsetochangeoflifecircumstances,especiallynotableamongstthosewhomovedinmidtolaterlife;andmigrationtoAustraliaasassociatedwithaspirationsforprofessionalcareerdevelopment.

TransferabilityofskillsWhilepotentialincome,employmentopportunitiesandcareeraspirationsweremajordriversofmigrationourresearchrevealedsomedifferencesintheextenttowhichpeopleareabletotransferlabourmarketskillsinmigration.EducationalqualificationsfromNewZealandinstitutionswerewidelyrecognisedbyAustralianemployers,particularlyforthoseparticipantsinprofessionaloccupations.Equally,severalparticipantsworkedinindustrieswhereregulatoryframeworksand/orbusinesspracticesweresharedbetweenAustraliaandAotearoaNewZealand.Inasmallernumberofcases,particularlyassociatedwithminingandbuildingsectors,therewasaneedtogaincertificatesinAustraliabeforegainingemployment,regardlessofhowmuchexperiencejobapplicantshad.ThetransferabilityofskillsprovidesaplatformofsmoothtransitionsintotheAustralianworkforce,ataken-for-grantedinfrastructurethatsupportsongoingmigrationacrosstheTasmansea.

SocialsupportandchanginglifecircumstancesAcommonthemeinrecentmediaaccountsoftrans-TasmanmigrationhasbeenthelackofsocialsecurityavailabletoNewZealanders.Forthemajorityofparticipantsinthisresearch,incontrast,limitedaccesstosocialsecurityandothergovernmentsupportwasnotidentifiedasasignificantissue.Indeed,someparticipantsbelievedthat,asnon-citizens,NewZealandersshouldhavenoentitlementtogovernmentsupportinAustralia.AsmanyparticipantsviewedwagesasbetterinAustralia,andlivingcostslower,theperceptionwasthattheyhadnoneedofanykindofsocialsecuritysupport.OurresearchalsorevealedthatforthoseparticipantswhofacedunanticipatedlifechangesinAustraliatheimpactsoflimitedsocialsupportcanbesignificant.Participantswhohadaccidents,experiencedrelationshipbreakdownsorfacedbusinessdifficultiesoftenfoundthemselvesindifficultsocialandeconomicsituationsinAustraliabut,asaresultoflimitedjobopportunities,debtorotherissues,theywerealsounabletoeffectivelyreturntoAotearoaNewZealand.

FamilyandchildrenMigrationisoftenarrangedaroundorhasimpactsonfamily,requiresthemaintenanceofrelationshipstransnationally,orcaninfluencetheextenttowhichpeoplearesettledinaparticularplace.ForparticipantswhowereinrelationshipswithandhadchildrenwithotherNewZealandcitizensasubstantialconcernwasthefuturerightsofthesechildren,whethertheywereborninAustraliaorhadmovedthereatarelativelyyoungage.ManywereunclearabouttherightsaccordedtochildrenandwereworriedaboutwheretheirchildrenwouldliveifitwasnolongerpossibletoremaininAustralia.ParticipantswithchildrenwhowereorhadbeeninrelationshipswithAustraliancitizenshadgreaterclarity

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ontheirchildren’srightsasAustraliancitizensbutsometimesalsofacedparticularlyprecarioussituationsthemselves.Anumberofinstancesofdomesticviolenceandbrokenrelationshipswerediscussedbyparticipants,situationsthatoftentrappedNewZealandwomeninAustralia–unabletoreturntoAotearoaNewZealandwiththeirAustraliancitizenchildrenandineligibleforgovernmentsupportevenifsoleparentingrolesmadeemploymentuntenable.

Belonging,EthnicityandInclusionParticipantsinthisresearchdescribedvariedexperiencesofbelongingandinclusionthatoftenrelatedtoethnicity.AroundtwothirdsofparticipantsidentifiedasPākehā/NewZealandEuropeanandalmostallarticulatedaviewthattheyfacedveryfewbarrierstoinclusionintheirdailylives.Bycontrast,Māori,PacificandAsianparticipantsweremuchmorelikelytodescribeincidentsofracialdiscriminationeitherastargetsofracialisedcommentsorasobserversofincidentsofracism.Someparticipantsnotedthatwhiletheywereacceptedascolleaguesorpeersintheworkplace,thiswasnotnecessarilythecaseinanout-of-workenvironment.

FuturePlansAlloftheparticipantsinthisresearchhadmigratedtoAustraliawithinthepreviousdecade.Notwithstandingsomeofthecomplexsocialsituationsthatsomeencountered,participantsweregenerallysatisfiedwiththeirlivesinAustraliaandfeltthattheyhadmadetherightchoiceinmigratingthere.Formany,higherwagesandanabilitytogetaheadfinanciallywassufficientrewardforthecostsofbeingawayfromwhanau/familyandtheplacestheygrewup.NoparticipantshadappliedforAustraliancitizenshiporpermanentresidencealthoughmanyexpressedconcernabouttheirlong-termstatusinAustraliaasNewZealandcitizens.MostparticipantsenvisagedremaininginAustraliaoverthenextdecadewhileasmallernumberidentifiedparticulartimeframesforreturn,oftenassociatedwithretirement.

ConclusionFormanyparticipantsinthisresearchmigrationtoAustraliahasfulfilledexpectationsasarelativelyeasy,economicallyadvantageousopportunityforNewZealandcitizens.Participantsundertookmigrationtoimprovetheirsocialandeconomicsituationandmanybelievedthatthishadbeenachieved.Equally,adaptationtolifeinAustraliawasrelativelyunproblematicformostparticipants,evenifmanyhadconcernsabouttheirortheirfamily’sfuturewithoutthesecurityofcitizenship.Whatwehavealsoseen,however,isthattrans-Tasmanmigrationisnotonlyeconomicallydriven–itcanbeinfluencedbysignificantchangesinpersonalcircumstancesoreconomicfortunesinAoteaoraNewZealand.Equally,whilethemajorityofparticipantsweresatisfiedwiththeirsituationinAustralia,anotableminorityhadencountereddifficultiesassociatedwithemployment,healthandfamilylifethatwereclearlyexacerbatedbythelackofsocialandpoliticalrightsthatNewZealandcitizenshaveinAustralia.

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1.0IntroductionMigrationbetweenAotearoaNewZealandandAustraliahasbeencommonplacesincethe19thcentury,sustainedbyMāorisocialandeconomicactivity,settlercolonialrelationsandsystems,andthegrowingdiversityofmigrationflowsintobothcountries(Bedford,2019;Fraser,2019).Since1973,therelativelylimitedregulationofmigrationacrosstheTasmanSeahasalsobeenformalisedintheTrans-TasmanTravelArrangement,whichprovidesforvisa-freeaccessforcitizensofbothcountriesaswellastheabilitytoliveandworkindefinitelyineachcountry(Bedford,2006).Asaresult,trans-Tasmanmigrationisoftenviewedasaright,particularlybyNewZealandcitizenswho,sincethe1960s,havemigratedlong-termacrosstheTasmaninmuchgreaternumbersthanAustraliancitizenshave(Poot2010).Atthesametime,inAotearoaNewZealandtrans-Tasmanmigrationhasgeneratednationalanxietyandpoliticalangst,becauseitispresumedtoleadtobraindrain,reflectsrelativelypooreconomicdevelopmentincomparisontoitsclosestneighbour,anddeniesthenationofmanyofitsmostimportantdevelopmentalresource-youngpeople(Gamlen,2013).Inthe2016Australiancensus,therewere518,461NewZealand-bornpeopleusuallyresidentinthecountry,or2.2%oftheAustralianpopulation.ThisfiguredoesnotincludeAustralianoroverseas-bornNewZealandcitizenswhohavemigratedtoAustralia.WhiletherehasbeensomeresearchundertakenonthepopulationofNewZealandcitizensinAustralia(Hugo,2004),onMāoripopulationsinparticular(Hamer,2007;KukutaiandPawar,2013),andonpoliticalrightsandidentity(Hamer,2014and2018;MacMillan,2017;Morey,2020),thereremainssignificantknowledgegapsaroundthedriversofmigration,thedifferentexperiencesthatNewZealandcitizenshaveinAustraliaandthelongtermimplicationsoftrans-Tasmanmigration.Thisreportprovidesanoverviewofthefindingsofaresearchprojectthathassoughttoexaminethepresence,practicesandaspirationsofNewZealandcitizensinAustraliainrelationtoshiftingregulatorysettings,conceptionsofnationalidentityandfutureplannedmobility.ThestudyexaminesbothNewZealand-andoverseas-bornNewZealandcitizenslivinginAustraliainordertocaptureprocessesofoutwardmigrationalongsideinstancesofmultiplemigration.Indoingso,thestudyexplorestheplaceofNewZealandcitizensinAustraliawithspecialreferencetoimplicationsforimaginingsandenactmentsofnationalidentityandpoliticsbeyondthebordersofthenation-state.Thebroaderstudy,ofwhichthisprojectisapart,asksthefollowingquestions:WhatcharacterisestheNewZealandpopulationinAustraliaandhowhasitalteredinrelationtoshiftingregulationofmigrantrights?Whatsortsofaspirationsdrivetrans-Tasmanmobility?HowaretheseaspirationsgeneratedinimaginariesofAustraliaandfutureplans?Whataretheimpactsofnon-citizenshiponthelivesofNewZealandersinAustralia?Whatroledonationaloriginandethnicityplayinthedailylivesandfuturemobilityplansofmigrants?InthisreportweoverviewkeyfindingsfrominterviewsundertakenwithNewZealandcitizenslivingintheBrisbaneandGoldCoast,PerthandSydneyurbanareas.Wefocusin

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particularonsummarisingthepathwaysthatmigrantstaketoAustralia;thetransferabilityofskillsforthoseworking;socialsecurityandsupport;familyandchildren;belonging,ethnicityandinclusion;andfutureplans.Acomprehensiveaccountoftheresearchandmorecriticalinquiryintokeyquestionswillbeaddressedinsubsequentpublications.Inordertosupplementouroverviewoffindingsfrominterviews,thereportbeginswithareviewofcurrentliteratureontrans-Tasmanmigration,followedbyadiscussionofmediareportingovertheperiodofstudy(2008-2018),andasnapshotoftheNewZealand-bornpopulationinAustraliafromthe2016censusandofrecentmigrationpatternsfromStatisticsNewZealanddataonlong-termdeparturesandarrivals.

2.0LiteratureReviewAotearoaNewZealandandAustraliahavebeendescribedashavinga‘specialandcloserelationship’(Nolan,2015)markedbyrobustpoliticalallianceandunhinderedmovementofpeopleformostofthetwentiethcentury.Settlercoloniallinks,stronglanguageties,similarpoliticalandinstitutionalstructures,andculturalfamiliaritymakeAustraliaanattractivedestinationforNewZealandcitizensseekinganoverseasexperience–short-termorlong-term(LidgardandGilson,2002).ThisspecialrelationshipwascodifiedinFebruary1973byNewZealandandAustraliagovernmentsundertheTrans-TasmanTravelArrangement(TTTA)whichgrantedrightstocitizensofbothcountriestomovefreelybetweenbothnations(Bedford,2006).Thisfreedomofmovementpermittedliving,workingandstudyinginbothnationsforanunlimitedperiod(Bedford,2006).TheTTTAisnotbindingoneithercountry,however,andlegislativechangessincethe2000shaveplacedNewZealandcitizensinanincreasinglydisadvantagedposition,leadingsomecommentatorstoseetheirstatusas‘indefinitetemporaries’(BirrellandRapson,2001).Whilescholarsnotethattheflowbetweenthetwonationshasbeen‘cyclical’intermsoflong-termdeparturesandarrivals,thenetbalanceofpermanentandlong-termmigrationsincethemid-1960shasbeenheavilyinfavourofAustralia(Poot,2010;SinningandStillman,2012).

In2001undertheLiberal-NationalGovernmentledbyJohnHoward,AustraliaimplementedlegislationthatbeganrestrictingNewZealandcitizens’abilitytoaccesssocialsecuritybenefitsavailabletomigrants,includingblockingaccesstopathwaystoAustraliancitizenship,amongotherprohibitivemeasures.Commentatorsassertedatthetimethatthischangewasaresultofthe‘crackdown’onNewZealandcitizensof‘third-countryorigin’(BirrellandRapson,2001),particularlypeoplewhohadbeenborninPacificislandandAsiannationsandrefugeesacceptedbyNewZealandfromAfricaandtheMiddleEast(Bedford,et.al.,2003).Indeed,Faulkner(2015)notesthatthe2001changescanbeperceivedas‘indirectracediscrimination’astheHowardGovernmentwaskeentodiscourageso-called‘backdoorentry’intoAustraliaviathird-countrymigrantsobtainingNewZealandcitizenshipandsubsequentimmigrationtoAustralia(seealsoHamer,2014;PootandSanderson,2007).However,afterabriefdeclineindeparturespost2001,theflowofoutboundNewZealandersreturnedtoanupwardtrendandwhiletrans-Tasmannet

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migrationremainscyclicaltherehavecontinuedtobenetlossesofpopulationfromAotearoaNewZealandtoAustraliainthefirsttwodecadesofthiscentury(seesection3.1).

WhilethesechangesinAustraliahavehadanimpactonthestatusofNewZealandcitizens(MacMillan,2014),theyhavenothadasignificantinfluenceonthenumberofNewZealandcitizensmovingtoAustralia,particularlyattimeswheneconomicfactorsareadvantageousthere.NetmigrationtoAustraliareachedashighas32,300in2008and39,668in2012,althoughby2016thatfigurehadreducedtolessthan4,000.

Researchontrans-TasmanmigrationhasframedthisongoingmovementasevidenceofAustraliaandNewZealand‘constitutingonelabourmarket’(Hugo,2004;seealsoBrosnanandPoot,1987),whichleadstopersistentmovementstowardsAustraliagiventherelativeavailabilityoflabourmarketopportunities(PootandSanderson,2007).Inpreviousresearch,manyNewZealandersreportedthateconomicfactors,includingjobopportunitiesunavailableinNewZealand,werereasonsformigratingtoAustralia(Greenet.al.,2008).Inotherinstances,however,researchhasidentifiedmigrationtoAustraliaasbeingassociatedwithaspirationstogetawayfromviolence,limitedopportunities,familyresponsibilityandraciststereotyping,particularlyforMāoriandPacificpeoples(Hamer,2007;GeorgeandRodriguez,2009).DespitereportedlevelsofdissatisfactionwithlifeinNewZealand,culturalandsportingtiesarereportedtoremainstrongamongstNewZealandersidentifyingthemselvesassuch.Lifestyle,betterclimateandfamilyunificationarealsostrongfactorsinNewZealanders’decisionstorelocatetoAustralia(Green,2009).

Despitethecontinuedmigrationflowwestward,obtainingAustraliancitizenshiphasproventobeextremelydifficultforNewZealanderssince2001(McMillan2014;Morey2020).AsaresultofthechangesinAustralia’ssocialsecuritylegislationin2001,NewZealandersnolongerhaveaccesstoarangeofwelfarebenefits,oftenleavingsomein‘welfarelimbo’(Nolan,2015).Inaddition,institutionalbarriersandobstaclestostudentloansandeducationschemes(Hugo,2004)haveaddedtothenotionofthecreationofasizeableunderclasswithpermanentlyinferiorrightsandlimitedpathwaystocitizenship,exacerbatinginequalities(Faulkner,2013;Hamer,2018).TheserestrictionsmeanthatwhilemigrationtoAustraliacanstilloffereconomicadvantagestoNewZealandcitizens,itappearstobeincreasinglydelinkedfromprospectsforlong-termcitizenship,especiallyforthosewhodonothavetheprofessionalstatusoreconomiccapitaltoqualifyforresidencerightsthroughAustralia’sskilledmigrationprogramme(Morey,2020).ThissituationraisessignificantquestionsaboutthecurrentandfuturecompositionoftheNewZealandcitizenpopulationinAustralia,theirlevelsofintegrationintoeachnationalcontext(McMillan,2017)andtheimpactofindefinitenon-citizenstatusonmigration,everydaylifeandfutureaspirations.

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3.0PopulationandMigrationofNewZealandersinAustraliaToprovideademographiccontextfortheresearchdiscussedinthisreportweprovideanoverviewofrecentmigrationpatternsfromAotearoaNewZealandtoAustraliaandthecharacteristsicsoftheNewZealand-bornpopulationinAustralia.

3.1RecentMigrationfromAotearoaNewZealandtoAustraliaDataonrecentmigrationpatternstoAustraliadrawsoninternationaltravelandmigrationstatisticsheldbyStatisticsNewZealand.ThedatapresentedherewasgeneratedfrominformationprovidedonarrivalanddeparturecardsatNewZealandairports.1

Figure1:PLTMigrationtoAustratlia:NewZealandCitizens

Figure1presentsinformationonPLT(PermanentandLong-Term,12monthsormore)departuresandarrivalsaswellasnetflows.Reflectinghistoricalpatternsevidentsincethe1960s(Poot2010),theperiodbetween2008and2018hasseenaconsistentnetlossofNewZealandcitizenmigrantstoAustralia,althoughtheactualnumberofdeparturesdecreasedsubstantiallybetween2013and2018andnetflowsreachedalmostzero.ThedecreaseindeparturesandslightincreaseinPLTarrivalssince2013alignswithaneconomicdownturninAustraliaparticularlyassociatedwiththeminingindustry.

1Departurecardshavebeenphasedoutsince2018andStatisticsNewZealandhavedevelopednewtechniquesformeasuringarrivals,departuresandnetmigration.Whilethesemeasuresarearguablymoreprecisetheydonotprovidetheabilitytoanalyseoccupationthatisanimportantdimensionofcontextforthisstudy.

-60,000

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PLT Migration (Australia): NZ Citizens Departures Arrivals Net

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Figure2:PLTDeparturestoAustralia,NewZealandCitizensbyBirthplace

Figure2breaksdownPLTdeparturesbybirthplace.Thegraphshowsthattheproportionofoverseas-borncitizensdepartingtoAustraliahasincreasedthroughoutthisperiod,from17.8%in2008to26.4%,afigurethatisrelativelyclosetothe27.4%overallproportionofoverseas-bornpopulationresidentinAotearoaNewZealandatthetimeofthecountry’s2018census.

Figure3:AgeandsexpatternsforNewZealandcitizenPLTdepartures,2009,2012,2015,2018

Figure3providestheage-sexbreakdownofPLTdeparturesinfouryears,2009,2012,2015and2018.Thesepatternsarerelativelyconsistentineachyearwithpeopleunder35yearsofagemakingupalmostthreequartersofalldeparturesineachyear,andthoseaged15-24aloneconstitutingalmostoneinthreedepartures.ThesepatternsreflectthefocusofAustralia-boundmigrationonlabourmarketopportunitiesforyoungerworkers.Thefactthatover20%ofalldeparturesineachyearareaged14yearsandunderhighlightstheimportanceoffamilymigrationaswell.

81.8 82.3 80.8 81.6 81.3 79.7 78.5 77.2 75.4 73.1 73.2

17.8 17.3 18.9 18.0 18.3 19.8 21.1 22.6 24.3 26.6 26.4

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New Zealand Born Other Not captured/Not Stated

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10.8

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Figure4:OccupationalcategoriesofNewZealandcitizenPLTdepartures

Lastly,Figure4showstheoccupationalcategoriesofPLTdeparturesofNewZealandcitizensbetween2011and2018usingtheAustraliaandNewZealandStandardClassificationofOccupations(dataupto2010wasgatheredusingtheNewZealandStandardClassificationofOccupations).2OvertheeightyearsitisnotablethattheproportionofProfessionalsamongstNewZealandcitizendepartureshasincreasedfrom23.4%to27.3%,whiletherehasbeenaconcurrentdecreaseinTechniciansandTradesWorkersfrom21.8%to15.8%.OverthesameperiodtherehasbeenaslightincreaseintheproportionofLabourersfrom8.4%toapeakof10.7%in2016andadecreasesince2014ofCommunityandPersonalServiceWorkersfrom14.9%to12%in2018.ItshouldbenotedthatallofthesechangesinpercentageshaveoccurredastheoverallnumberofNewZealandcitizendepartureshavedeclinedsince2012(seeFigure1).

3.2NewZealand-bornPopulationinAustraliaDataontheNewZealand-bornpopulationinAustraliadrawsonresultsfromthe2016AustralianCensus.Atotalof518,461NZ-bornpeoplewerelivinginAustraliaatthetimeofthe2016Census,including104,041inBrisbane,46,084inGoldCoast,60,017inPerthand80,453inSydney.

2ANZSCOwasdevelopedin2006bytheAustralianBureauofStatisticsandStatisticsNewZealandto‘toprovideanintegratedframeworkforstoring,organisingandreportingoccupation-relatedinformation’thatiscomparableacrossthetwocountriesandinternationally.Itisusedextensivelyintheallocationofworkvisasandgrantingpointsforresidenceapplicationsinbothcountries,itwasrevisedinboth2009and2013.Seewww.abs.gov.au/ANZSCO.

10.2 9.6 9.6 9.4 9.3 8.9 9.4 9.1

23.4 23.0 21.8 22.8 23.9 25.8 26.7 27.3

21.8 20.4 19.6 17.4 17.0 16.7 16.2 15.8

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Managers ProfessionalsTechnicians & Trades Workers Community & Personal Service WorkersClerical & Admin Workers Sales WorkersMachinery Operators & Drivers Labourers

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Figure5:Age-SexofNZ-bornlivinginAustralia

Figure5providestheage-sexbreakdownnationallyforNZ-borninAustraliaandFigure6showsthepercentageofNZ-bornofdifferentageslivingineachofthedifferentmetropolitanregionsrelevantforthisstudy.Similartoothermigrantpopulations,theNewZealand-bornpopulationinAustraliaisconcentratedinworkingageswithlowproportionsofchildrenandpeopleoversixtyyearsofage.Similarly,Figure6showsthatinallfourmetropolitanregionsdiscussedinthisreport,65%ormoreofNZ-bornpeoplearebetween25and64yearsofage.GoldCoastrevealsaslightlydifferentpatternwithahigherpercentageofNZ-born65yearsandolder(15.4%comparedtolessthan10%inallothercities),andalowerproportionof25-44yearolds(33%comparedto34.7%forallofAustralia).

Figure7:Ancestryresponses(combined)Māoriandnon-Māori

Figure7showsthecombinedancestryresponsesforNZ-borninrelationtoMāoriandnon-Māori.Overall,17.3%oftheNZ-bornpopulationinAustraliain2016identifiedwithMāoriancestry,slightlyhigherthanthe17.1%identifiedbyKukutaiandPawar(2013)fromthe2011AustralianCensus.MāorimakeupaparticularlyhighpercentageofNZ-borninPerth(24.2%)whileonly16.3%ofNZ-borninSydneyidentifywithMāoriancestry.

6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0

0-45-9

10-1415-1920-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445-4950-5455-5960-6465-6970-7475-7980-8485-8990-9495-99100+

Proportion (%)

Ag

e g

roup

(in

ye

ars

)

Australia

Male

Female

17.3 16.3 18.3 19.8 24.2

80.3 81.3 79.6 77.8 73.5

0%

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40%

60%

80%

100%

Australia Sydney Gold Coast Brisbane Perth

Anc

est

ry re

spo

nse

s (c

om

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)

Supplementary codes/ Not Stated NZ Born Māori NZ Born non-Māori

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

40.0

Australia Sydney Gold Coast Brisbane Perth

% o

f NZ-

bo

rn li

ving

in A

ustr

alia

0-14 yrs 15-24 yrs 25-44 yrs 45-64 yrs 65+ yrs

Figure6:AgegroupsofNZ-bornlivinginAustraliancities

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Table1:NZ-bornancestryresponses

Table1showsthefullancestry1st(of2)responsesfortheNZ-bornpopulationinAustralia.TheOceaniancategoryincludes‘NewZealandPeoples’(coveringMāoriandNewZealander)aswellasPolynesianandAustralianPeoples,amongstothers.Regionalvariationisapparentforsomeancestrygroups,particularly‘North-WestEuropean’whorepresentnearly71.5%ofNZ-borninGoldCoastbutonly63.9%nationallyand54.9%inSydney.TherearemuchhighernumbersofNorthAfricanandMiddleEastern,South-EastAsian,North-EastAsianandSouthandCentralAsianNewZealanderslivinginSydneythaninotherurbanareas,collectivelymakingup7.7%.NZ-bornofSub-SaharanAfricanancestryaremorelikelytoliveinPerththaninothercities.

Figure8:Highestqualification,NZ-born15+

Figure8presentsinformationontheeducationlevelsoftheNZ-bornpopulation.Forthose15yearsandolder,43.6%haveschoollevelqualifications,31.8%havevocationalqualificationsand15.6%havebachelor’sdegreesorhigher.Incontrast,23.2%oftheusuallyresidentNewZealandpopulationhaveabachelor’sdegreeorhigherand28.1%havevocationalqualifications.AmongsttheNZ-bornpopulationinAustraliaitisnotablethatthoselivinginSydneyaremuchmorelikelytohavebachelor’sdegreeorhigher(23.0%)andlesslikelytohavevocationalqualificationsinparticular(25.8%).

Ancestry 1st Response no. % no. % no. % no. % no. %

Oceanian 147,031 28.4 26,807 33.3 10,876 23.6 31,600 30.4 17,605 29.3North-West European 331,250 63.9 44,180 54.9 32,947 71.5 65,385 62.8 38,602 64.3Southern and Eastern European 5,258 1.0 1,009 1.3 545 1.2 896 0.9 565 0.9North African and Middle Eastern 1,687 0.3 669 0.8 61 0.1 144 0.1 101 0.2South-East Asian 2,806 0.5 665 0.8 91 0.2 458 0.4 139 0.2North-East Asian 8,178 1.6 2,999 3.7 363 0.8 1,421 1.4 391 0.7Southern and Central Asian 6,720 1.3 1,932 2.4 168 0.4 1,068 1.0 528 0.9Peoples of the Americas 604 0.1 116 0.1 43 0.1 121 0.1 59 0.1Sub-Saharan African 2,388 0.5 185 0.2 61 0.1 368 0.4 625 1.0Supplementary codes/Not Stated 12,545 2.4 1,895 2.4 939 2.0 2,585 2.5 1,405 2.3Total 518,462 100.0 80,454 100.0 46,087 100.0 104,036 100.0 60,017 100.0

Australia Sydney Gold Coast Brisbane Perth

9.0 8.8 8.9 8.6 9.0

43.6 42.4 46.0 46.8 47.0

31.8 25.835.3 32.7 32.0

15.6 23.09.8 11.9 12.0

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Australia Sydney Gold Coast Brisbane PerthHig

hest

Qua

lific

atio

n, N

Z-Bo

rn 1

5+ y

rs

Supplementary Codes/Not Stated School level qualifications

Vocational qualifications Bachelor's Degree or higher

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Figure9:Occupationofemployment(employed,15+years)

Inrelationtolabourforcestatus,70.1%oftheNZ-bornpopulationin2016wasemployedinfullorpart-timework,rangingbetween69.4%(GoldCoast)and72.9%(Sydney)acrossthemetropolitanregions.Figure9presentsinformationbymajoroccupationtypes.ReflectingtheregionalvariationineducationlevelsofAustralia’sNZ-bornpopulation,peopleinSydneyaremorelikelytobeemployedasManagersandProfessionals.Othernotablegeographicalvariationsinclude11.2%ofNZ-borninGoldCoastworkingassalesworkers(comparedto8.1%acrossAustralia)and15.7%ofNZ-borninPerthworkingasmachineryoperatorsanddrivers(comparedto11.7%nationally),likelyconnectedtominingactivityinPerth.

12.8

16.0

11.5

10.9

9.6

17.7

23.3

12.9

14.6

13.9

13.5

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13.2

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Australia

Sydney

GoldCoast

Brisbane

Perth

% of employed 15+ year NZ Born population

Managers Professionals

Technicians & Trades Workers Community & Personal Service Workers

Clerical & Administrative Workers Sales Workers

Machinery Operators & Drivers Labourers

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Table2:Industryofemployment(employed,15+years),NZ-born

Table2presentsinformationonindustryofemploymentfortheNZ-borninAustraliain2016.ThedatashowsthatNZ-bornareemployedacrossavarietyofindustriesinAustralia.Therearealsoregionalvariationsofparticularnote.InSydneytherewerehigherproportionsinprofessional,scientificandtechnicalservices(10.2%comparedto6.5%nationally)andfinancialandinsuranceservices(7.2%comparedto3.7%nationally).PerthandGoldCoasthaveover14%inconstruction(comparedto10.6%nationally)and8.9%ofNZ-borninPerthareemployedinmining(comparedto3.2%nationally).InBrisbanehigherpercentageswereemployedinmanufacturing(9.7%comparedto7.6%nationally)andtransport,postalandwarehousing(9.0%comparedto7.0%).

4.0MediaAccountsofTrans-TasmanMigrationOverthecourseofthelastdecadetrans-TasmanmigrationhasbeenaperennialfeatureinNewZealandmediawithcommentaryplacingparticularemphasisoneconomicchangesasadrivingforceofmigrationflows.3Otherfactorsthatemergeregularlyrelatetodifferences

3InordertosetthesocialbackdropforthisresearchonthemigrationexperiencesandaspirationsofNewZealandcitizensinAustraliaweundertookareviewofmediaaccountsoftrans-Tasmanmigrationbetween2008and2018.LargedailynewspapersandnewswiresinNewZealandwereexaminedviatheNewztextmediadatabase.NewspaperssuchasTheNewZealandHerald,OtagoDailyTimesandDominionPostaswellasonlinenationalnewsmediaoutletssuchasStuffwereincludedintheanalysis.Keywordsenteredintothesearchengineincludedtrans-Tasmanmigration,Australia,NewZealand,Kiwi,NewZealandcitizen,andNewZealandemigrationtoAustralia.Relevantarticleswereselectedaccordingtosearchcriteriaandenteredinan

Industry of Employment no. % no. % no. % no. % no. %Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing 5,527 1.7 166 0.3 128 0.4 331 0.5 264 0.7Mining 10,361 3.2 134 0.3 315 1.1 818 1.3 3,475 8.9Manufacturing 24,699 7.6 3,493 6.6 2,102 7.3 6,322 9.7 2,353 6.0Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services 3,674 1.1 487 0.9 185 0.6 715 1.1 481 1.2Construction 34,818 10.6 4,995 9.4 4,250 14.7 7,106 10.9 5,475 14.1Wholesale Trade 11,115 3.4 2,395 4.5 839 2.9 2,525 3.9 1,286 3.3Retail Trade 27,825 8.5 4,152 7.8 2,895 10.0 5,880 9.0 3,290 8.5Accommodation and Food Services 20,091 6.1 2,465 4.7 2,371 8.2 3,370 5.2 2,031 5.2Transport, Postal and Warehousing 22,895 7.0 4,119 7.8 1,422 4.9 5,881 9.0 2,969 7.6Information Media and Telecommunications 5,418 1.7 1,685 3.2 432 1.5 911 1.4 316 0.8Financial and Insurance Services 12,248 3.7 3,830 7.2 729 2.5 2,236 3.4 879 2.3Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services 6,266 1.9 1,011 1.9 926 3.2 1,375 2.1 652 1.7Professional, Scientific and Technical Services 21,185 6.5 5,421 10.2 1,442 5.0 3,651 5.6 1,931 5.0Administrative and Support Services 14,037 4.3 2,228 4.2 1,513 5.2 2,903 4.5 1,692 4.3Public Administration and Safety 16,631 5.1 2,471 4.7 1,022 3.5 3,280 5.0 1,896 4.9Education and Training 18,831 5.8 2,976 5.6 1,493 5.2 3,524 5.4 1,868 4.8Health Care and Social Assistance 37,330 11.4 5,132 9.7 3,312 11.4 7,554 11.6 3,917 10.1Arts and Recreation Services 5,462 1.7 1,019 1.9 788 2.7 824 1.3 489 1.3Other Services 11,400 3.5 1,596 3.0 1,200 4.1 2,448 3.8 1,477 3.8Not Stated/Inadequately described 17,233 5.3 3,176 6.0 1,623 5.6 3,580 5.5 2,164 5.6Total 327,046 100.0 52,951 100.0 28,987 100.0 65,234 100.0 38,905 100.0

Australia Sydney Gold Coast Brisbane Perth

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incostsofliving,particularlyaroundhousing,lifestyleandclimate,andanintermittentfocusontherightsofNewZealandersinAustraliaincluding,inrecentyears,thedeportationofnon-AustraliancitizenswhohavecriminalconvictionsoraredeemedbyAustralianauthoritiestobeof“badcharacter”.ForegroundingthesemediadiscoursesisimportantbecauseitdrawsattentiontosomeofthewiderfactorsinvolvedininstancesofmigrationbetweenAotearoaNewZealandandAustralia.Moreover,becausemediadiscoursesconstructmeaningaboutmigrationanditsdesirability(KingandWood2013),thesignificantattentionplacedontrans-TasmanmigrationinNewZealandmediacanbeunderstoodasakeysocialforceininstigatingthemigrationpatternsweexaminelaterinthisreport.

Akeythemeinthelate2000swasasetofclaimsabouttheinfluenceoftheminingboomonoutwardmigrationflowsfromAotearoaNewZealandtoAustralia.Particularemphasiswasplacedonthenumberofpeopletakingupjobsinthetransportsector(truckdriving)ofminingwhichwerereportedtoofferlucrativeandattractiveincomesforNewZealandcitizens.Forexample,areportintheNewZealandHeraldfromSeptember2008referredtothe‘demandfromtheboomingminingsectorfordrivers’(Flighttofamiliarterritory,NZHeraldSept2008)whichattributedanincreaseinoutwardmigrationfromAotearoaNewZealandtoAustraliaforthoseseekinghighly-paidjobs.InthatsamemonthareportinThePresscautionedagainstattributinganincreaseinmigrationfromNewZealandsolelytotheminingsector:‘Peoplesayit'sallaboutmining,butifyoutakeminingoutoftheirproductivityfiguresandtakeagriculture,forestryandfishingoutofours,youhavestillgotahuge[wage]gapwithAustralia’(NewZealandlifestylenotgoodenoughtokeepKiwishome,ThePress,September2008).ThisfocusonwagedifferencesbetweenAustraliaandNewZealandwasparticularlyhighlightedintheextractiveindustrywithmediareportingthatsalariesfellintoarangebetween‘AUD70,000andAUD150,000’(Onetown’sexportline:KiwistoOZ,NZHerald,May2012;Kiwisflightwillreverse,NelsonMail,Mar2012).

MediareportsdescribedbothNewZealanderswhoresidedinAustraliafull-timeduringtheminingboomaswellasthosewhochoseto‘flyinandflyout’(FIFO)fordrivingwork.Forexample,aMay2012NewZealandHeraldreportnotedthat,‘NewZealandworkerswouldspendfiveweeksinAustraliathenbeflownhomeforafortnight’(Onetown’sexportline:KiwistoOZ,NZHerald,May2012).AnothermediareportinthesameyearreferredtoNewZealanderswho‘whoflyinandoutofWesternAustraliatodriveminingtrucksforsix-figuresalaries’(Australialurehardtoresist,SundayStarTimes,June2012).

Theemphasisoneconomicdriversofmigrationremainedaconsistentthemethroughouttheperiodonwhichourreviewfocused,althoughthecoverageincorporatedbothpositiveandnegativeimpactsonmigration.InthewakeoftheGlobalFinancialCrisis,Australiawasparticularlystronginitsrecovery,attractingNewZealanderstoitsshores:‘OfficialstatisticsshowthatAustraliansenjoyincomesone-thirdhigherthanNewZealandersdo,andsomemarket-watcherspredictthatasourneighbourcomesoutoftheslow-down

Nvivodatamanagementsoftwaresysteminordertoidentifythemesassociatedwithmediareportingontrans-Tasmanmigration.

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fasterthanNewZealand,thegapwillincreasetoaround40percent’(Oz:Ourpotofgoldnextdoor,HeraldonSunday,Dec2009).SowhiletheoutwardflowofmigrationfromAotearoaNewZealandwasparticularlystrongduringthelate2000s,bymid-2015otherfactors,asreportedinthemediaaroundNewZealand’s‘strongeconomicgrowth,politicalstabilityandbudgetsurplus’wereclaimedtohavebroughtmanyNewZealandersbackfromAustralia(ExodustoNewZealand,TheAge,February2016),althoughactualstatisticspresentedearliersuggestthattherearenotgreatvariationsinnumbersreturningfromAustralia.Thistrans-Tasmanmovementwasechoedbyexpertsclaimingthat‘trans-Tasmanmigrationishighlydependentoneconomicfactors’(TheAge,2016)inbothcountries.

AnotherparticularmediathemethatemergedduringtheperiodunderreviewwastheimpactoftheChristchurchearthquakesonmigrationtoAustralia.IntheaftermathofthemostdamagingquakeinFebruary2011,therewasarangeofreportsaboutNewZealanderswhojoinedfamilyinAustraliaordecidedthattheearthquakesprovidedthenecessaryreasonforatrans-Tasmanmove.Forexample,reportsintheNewZealandHeraldinJune2011notedthat‘higherwagesandlivingstandardsinAustraliawerealwaysanattractionforKiwis,andtheearthquakegavethem``addedincentive''tomove’(RecordExodustoOz,NZHerald,June2011),orasnotedintheHeraldonSundayinJuly2012,‘[...]lotofthem[NewZealanders]havegonefromChristchurch,inthewakeofthebigearthquake.’Anotherreportclaimedtheearthquakehad‘pushedthenumberofpeopleleavingChristchurchforgreenerpasturesto1100’(Christchurchquakeexodusslows,BusinessDay,April2012),althoughthisreportdidnotspecifythatthosewholeftmigratedtoAustralia.

Apartfromtheminingboomandtheearthquakes,othermediathemesusedtodiscussmigrationtoAustraliaincludedclimate,employment,lifestyle,andlivingstandards.Warmertemperatures,inparticularinQueensland,wereframedasdrawcardsformanyNewZealanders.Indeed,a2008articlebeginswith‘betterpay,betterweather,betterprospects...ThebigbarrenisluringKiwisasrarelybeforeandmanyofthoseleftbehindareclearlytemptedtojointhedeparturequeue’(40%ponderTasmanshift,NZHerald,September2008).InareportintheNorthernAdvocate,aNorthlandwomanwhomovedtoQueenslandreportedthecostsofeverydayitemssuchasgroceriesweresignificantlylowerinAustralia.Sheacknowledged,however,thatwhile‘[...]climateandbetterwageswereallattractionsforNewZealanders,[...]mostKiwissheknewofmovedoverthereforemosttofindwork(ExodustoAussie,NorthernAdvocate,August2011).

Beyondwarmerclimesandproximitytowaterandotherleisureactivities,afocusoncareeropportunitiesandhigherwageswashighlightedinmanymediareports.In2012theSundayStarTimesreportedonayoungNewZealandwomanwhomovedfromChristchurchtoSydney.Therewasnoindicationinthisreportthathermotivationforashiftwasaresultoftheearthquakeinearly2011.Ratherhermotivationsformovingwerelargelyfocussedonlifestyleandemployment:‘IalwayswantedtoliveinSydneyforlifestylereasons,forcareeropportunitiesandmoneyaswell.’Inthisaccountthen,exposuretoalargerjobmarketincreasesfuturecareerprospects:‘Ialwaysknewthatto

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furthermycareerandgettheexperienceIwantedIwouldhavetomoveawayfromChristchurch.’Theprospectsofabroaderjobmarketand,asaresult,furthercareeropportunitiesandhigherwages,haverecurringthemessincethe1980s.

Aslightshiftinperspectivewasobservedinthemiddleofthe2010s.Accordingtomediareports,NewZealandwasdescribedbyHSBC’schiefeconomistPaulBloxhamin2014/2015asa‘rockstareconomy’whichpurportedlypromptedmanyNewZealanderstoreturnhome(MigrationandtheOZbounceback,HawkesBayToday,October2017).Referringtotheminingboomofthelate2000s,Bloxhamnoted:‘wehadthisenormousboomintheminingsectorthenwehadthesinglelargestdownturnwe'deverseenintheresourcessectorwhichwasadragongrowthand[in]Australianowwe'vegottheresourcessectorstartingtostabilise’(ibid).ThiswasframedaspositiveforNewZealand’seconomyasBloxhamexplainedthat‘thebigdifferencebetweenAustraliaandNewZealandisthatthepublicfinancesareinbetterorderandNZhasbeenabletogetbacktoabudgetsurplus’(ibid)asopposedtoAustralia’scontinuedincreaseinitsbudgetdeficit.Theseeconomicchangesalignwithshiftsintrans-Tasmanmigrationpatterns,although(asoutlinedinFigure1,datasuggeststhattheincreaseinreturnwasrelativelymodest–from10,891in2013to16,739in2016–andthatitwasoutwardflowsthatdecreasedmuchmoresubstantially,from43,551in2013to20,219in2016.

Asthisshortoverviewsuggests,theoverwhelmingemphasisinmediareportingontrans-Tasmanmigrationhashighlightedthesignificanceofeconomicfactorsasthekeydrivingforceofmigration.Accountsofotherfactors,suchastheinfluenceoftheChristchurchearthquakesaswellaslifestyleorclimatedoemergebuttheyareoftencouchedinrelationtopre-existingideasaboutAustralialinkedtoaspirationsforeconomicadvancement.Suchaccounts,then,reinforceaviewoftrans-TasmanmigrationasresultingfromAustraliaandAoteaoraNewZealandconstitutingasinglelabourmarket(Hugo2004).Whiletheaccountsofparticipantsinthisresearchechosomeofthesesamediscourses,ouranalysisalsopointstootherfactorsinvolvedingeneratingmigrationandcertainlyawiderrangeofimplicationsforNewZealandcitizensinAustralia.

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5.0MigrationAspirationsandExperiencesInordertoexaminesomeofthedrivingforcesandimplicationsoftrans-Tasmanmigration,weundertooksemi-structuredbiographically-orientedinterviewswithNewZealandcitizenswhohadmigratedtoAustraliasince2008.Theinterviewsfocusedonparticipants’backgroundbeforecomingtoliveinAustralia,themaininfluencesontheirmigration,currentactivitiesandfutureaspirations.ParticipantswererecruitedthroughpaidsocialmediaadvertisingonFacebookand,inasmallnumberofcases,judicioususeofsnowballingthroughknowncontacts.4Tobeeligible,participantshadtoresideinthewiderurbanareasofBrisbaneandGoldCoast,PerthorSydneyandhadtohavefirstmigratedtoAustraliasince2008andhavelivedinAustraliaforatleastoneyearatthetimeoftheinterview.Ourinitialtargetsamplewas60(20participantsineachurbanarea)andattheconclusionoftheresearchwehadinterviewed61participants.ThedemographicdetailsofparticipantsareprovidedinTable3.

Table3:Demographicdetailsofparticipants Brisbane/Gold

CoastPerth Sydney Total

Total 18 24 19 61Gender

Female 11 14 10 35Male 7 10 9 26

Ethnicity

Pākehā/NZEuropean

12 18 9 39

Māori 2 5 2 9Asian 3 0 4 7Pacific 1 0 4 5Other 0 1 0 1

Birthplace

NewZealand 11 23 15 49Othercountries 7 1 4 12

Age

18-29years 1 1 5 730-39years 3 7 6 1640-49years 6 7 4 1750-59years 6 8 4 1860-69years 2 1 0 3

4AdvertisementswereplacedonFacebookutilisingarangeofdemographiccriteriatoenableamixedsampleofrespondentsintermsofage,gender,ethnicity,birthplaceandoccupation.Interestedparticipantscompletedashortsurveypriortoprovidingcontactdetails–thesurveyrecordedinformationonyearoffirstarrivaltoliveinAustralia,gender,age,ethnicityandbirthplace.Inallthreemetropolitanareaswereceivedsubstantiallymorevolunteerstoparticipateintheresearch;atotalof172peoplevolunteeredforinterviews(Brisbane/GoldCoast=60;Perth=55;Sydney=57).Participantswereselectedforinterviewsinordertomaximisethediversityofthesample.

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Buildingoffourinitialanalysisoftheseinterviews,thefindingsinthisreportpointtosixoverarchingthemes.Thesebroadscalethemes,whicharediscussedinturninthisection,are1)pathwaystoAustralia;2)transferabilityofskills;3)socialsupportandchanginglifecircumstances;4)familyandchildren;5)belonging,ethnicityandinclusion;and6)futureplansandintentions.

5.1PathwaystoAustraliaMigrationoccursformultiplereasons,takingshapearoundshiftingeconomiccircumstances,aspirationsforcareeradvancementandopportunitiestotravel,aswellasinrelationtodifferentstagesinlife(CarlingandCollins2018).ThebiographiesofparticipantsinthisresearchsimilarlyhighlightedadiverserangeofsituationsthatledtomigrationtoAustraliaandthatsustainedtheirlivesthere.Oftenthese“migrationpathways”relatedtolivesinNewZealandandchangingcircumstances,aswellastotheearlierdepartureoffamilyandfriendsthatestablishedopportunitiesformigration.Whilethedetailofeachpathwayisquiteindividuallyspecificweobservedfourbroadoverarchingthemes:perceptionsofeconomicconditionsassociatedwithhigherwagesandlowercostofliving;inequalityanddiscriminationinNewZealand;thespecificcircumstancesofmidtolaterlifemigration;andmigrationtoAustraliaasassociatedwithaspirationsforprofessionalcareerdevelopment.

Asouraccountsofbothpublishedresearchandmediareportinghavealreadyhighlighted,economicdifferencesbetweenAustraliaandAotearoaNewZealandareregularlypositionedashavingasignificantinfluenceontrans-Tasmanmigration.Asubstantialnumberofparticipantsechoedsimilarsentiments,positioningtheirmigrationtoAustraliainrelationtoreportsinmediaandfromfriendsandfamilythatwageswerehigherandthecostoflivingwaslowerinAustralia.HigherwageswereidentifiedasadriverofmigrationtoAustraliabyparticipantsinarangeofoccupationsandwithdifferinglevelsofeducation.Accordingtoparticipants,thewagesandsalariesearnedinAustraliaexceededwagesinNewZealand,sometimesbysubstantialmargins.Higherearnings,forsomeparticipants,werereportedtooccuralongsidelowercostsofliving,althoughthisvariedamongstparticipants.

Regardless,manypeoplereportedbeingableto“getahead”,payoffmortgagesandotherdebtsinNewZealand,andhaveabetterqualityoflife.RespondentsinBrisbane/GoldCoast,inparticular,notedthehigherqualityoflifeandthevarietyofleisureactivitiesavailablelocally.Forexample,fromthe18intervieweesinBrisbane/GoldCoast,sevenrespondentsnotedthattheirperceptionofhigheraveragesalarieswasapartofwhatbroughtthemtoAustralia-includingparticipantspayroll,administration,transportandhealthcareoccupations,spanningmenandwomenandpeopleofdifferentethnicities.Outofthe24interviewsinPerthandsurroundingarea,roughlynineintervieweesdiscussedhigherwagesinAustralia–includingthoseintheminingindustry,hospitalityandtourism,officeadministrationandtradespeople.Finallyofthe19intervieweesinSydney,sevenparticipantsdiscussedrelativeincomesinSydneycomparedtoNewZealand,manyof

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whichwereforprofessionaloccupationssuchasfinance,accountancyandhumanresources.

Onewaytoviewtheseaccountsistoreadthemasanindicationoftheintegratedtrans-Tasmanlabourmarket(Hugo2004)andthefluidityenabledbytheTTTA.Itisalsoimportanttonote,however,thateconomicconsiderationswerealsoregularlyframedintermsoflimitedopportunityinAotearoaNewZealandthatspoketothebarriersthatpeopleface,notsimplytoenhancetheireconomicstatusbutinmanycasestosimplygetby.AnumberofourparticipantsspokeabouthowdifficultlifehadbeenbeforemigratingtoAustralia,payingrentormortgagesandbasiccostsleftnomoneyforsavingorlifestylepursuits,andforothersgainingwell-paidconsistentworkwasachallenge(apointmadeinPaulHamer’s(2007)accountofMāoriinAustralia).OneparticipantdescribedbeingstuckontheunemploymentbenefitinNewZealandandmakingthechoicetotravelwiththeirsiblingtoAustraliatogetoutofthatsituation.Somelater-lifemigrantsseemedtofacediscrimination,eithernotacceptedforretrainingorunabletogainemploymentaftergraduating,eveninprofessionalqualificationslikenursing.

SeveraloftheparticipantswhowerenotborninNewZealandspokeaboutvaryinglevelsofexclusionanddiscrimination–notbeingfullyaccepted,beingrejectedfromjobsinadiscriminatorymanner,orfindingthatmovingtoAotearoaNewZealandledtorecurringhealthissuesduetothequalityandcostofhousing.SomeMāoriparticipantsexpressedtheviewthatitwaseasiertobeMāoriinAustraliabecauseofracisminAotearoaNewZealand(Hamer2007).Theseissuesofdiscriminationandinequalitygiveshapetoaccountsofeconomicallydrivenmigration,highlightingthatevenwhenwagesandcostsoflivingareperceivedtobehigher,migrationisalsooftensituatedinrelationtodifficultiesathome.

WealsoobservedotherpathwaystomigrationtoAustraliathatrelatedtolifestageandoccupation.Particularlynotablewasasub-setofparticipantswhomigratedintheirmid-laterlives,fromtheirfiftiesonwards.TheserespondentsweresometimespartnersofNewZealanderswhomigrated,thosewhodecidedto‘takeachance’or‘giveitago’beforetheyfelttheyweretoooldtomigrate,orotherswhohadextenuatingcircumstancesintheirlivesinAotearoaNewZealandpromptingamoveacrosstheTasman.Forexample,somerespondentsreportedjoiningtheirchildrenandfamiliesinAustraliawhileothersmovedtoAustraliawithprimaryand/orsecondaryschool-agedchildren.

SomeparticipantsreportedundertakingmigrationtoAustraliaasaresultofachangeofcircumstancesinNewZealandthatledtosocialoreconomicdifficulties.Twoparticipants,forexample,hadrunverysuccessfulbusinessesthatbecameinsolventduringeconomicdownturns.Ratherthan‘startingagain’,bothsawAustraliaasafertileterrainforbuildinganewlifewithoutthebaggageassociatedwiththeirearlierlives.Followingthe2010and2011earthquakesinChristchurch,fiveparticipantsexplainedthattheirmoveswerepromptedbythelossofhousingortheeffectsofthequakesonpersonalandfamilylife.Theseexamplesshowhowmigrationcanbetiedtochangingcircumstances,particularlyinthecontextoftrans-Tasmanmovementwhichremainsrelativelyunrestricted,atleastintermsofrelocationandwork.Participantswereabletotryoutmigrationtoaculturally

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familiardestinationwithoutthesamelevelofregulationorperceivedriskassociatedwithotherplaces.

Foranothersubsetofparticipantswhowerelargelyinprofessionaloccupations,migrationpathwaystoAustraliaweremuchmoreexplicitlyassociatedwithcareerdevelopment.ManyrespondentsinthiscategoryarrivedinAustraliawithaspecificprofession(e.g.medicalfields)andviewedrelocationasanavenuetofurtheradvancementintheircareertrackorcontinuingprofessionaldevelopment.Participantsexpressedanaspirationtothriveandtocontinueworkingtowardspromotionorupwardmovementintheircareertrack.Forexample,anumberofnurseswhowereinterviewedcommentedthatthepayscaleandtheopportunitytoadvancetoseniornursingpositionswashigherinAustralia.Thisincludedthosenurseswantingtogainqualificationsinspecialisedareas,suchasoperatingtheatre,nursingsupervision,paediatricsandsoon.OtherswhostartedintruckdrivinginmininginPerth,foundopportunitiestodevelopskillsintheminingsectorsuchasITservices,logistics,planningandscaffolding.

ParticipantsinSydneyspokeconsistentlyaboutthewiderrangeofcareeropportunitiesofferedbyworkinginagenuineglobalcitythathadsignificantinternationalconnectionsbutwasnonethelesssimilartotheplacestheywerefamiliarwith.Indeed,nineparticipantsinthisresearchcametoAustralia(primarilySydney)afterspendingtimeworkingandlivinginotherplacesinternationally,includingtheUK,theUS,Singapore,Canada,China,HongKong,India,andJapan.Fortheseparticipants,AustraliarepresentedanopportunitytobuildontheirskillsandtoengagewithagreaterrangeofopportunitiesthanwereperceivedtoexistinNewZealand’smaincities.

Overall,theemphasisonincomelevelsandlifestyleshouldnotbesurprisinggiventhattherearesignificantdifferencesinaveragewagesinmanyoccupationsbetweenthetwocountries,and,alongsidelifestyle,incomehasbeenarecurrentthemeinmediaaccountsoftrans-Tasmanmigration.Thevariationinmigrationrationalesandpathwaysthatemergeinrelationtoinequalities,mid-to-laterlifemigrantsorprofessionalsandcareerdevelopment,however,highlightthatincomealoneisnottheonlydrivingfactoroftrans-Tasmanmigration.Rather,thismigrationalsooccursinrelationtolifestageandcircumstancesaswell,athemethatwetakeuplaterinthereportinrelationtosocialsupport.

5.2TransferabilityofskillsThesecondmajorthemeaddressedinthisreportistheabilityformanyrespondentstotransferskillsandeducationgainedintheNewZealandcontexttoAustralia.Forexample,medicalprofessionalssuchasdoctorsandnursesandalsothoseintradeoccupations(carpentry,plumbing)reportedhighratesofuptakefromAustralianemployersfortheirskills.Inaddition,mostrespondentscommentedthatNewZealanderswereseentobehardworkingandthattheeducation/qualification/skillsacquiredinNewZealandwerereadilyacceptedandacknowledgedinAustralia.Manyintervieweesalsolinkedthelevelofskill/qualificationtotheeaseofobtainingajobinAustralia.Inotherwords,qualificationscompletedinNewZealandwererecognisedandtranslatedintojobopportunitiesin

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Australia.Thissituationappearedtobethecaseacrossawiderangeofprofessions.Thoserespondentsfromregionalcentresorsmall-townNewZealandbringingskillsinfactoryworkorasteachersfoundopportunitiestousetheirskillsinAustraliaaswell.

OneparticipantinBrisbane,forexample,providedinsightintothewayinwhichsimilaritiesinpayrollsystemsbetweenAustraliaandNewZealandmaderelocationrelativelystraightforward,andevenadvantageousforpeoplewithNewZealandexperience.Earlierinherlifethisparticipanthadmovedbetweenseveraljobsbeforefindingapositionwithasecuritycompanythatshestayedinfor13years.Duringhertimewiththeorganisation,shedevelopedaninterestinmanagingthepayroll,whichresultedinheracquiringtransferableskillsinorganisationalpayrollmanagement,includingaroundprotocols,softwareandotherdimensionsofthiswork.Theinterviewee’sNewZealandcompanywasabletoshiftherpositioninpayrolltoAustralia,allowinghertomatchherskillsettoheraspirationtoworkandliveinAustralia,andevenwhenshemovedjobsafterbeinginAustraliaforanumberofyearsthetransferabilityoftheseskillsmadethatprocessrelativelysmooth.

Inanotherexample,anintervieweewhohadoriginallymigratedtoNewZealandfromIndiadiscussedhismovethroughinsurancefirmstoAustralia.HeandhisfamilyhadsettledintolifeinNewZealandbuttherespondentnotedthathereceivedphonecallsfromAustralianconsultantswithjobopportunitiesinSydney.TheparticipanteventuallymetwithoneoftheconsultantsduringatriptoSydneyandwasofferedajob.Theparticipant’sskillset-fromhisuniversitydegreeinbankingtootherskillsgainedduringemploymentinNewZealand–wasanassetinfacilitatinghisworktransitiontoAustralia.Therespondentreportedthatbothheandhiswife(whoalsohasabackgroundinfinancialmanagement)wereabletosecureemploymentinAustralia.ThisparticipantcommentedthatheneverintentionallysoughtoutopportunitiestomigratetoAustralia,butthatcircumstancesandopportunitiesfoundhim.ForthisparticipantandthepreviousrespondentfromBrisbane,atransferableskillsetprovedinvaluableinfindingandsettlingintoworkaswellaseasingthetransitionofmigratingfromNewZealandtoAustralia.

Inothercases,however,respondents’skillsandeducationwerenotrecognisedduetodifferencesinregulatoryalignment.Someinterviewparticipants,forexample,commentedthattheystruggledwithaccreditationdifferencesbetweenAustraliaandNewZealand,whichwasreportedbyparticipantsintheminingandbuildingsectors.Forexample,threeparticipantsinPerthreportedthattheyneededtogaincertificationinordertoadvanceinpaygradeandresponsibilityonthejob.Twoofthoseparticipantswereintheminingsector,andthethirdworkedforapowercompany.Allthreehadtoacquireskills-upgradecertificates(paideitherbytheirorganisationsorpersonally)inordertogainemployment.ForanotherrespondentinPerthwhowantedtoworkasateacher,shefoundthatWesternAustraliadidnotrecogniseherNewZealandqualificationsasateacher.

TheAustralianandNewZealandlabourmarketssharemanysimilaritiesandeducationalqualificationsandaccreditationareoftenmutuallyrecognisedforworkersinbothcountries.Astheaboveexampleshighlight,thesesimilaritiesplayasignificantroleinthe

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processoftrans-Tasmanmigration.Indeed,whilefreemovementfacilitatedmigrationandhigherincomesoftenservedasarationaleformigration,theoutcomesofmigrationforNewZealandcitizensinAustraliaarelikelytobecloselytiedtotheirabilitytogainmeaningfulandwell-paidwork,forwhichlabourmarketsimilaritiesprovideanimportantplatform.The‘opportunity’thatisdiscussedbymanyparticipantsinthisresearch,andisarecurrentthemeinmediaaccounts,isreliantonthetransferabilityofskills–theabilityofmigrantstohavetheirskillsrecognisedandtoeasilytakeupsimilarjobsinbothcountries.

5.3SocialsupportandchanginglifecircumstancesOneofthecommonthemesinrecentmediacoverageoftrans-TasmanmigrationhasbeentheerosionoftherightsofNewZealandcitizensinAustralia,particularlytheineligibilityofpeoplewhohavearrivedsince2001formostsocialsecurity.5Themajorityofinterviewparticipantsinthisresearchexpressedaviewthattheydidnothaveanyneedforsocialsupport.ThisviewappearedinmanycasestoreflectthefactthatthemajorityofparticipantshadmovedtoAustraliaeitherwithjobsalreadyarrangedorforthosewhohadnot,theywereabletosecureemploymentrelativelyquicklybecauseofthemutualrecognitionofskillsandworkexperiencenotedabove.AsmanyparticipantsviewedwagesasbetterthaninNewZealand,andlivingcostslower,theviewheldbymanyparticipantswasthattheyhadnoneedofanykindofsocialsecuritysupport.Moreover,themajorityofparticipantsfelttheyhadasupportsystemandreferredtothesupporttheyreceivedfromextendedfamily,socialnetworksorworkcolleagues.Inasmallnumberofcases,participantsextendedthisviewtoassertthatitwasappropriatethatNewZealanderswereineligibleforsocialsecuritybecausetheywerenotAustraliancitizens.Forexample,oneparticipantcommentedthattheAustraliangovernmentshouldrequireNewZealandersprovethatsufficientbankfundsareavailableshouldtheyrequirefinancialsupportbeforebeingabletoworkinAustralia.

AnumberofrespondentsatallthreestudysitesalsoreportedneedingaccesstotheAustralianhealthcaresystemforthemselvesforarangeofhealthconditions.Theytendedtobequitepositiveintheircommentsaboutwaittimes,qualityofserviceandgeneralengagementwiththehealthcaresector.AccesstohealthcareisprovidedtoNewZealandcitizenswhohavebeeninAustraliaforsixmonthsandintendtoremainthereforafurthersixmonths,orthosethathaveappliedforpermanentresidency;medicallynecessarytreatmentisalsoprovidedthroughthereciprocalhealthcareagreementbetweenNewZealandandAustralia.Similarly,solongastheyareemployed,NewZealandcitizensarealsocoveredbyWorkCoverinsurancethatprovidesmedicalandincomesupportbenefits

5See,forexample:‘Thesechildrenareinlimbo’,TheGuardian,28Feb2020:https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/feb/29/these-children-are-in-limbo-the-new-zealanders-locked-out-of-australias-ndis;‘TheNewZealandersleftstrandedinAustralia’,TheGuardian,8Nov2019:https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2019/nov/08/were-screwed-the-new-zealanders-left-stranded-in-australia;‘Don'twantasmanyKiwi-Australians?’,RadioNewZealand,23Aug2017:https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/on-the-inside/337851/don-t-want-as-many-kiwi-australians-you-got-it;‘AnzacspiritsouredbycitizenshipchangesforKiwisinAustralia’,Newsroom,28Aug2017:https://www.newsroom.co.nz/2017/04/28/22388/anzac-spirit-soured-by-citizenship-changes-for-kiwis-in-australia.

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foraccidentsthatoccuratwork.Forexample,twoparticipantsinPerthreportedreceivingsupportbenefitsduringconvalescenceafterwork-relatedinjuries.

WhileitwascommonforparticipantstofeelsettledandstableintheirlivesinAustraliaandasaresultnotinneedofformalgovernmentsupport,insomecaseschangingcircumstancesledtochallengesthatwereexacerbatedbyineligibilityforsocialsecurity.Thesechallengesoccurredvariouslywithchildrenandhealthissues,forexampleextrememedicalemergenciessuchastraffic/roadwayaccidents.Oneparticipant,forexample,foundtheirmigrationtoAustraliahadinitiallyledtoanotableimprovementinfinancialsituation,hadmovedfromrentingandhavingnosavingsinNewZealandtoowningahouseinAustraliaandbuildingretirementsavings.Thatplanwasinterruptedfollowingaworkplaceaccident.TheparticipantwasinitiallysupportedbyWorkCover(Australia’sworker’scompensationandinjurymanagementscheme)fortwoyears.AfterWorkCovereligibilityexpired,however,theparticipantwasstillunabletoreturntoworkduetoongoingphysicalimpactsoftheaccidentandatthetimeoftheinterviewhadverylittleincomeandwasrunningoutofsavingstopaythemortgageonahousethathadlostvaluesinceitwaspurchased.Anotherparticipantfacedsignificantfinancialandsocialdifficultieswhenherchildren,wholikeherwerenotAustraliancitizens,developedongoinghealthproblems.OneadultchildhadbeeninanaccidentthatmadegoingbacktoworkdifficultbutwasunabletogainongoingsocialsecuritysupportasaNewZealandcitizenandhashadtoincreasinglyrelyontheirmother.Theotherchild,whowasyoungerwhentheymovedtoAustralia,developedmentalhealthandaddictionproblemsthroughtheirteenageyearsandnowinyoungadulthoodhasstruggledtoholddownworkorprogressineducation.

ThesekindsofscenarioscannotbepredictedinadvanceofmigrationbuttheirimpactsareexacerbatedbecauseoftheprecariouslegalsituationofNewZealandcitizensinAustralia.Theysurfacewhenpeoplefindthemselvesindifficultsituations,usuallyassociatedwithhealthorrelationships(seebelow),whereintheydonothavea‘PlanB’,needformsofgovernmentsupportbutarenoteligibleforitandhavenoadequatepathwaytoAustralianpermanentresidenceandcitizenship(eitherbeforeorafterdifficultiesemerge).Thesesituationscapturethedynamicsofthecurrentsocio-legalstatusofNewZealandcitizensinAustralia,theirindefinitestatusmeansthattheyarewelcomeandabletoparticipatesociallysolongastheyarehealthy,areabletocontributeeconomicallyanddonothaveacriminalrecord.Whendifficultiesinevitablyemergeforsomepeople,theprecarityoftheirsituationandrightsinAustraliabecomeapparent(Hamer2018).

5.4FamilyandchildrenMigrationisoftenarrangedaroundorhasimpactsonfamily,requiresthemaintenanceofrelationshipstransnationally,orcaninfluencetheextenttowhichpeoplearesettledinaparticularplace(Kraleretal.2011).Theparticipantsinthisresearchhadawidevarietyoffamilysituations–thereweresinglepeoplewithextendedfamilyinNewZealandorelsewhere,participantswhohadmovedwithfamily,movedaspartofdivorceorseparation,andthosewhohadestablishedfamiliesinAustralia.

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SeveralparticipantshadeithermovedwithchildrentoAustraliaorhadstartedafamilywithanotherNewZealandcitizenaftermigration.FortheseNewZealand-citizenparentsofAustralian-bornchildrenitwascommonlyexpressedthattheirchildrenwereleftinaprecarioussituationregardingcitizenship.MostparticipantsnotedthatchildrenborninAustraliatotwoNewZealandparentsneededtoremainordinarilyresidentinAustraliafortheentiretyoftheirfirsttenyearsinordertomaintainfutureeligibilityforcitizenship.ThismadetraveltoNewZealandforextendedstaysdifficult,particularlyforthoserespondentsneedingtotakecareofageingparentsorextendedfamilymembers.Additionally,therightsandstatusofAustralian-bornchildrentoNewZealandcitizensseemeduncleartomanyparents.Childrenwereeligibleforcompulsoryschoolingandhealthcareinasimilarmannertotheirparents,butmanyparentswereuncertainiftheirchildrenhadfullaccesstotertiaryeducation,oriftheydidwhethertheywereeligiblefordomestictuitionfeesorgovernmenteducationloans.6AstheseuncertaintiesimpingeuponfutureprospectsofchildreninAustraliatheyalsohadanimpactonparents’plansinrelationtoapplyingforpermanentresidenceorcitizenship,orplanningforfuturereturntoNewZealand(seebelow).

Bycomparison,ifoneoftheparentswereanAustraliancitizen,therewasnoissueofthechild/renobtainingAustraliancitizenship.However,inasmallnumberofcases,separation,divorceandfamilyviolenceorothercircumstancesleadingtofamilybreakdown,childrenwereoftenleftinanuncertainsituationfromalegalperspective.DuringtheresearchweeitherinterviewedorweretoldaboutfourcaseswhereNewZealandwomenwhohadchildrenwithAustralianmenwereleftinchallengingcircumstancesbecauseofrelationshipbreakdown.Particularlywhenthesechildrenwereyoungitwasdifficultformotherstoworkandyettheywerealsonoteligibleforsocialsecuritybecauseoftheircitizenshipstatus.Compoundingmatters,returntoNewZealandwasnotpossibleunlesstheylefttheirchildrenwiththeAustralianfathersasrequiredbyinternationalcustodylaws.7Likethosehealthcaremattersdiscussedabove,familybreakdownandviolencecancreateparticularlyprecarioussituationsthatrevealtheimpactofgapsinthesocialsecurityarrangementsforNewZealandcitizensinAustralia.8Similarly,ifNewZealandmenandwomenhadchildrenwholivedwithformerpartners/spousesinNewZealand,itwasnotagiventhatthechildcouldmovetoAustraliatobewiththeparent.TheselegaldisputescontinuetohaveconsequencesforfamilieslivingonbothsidesoftheTasman.

6‘CostofstudyinAustraliatotripleforNZers’,RadioNewZealand,3May2017:https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/329917/cost-of-study-in-australia-to-triple-for-nzers7Conventionof25October1980ontheCivilAspectsofInternationalChildAbduction:https://www.hcch.net/en/instruments/conventions/specialised-sections/child-abduction;‘NewZealandwomanstuckinAustraliafightingcustodybattle’,RadioNewZealand,4Dec2018,https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/377434/new-zealand-woman-stuck-in-australia-fighting-custody-battle.8‘Childabductioncases:courtmaytakeriskofharmtomotherintoaccount’,RadioNewZealand,9Mar2020:https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/411267/child-abduction-cases-court-may-take-risk-of-harm-to-mother-into-account

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5.5Belonging,EthnicityandInclusionTheparticipantsinthisresearchwerealsoaskedabouttheirfeelingsofbelongingandinclusioninAustralia.MediaaccountsoftendepictAustraliaasaplacethatsharesconsiderablesocial,culturalandpoliticalcommonalitieswithNewZealandandassuchispresumedtobeaplaceofeasysettlementforNewZealanders.Ouranalysisofthepathwaystomigrationseemtoreflectthispresumption,thatAustraliarepresentsanobviousdestinationforpeopleseekingworkandlifestyleopportunitiesoutsideofNewZealand.Acrossourresearch,asignificantnumberofparticipantscommentedonthesimilaritiesbetweenAustraliaandNewZealandandtheeaseofadaptationtolife,particularlythosewhohadlivedinothercountries.

ThesesocialandculturalsimilaritiesbetweenAustraliaandNewZealandarenotnecessarilyexperiencedevenlybyallpeoplehowever.Indeed,researchundertakenbyHamer(2014;2018),Faleolo(2019),ShepherdandIlailo(2016),andHarwood(2015)hasdemonstratedthatMāoriandPacificpeoplesaremorelikelytobenegativelystereotypedinAustralianmediaandexperiencevariouskindsofdisintegrationindailylife.Inthisrespect,thehistoricalandcontemporaryembeddednessofsocialandculturalsimilaritiesincolonialrelationsmeanthattheyareassociatedprimarilywithwhitesettleridentitiesanddonotreflecteithertheIndigenousormulticulturalrealitiesofcontemporaryAustraliaandAotearoaNewZealand.

Inourresearchroughlytwo-thirdsofthetheoverall61participantsidentifiedprimarilyasPākehā(orNewZealandEuropean).ThegeneralviewfromthisgroupofrespondentswasthatNewZealanderswerejustacceptedinAustralia.Participantscommentedonarangeoflow-levelstereotypingdistinguishingNewZealandersfromAustralians.Forexample,somereportedthatinworkplaceconversations,AustralianscommentedonNewZealanderstakingjobs.OthercommentsincludedjokesaroundsportingrivalryorAustraliansmakingfunoftheNewZealandaccent.ManyparticipantsdidexpressaviewthattherewasmoreracisminAustralia.Ratherthanbeingsomethingtheyexperienced,however,Pākehā/NZEuropeanparticipantsweremorelikelytosuggestthattheyhadobservedotherpeopleexperiencingracism,includingMāoriandNewZealandersfromnon-EuropeanbackgroundsaswellasIndigenousandotherpeopleofcolourinAustralia.

WhileMāoriparticipantsalsodiscussedsimilaritiesincultureandrelativeeaseofsocialsettlementinAustraliatheyalsoidentifiedadifferentsetofexperiencesthatdrawattentiontothecriticalconnectionsbetweenbelonging,ethnicityandinclusion.Firstly,manyMāoriparticipantsplacedasignificantemphasisonfeelingsofstrongculturalconnectionstoAotearoaNewZealand(seealsoHamer,2007and2018).Often,participantsexpressedtheseconnectionsinrelationtoland(whenua),cultural/ancestralhome(marae)sharedwithothersintheiriwi(tribe),andtheirwhānau(family).Despitetheimportanceplacedonthesestrongconnections,andeffortstomaintainthoseconnections,almostallMāoriparticipantsinthisresearchexpressedanintentionnottoreturntoAotearoaNewZealand.OneparticipantinPerth,forexample,explainedthatalthoughhewasconnected

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tohisancestrallandinAotearoaNewZealand,hedidnotfeelthatsameconnectiontoplaceinAustralia.AnotherparticipantinBrisbanereportedthatmanyMāorihaveayearningtoreturntoAotearoaNewZealandbutfeelunabletodosobecauseoflimitedeconomicopportunities.ThiswasacommonthemethatrevealssomeofthetensionsthatareparticularlyheightenedforMāori,betweensocialandeconomicadvancement(Hamer2007and2018;KukutaiandPawar2013).

Secondly,someMāoriparticipantsalsoreportedexperiencingracismornegativestereotypingintheirdailylives.Whilethesecommentswerenotnecessarilytargetedatparticipantsthemselves(noparticipantschosetodiscussexamplesofracismdirectedatthemselves),theyreportedthatitwasarelativelyfrequentoccurrencetoobserveracism.Forexample,allMāoriparticipantsinPerthreportedsignificantlevelsofracismlevelledatMāori,PacificandIndigenouspeoples.Atthesametime,however,someMāoriparticipantsalsodescribedhowtheirownexperiencesofracismwerereducedinAustraliaincomparisontoAotearoaNewZealand.Oneparticipant,forexample,notedthatpoliceofficersdisplayedmoreracistbehaviourinNewZealandthaninAustralia(Perth),apatternhethoughtrelatedtothesignificantnumberofpoliceofficerswhoweremigrantsfromIrelandandtheUK(inPerth)whomightdisplaylessoutwardlyracistbehaviourtoIndigenouspeoplesandminoritisedethniccommunities.

OtherparticipantssimilarlycommentedthattheyhadexperiencedmoredirectracismasMāoriinAotearoaNewZealandthaninAustralia,notingthatitwasdifficultbeingthevictimsofracialabuseinone’sowncountry.TheyreportedthatAustraliansdidnotnecessarilydistinguishbetweenMāoriorPacificpeoplesandthattheywere‘racistagainsteveryone’whichgeneratedafeelingofnotbeingtargeteddirectly.Incontrast,twoparticipantsdidnotethattheywerelookingtogetAustraliancitizenshippartlybecausetheywantedprotectionfromracialisedcriminalenforcement(ShepherdandIlailo2016)anddeportationthathadbeenasignificantthemeinAustralianandNewZealandmediaintheyearsleadinguptothisresearch.

ExperiencesofracismwereasignificantthemenotedbyallPacificparticipants.EveryPacificparticipantmentionedthattheyexperiencedahighlevelofracismintheirdailylivesinAustralia.Theseexperiencesincludedbothbeingthetargetofracistremarksand/orwitnessingracially-motivatedincidents.Despitethisclearacknowledgmentofracism,halfoftheparticipantsexpressedasenseofbelongingandinclusionwhiletheothersexpressedfeelingsofbeingamigrantornotknowingifthey‘fitin’toAustralianculture(seeFaleolo2019).Forexample,oneparticipantinSydneycommentedthatshefeltlikeshebelongedandwasincludedinsocietybasedonhersignificantperiodofresidencyinAustralia.However,anotherparticipantreportednotfeelinglikeshebelonged,becauseshewasn’tyetanAustraliancitizenandthatshefeltambivalentaboutbeingcalledamigrant.Athirdparticipantnotedthathedidnotknowifhebelongedbut,atthesametime,hedidnotfeellikeamigrant.HeattributedthistobeinganEnglishspeaker.

AllfivePacificparticipantsexpressedstrongattachmenttoAotearoaNewZealand.FourPacificparticipantswereNewZealand-bornandthefifthparticipantwasSamoan-born.For

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thisgroupthereweretwoclearthemeswhichemerged.First,allparticipantswould,iftheycould,eitherreturntoorstayinAotearoaNewZealand.However,thesalariesandwagesfortheirprofessionsweresignificantlyhigherinAustralia,allowingforthepurchaseofpropertyortheabilitytoimprovetheirlifestylesuchastravellingforholidays.OneparticipantinSydneyexplainedthatsheandherpartnerwereabletopurchaseahomewithinthetwoyearsoftheirarrivalwiththeassistanceofafirsthomebuyer’sgrant.Sheandherpartnerhavesincebuiltahomewithapoolandalthoughtheymustservicealargemortgagetheycontinuetoenjoytheirlifestyleandareabletogoonholiday.AnotherparticipantexplainedthathigherwagesmeantbuildingtowardsfinancialsecuritywouldbeeasierinAustralia.PacificpeopleinthisresearchmadepositivecommentaryabouttheirsocialmobilityinAustraliawhilealsohighlightingthetensionthisgeneratedintermsofattachmenttoplaceandthedesiretoreturntofamiliesandcommunitiesinAotearoaNewZealand.

Ofthe61participantsinthisstudy,twelvewerebornoutsideofAotearoaNewZealand;includingseveninBrisbane/GoldCoast,fourinSydneyandoneinPerth.Theirexperiencesatabroaderleveldemonstratehowconnectionsacrossspaceandplacecanreflecttransnationalculturalconnections,cross-culturalbusinessandprofessionaltiesandthemigrantexperiencedisconnectedfromfamilynetworks(LevittandGlickSchiller,2004;Liu,2018).Despitebeingoverseas-born,mostoftheparticipantshadastrongaffiliationtoAotearoaNewZealandanddescribedthemselvesasNewZealanders.ThisprovidedevidenceofpeoplehavingtransnationalbelongingacrossAustralia,AotearoaNewZealandandinmanycasesalsointheircountriesofbirth.Suchbelongingdid,however,varyconsiderablyfordifferentparticipants.Forsomeparticipantstheconnectionstocountriesofbirthreflectedasenseofidentificationwithdifferentplaces,i.e.aculturalconnection.Forexample,aKorean-bornparticipant,anIndian-bornparticipantandaChinese-bornparticipantexpressedconnectionstoAustraliaasaplaceofsettlementandwork,AotearoaNewZealandasaplacetheylivedforeitheranextendedorshorterperiodandthecountriesoftheirbirthsasprovidingthecontextsforshapingtheirlivedexperiences,theirculturalidentitiesandconnectionsbacktofamily.Forothers,therewasaperspectiveofAustraliaandtheircountryofbirthasprovidingwork/professional/businessconnections.Forexample,anIndian-bornparticipantstillhadactivebusinesstiestoIndia,andoneoftheChinese-bornparticipantswasactiveintradingbusinessesthatworkedthroughtransnationalChineseethnicnetworks.

Identity,belongingandinclusionwerealsoexploredinperspectivesofwhoisabletoclaimlegitimacyasaNewZealanderinAustralia.Forexample,aKoreandoctorwasfullyacceptedasaprofessionalcolleagueinAustraliabuttalkedaboutthewayinwhichhewouldneverbeseenasaNewZealander.Instead,hewasseenasAsianbyhiscolleaguesandindailylifedespiteexpressinglimitedattachmenttoKoreahavingnotlivedtheresincehewasveryyoung.Similarly,aChinese-bornNewZealanderwhofeltlikehebelongedinAustraliaandAotearoaNewZealand(moresothaninChina)commentedthatmostpeopleseehimasamigrant,notalocal.AthirdparticipantwhoisanIndian-bornNewZealander

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notedthatshewasfullyacceptedbyherprofessionalcolleaguesasapeerbutthatoutsideoftheworkplaceshewasseenasanoutsider,asamigrant.

TheseexamplesofnotbeingincludedinconceptionsofNewZealandidentityalsoextendedtosocialnetworksamongstNewZealanders–whilePākehāNewZealanders,andMāoriandPacificpeople–spokeaboutsocialisingamongstNewZealandersthiswasnotacommonpatternforoverseas-bornNewZealanders.Instead,mostdescribedbeinginAustraliaeitherwithapartnerandtheirownnuclearfamily,orjustwithapartner.TherewerenowiderfamilyorfriendshipconnectionstoAotearoaNewZealandapartfromoneIndian-bornNewZealanderwhoownedpropertynearAuckland.FortheseNewZealanders,returningtoAotearoaNewZealandtomaintainpersonalconnectionswasnotgenerallyconsideredahighpriority.

Migrationisalwayscharacterisedbyencounterswithdifferenceandfrictionassociatedwithadaptingtonewplacesandpeople,andbeingacceptedwithincommunitiesandsocieties.AotearoaNewZealandandAustraliahavealotofcommonalitiesthathaveemergedthroughsimilartimingsofBritishcolonisation,itsdetrimentalimpactsonIndigenouspeoplesandshiftingapproachestoimmigrationthathaveledtoagrowingmulticulturalsocialfabric.WhatthissectionhighlightsisthatthesecommonalitiesalsoprivilegesomeNewZealandmigrantsoverothersandinparticularwehaveobservedthatpeoplewhoidentifyasPākehāorNewZealandEuropeanexperienceasmootheradaptationtoAustraliainsocialtermsandexperiencelessdiscriminationandracismindaytodaylife.Whitenessreducesthefrictionassociatedwithmigration(Higgins2018;Lundstrom2014).

Bycontrast,Māori,Pacificandoverseas-bornparticipantsreportedencounteringorobservingracismmoreoftenwhilealsonotingthattheyexperiencedracisminAotearoaNewZealand,sometimesinevenmoresignificantways.Therearealsotensionsinrelationtobelonging–forMāoriparticipantsexpressedinrelationtosocialandculturalconnectionstoland,placeandcommunityinAotearoaNewZealand,andvaryinglevelsoftransnationalbelongingforPacificandoverseas-bornparticipants.Ratherthanauniformexperience,thesefindingsreiteratethesegmentationthatcharacterisestrans-Tasmanmigrationandtheneedformorein-depthresearchintotheexperiencesofspecificcommunities.

5.6FutureplansandintentionsSincethe1960smigrationfromNewZealandtoAustraliahascontinuedcyclicallywithnetlossesfromNewZealandinmostyearsandonlysmallgainswhenthereareeconomicdownturnsinAustralia(Poot,2010).TheNewZealand-bornpopulationinAustralia(ratherthancitizens,forwhichstatisticsarenotreadilyavailable)hasgrownasaresult,andin2016numbered518,466,anincreaseof7.3%from2011,constituting2.2%ofthetotalAustralianpopulation.WhilemigrationtoAustraliacanoftenoccuraspartoftravel,asaninitiallyshort-termresponsetopersonalcircumstances,orinordertoenhancecareerprospectsitcannonethelessinvolvelong-termsettlementforindividualsandfamilies,aswellastheestablishmentofnewfamilyconnectionsinAustralia.Forothers,returnor

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onwardmigrationcanoccurwhenopportunitiesreduceinAustralia,orwhenfamilypressuresorlife-courseprogressiondrawpeoplebacktoAotearoaNewZealand.ParticipantsinthisresearchprovidedawiderangeofresponsesintermsoftheirfutureplansandtheirsenseofbelonginginAustralia.Interviewparticipantsinallthreecities/regionsexpressedgeneralsatisfactionwiththeircurrentsituations.Ofthe61interviewparticipantsacrossthethreestudysites,27respondentscommentedthattheywouldresideinAustraliaforatleastthenext5-10years,manyothersremaineduncertainatthetimeoftheinterviews.9Theexpressionsofsatisfactioncamefromparticipantsreportingthattheyhadlearnedalotaboutthemselves,suchasadaptingtonewcircumstances,resilienceandfindingouttheyweremuch‘stronger’duetosurvivingthroughfinancialand/orpersonalhardshipsaftermigrationtoAustralia.Intervieweesalsoexpressedasenseofinclusionintheirlocalcommunities,asmanywereinvolvedinvolunteering,sportsclubsorotheractivities,whichservedtoconnectthem(andtheirfamilies)intolocalnetworks.Interestingly,athirdreportedfeelinglikemigrantsandathirdreportedthattheydidnotfeellikemigrants.ThosewhofeltlikemigrantsweremuchmorelikelytobeMāori,AsianorPacificandoftencommentedondiscriminatorytreatment(inbothAustraliaandAotearoaNewZealand)ascontributingtowardsthesefeelings;Pākehāparticipantswhosawthemselvesasmigrantsweremorelikelytoattributethistostatus,being‘long-termvisitors’inAustralia.AthirdofallparticipantsidentifiedstronglyasbeingNewZealanderswhichincludedaspirationsfordualcitizenshipwithAustralia(wherepossible),ortheconnectionstoNewZealandeitherthroughfamilyandfriendsnetworksortothelandasbeingstrong.NearlyallparticipantsexpressedstrongfeelingsofsatisfactionwhendiscussingthesignificantsalaryandwagebenefitofbeinginAustralia.Thesemostlypositiveexpressionsofsatisfactionbytheparticipantsmeantthatalthoughtherewerenearlyequalnumbersofthosefeelinglikemigrantsornon-migrants,futureplansandintentionsmanifestedinparticipants’strongdesiretoremaininAustraliafortheforeseeablefuture.Unsurprisingly,then,whenexpressingtheirthoughtsonfutureplansorintentions,asubstantialnumberofparticipantswereveryclearontheiraspirationstosettlepermanentlyinAustralia.Thisobservationwasnotedinallofthethreeinterviewsites.OneelementofsettlinginAustraliawasthequestionofapplyingforAustraliancitizenship.TakingupAustraliancitizenshiphasbecomemoredifficultforNewZealandcitizensoverthepasttwodecades(Bedford,etal.,2003;Birrell&Rapson,2001;MacMillan,2014and2017;Morey2020).MostrespondentssaidthateithertheyortheirchildrenwouldprefertohaveAustraliancitizenshipandwouldlooktowardspathwaystoobtainingcitizenship.

9ThisresearchwascompletedtwomonthsbeforetheonsetoftheCOVID-19globalpandemicandsubsequentresponsesandimpactsemergedinearly2020.Sincethen,therehasbeenasusbtantialincreaseinthenetmigrationofNewZealandcitizensto6,568betweenMarchandMay2020.

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ThesepathwaysvariedbasedontherespondentandtheirlengthofstaytodateinAustralia,includingtheircurrentvisastatus.Themostcommonreasonsforobtainingcitizenshipwereonthegroundsoffinancialandpersonalsafetyandsecurity-pensions,socialwelfarebenefits,tertiaryfees,fearofdeportation,etc.Forsomeparticipants,then,citizenshiprepresentedanadditionalformofsecurity.Participantsspokeabouthavinga“safeguard”,“stability”or“insurance”incasetheircircumstanceschangedunexpectedlyorsawcitizenshipasameansofpreparingtheirchildrenforfuturelifeinAustralia,particularlythosechildrenwhowereborninorhadbeenprimarilyraisedinAustraliaandknewlittleofNewZealand.Insomeothercases,participantsexpressedambivalenceaboutremaininginAustraliaandotherssoughtpathwaystorepatriatetoNewZealandeitherinthenearordistantfuture.ThoseparticipantsacrossallthreestudysiteswhoexpressedadesiretoreturntoNewZealandwerefarfewerthanthosewishingtostayinAustralia,whichalignswiththeongoinggrowthintheNewZealandpopulationinAustralia.SomeofthereasonsforreturningtoNewZealandincludedbeingclosertofamily.Forexample,aparticipantinPerthnotedthatwhensheandherpartnerstartafamily,ifpossible,theywouldliketoraisechildreninNewZealand.ThiswasduetoherfamilyconnectionsandsupportinNewZealandaswellasherdesiretosendchildrentoaschoolsystemwithwhichsheisfamiliar.AnotherparticipantinPerthreportedthatherskillsinteachinginspecialeducationwouldbehighly-valuedinNewZealand,althoughshealsoacknowledgedthedifferenceinpaywouldbesignificant.AparticipantinBrisbanewhoisanurseexpressedadesiretomovebacktoNewZealandasshewantedtobeclosertofamilywhileanotherparticipantreportedhewouldconsidermovingbacktoNewZealandforretirement.ThedesiretomovebacktoNewZealand,therefore,wasnotaresultofexperiencingpoorpaypackages,lackofcareeropportunitiesorminimallifestyleorleisurepossibilities.Itwasratherthethoughtofeitherraisingafamilyorretiringinafamiliarenvironmentsurroundedbyfamilyandfriendnetworks.

6.0ConclusionMigrationtoAustraliaisoftenframedasarelativelyeasy,economicallyadvantageousopportunityforNewZealandcitizens,andtheconsistentflowsovertheTasmanSeahaveledsomeresearcherstoviewthetwocountriesasanintegratedlabourmarket.Ourresearchreinforcessomeofthesethemes,demonstratingtherelativeeasewithinwhichNewZealandcitizensmovetoAustralia,andtheperceptionthateconomicfactorsareoftenthedriverofthismigration.However,theresearchalsorevealsavarietyofdifferentcircumstancesthatcangeneratemigration,includingexperiencesofinequality,exclusionandlifecrisis,aswellasdocumentingsomeofthedifficultiesthatNewZealandcitizenscanfaceinAustralia,particularlywhenmigrationandlifedonotgotoplan.

AcrossallthreestudysitesparticipantsnotedthatthesalariesandwagestheyearnedweresignificantlyhigherinAustraliaascomparedtoNewZealand.The‘wagegap’,asreferred

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tointhemedia,appearedtobecommonacrossbothprofessional(suchasmedicalfields)andtradeoccupations.Anotherperceivedadvantageoftheincreasedwagestranslatedtothepossibilityofenjoyingmorematerialcomfortandfinancialstabilityandsecurity,particularlyinpurchasingahome(orpayingoffapropertyinNewZealand),andgenerallyahigherstandardoflivingduetolowercostsofliving.

Whilemostparticipantswereawareofhigherwagesandsalariespriortoarrival,manyrespondentswerelessknowledgeableabouttheirlegalstatusinAustralia.Thepositiveperceptionofhigherwageswasoftentemperedwiththerealitiesofengagingwithgovernmentsystemsandsupport.Withinthecontextoftrans-Tasmanmigrationthereisacomplexityofcitizenshipwhichislayeredandoftennotexposeduntilfamiliesengagewithstate-fundedsocialsupportsystemswhichareinaccessibletoduecitizenshipstatus.Thiscomplexityofcitizenshipbecomesmoreapparentandtangledincasesofchildcustodyissues,familybreakdownanddomesticviolence.Somefamilieswereinmixed-citizenshipstatus(usuallyfatherAustraliancitizenandmotherNewZealander;orchildrenborninAustraliatoNewZealandcitizenparents)whichaddedtoconfusionaroundcitizenshipstatusforchildrenandtheirabilitytoaccesstertiaryeducationschemes.Manyoftheseissuesweredependentuponamigrant’sstatusatthetimeofentryintoAustralia.

AnimportantobservationinthisstudyrelatestoattitudesthatparticipantshadtotheirlivesandstatusinAustralia.Thiscanbesubdividedintothreesmallerobservations.Firstly,mostinterviewparticipantswererelaxedabouttheirvisa/immigrationstatusandgenerallyabouttheday-to-dayplanningoftheirlives.ManyrespondentsweresatisfiedwithlivinginAustraliaforanindefiniteperiodoftimeontheircurrentvisastatuswithnofuturesecurity–theyexplicitlyclaimedthattheydidnotneedextrasupport.Secondly,thisrelaxedattitudecouldbeareflectionofalackofurgencyinrespondingtovisastatusasthereisnoparticularpolicywhichimpingesontheirstatus.Itwasapparentthatbecausethetypeofresidencystatusmostparticipantsheldandbecausetherewasnoimminentthreatofdeportationorotherimpactonlivelihood,participantsfeltnourgencyininformingthemselvesaboutimmigrationlaworapplyingforresidencyorcitizenship.Somerespondentswantedtoapplyforpermanentresidency,ifpossibleandnottooexpensive,whileothersrejectedthenotionofobtainingAustraliancitizenship.

Thirdly,theresearchhasdrawnattentiontothevariabilityofmigrationexperiencesofNewZealandersinAustralia,particularlyinrelationtoageandethnicity.Midtolaterlifemigrants,chosetomovetoAustraliaforjobopportunities,familyre-unification,familyseparationorjustto‘giveitago’beforeitwastoolate.Forsome,afailingbusinessinNewZealandwasseenasanopportunitytopressthe‘restart’buttoninAustralia.OthersfeltprofessionaldevelopmentandcareeradvancementwereonlypossiblethroughmigrationtoAustralia.Respondentsoftenreportedthatthesheersizeandscopeofpossibilitiesmadeatrans-Tasmanjumpagoodthing.

TherewerealsomarkeddifferencesaroundthebelongingandinclusionthatemergedwhencomparinginterviewswithNewZealandersofdifferentethnicities.Manyoverseas-bornandnon-whiteNewZealandcitizenscommentedonthelevelsofracismthey

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experiencedeitherdirectlyorindirectlyinAustralia,aswellasdiscriminationinAotearoaNewZealandthathadledtomigrationinthefirstplace.Someparticipantscommentedontheiracceptanceascolleagueswithintheworkplacebutreportedmorenegativeexperiencesinwiderdailylife.Thesethemes,whichweintendtotakeupinsubsequentpublicationsfromthisresearch,demonstratesomeofthedifferentandunequalexperiencesthatliebehindtheverylargeandseeminglysmoothmobilityofNewZealandcitizenstoAustralia.

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