Natural Units 1

Natural Units – Atoms, electrons, molecules, and moles

Units such as meter, second, joule, calorie, gram, kilogram etc are artificial (man-made) units.

What are natural units?How many are there? How do natural units interact with each other?What are the ultimate fundamental particles (units) of the universe?

Atoms, electrons, molecules, and moles are natural units or building blocks of matter. Photons are natural units of EM radiation (energy).

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Philosophy and Sciences

Philosophy: the love of wisdom and ultimate truth -a critical and systematic study of utmost-limit of things.

Sciences: ask fundamental questions -satisfy intellectual curiosities stimulated by the environment around us.

Science is the logic reunion of knowledge corresponding to the reality. Philosophy is a united logic parallel and don’t have any effect because it isn’t experimental. Both come from the same principle and follow to the same end: the knowledge of reality.

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Philosophical ApproachPhilosophy is the serious and systematic attempt to investigate:

What is the world, and what is our place in it?

What is science? Is it infallible? How should science affect us?

What is the relation between the world and us? Is there a single set of “correct” moral standard?

Issues regarding materials:the smallest number of things, the smallest units of things, the fundamentals in the world or universe, …

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The Aspect of Learning

The aspect of learning includes:clear understandingimpartial truthright reasonfair playgood willdecent dialogand wise priorities.

pantheism theism

atheism anti-pantheism

Non-theism polytheism

science

religion

Everything that the human race has done and thought is concerned with the satisfaction of deeply felt needs and the assuagement of pain.

Albert Einstein

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Fundamental Natural UnitsWhat are the fundamentals of the physical world?

The Yin-Yang Dualism (orient)

The Primal Substances (Greek)

These philosophies dominated human reasoning for a long period, and they still have some effects over modern scholars. Many don’t dare to disagree.

What to do if you don’t agree? – deal with it philosophically rigorous and constructive reasoning, clarity of expression, and the ability to address complex and difficult problems.

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The Yin & Yang Dualism

Dualism: The ultimate of the universe consists of Yin and Yang.

I-ching (Book of change(s)) by Fu-Hsi (early Zhou dynasty 1134-247 BC)

The oracle is one of 64 different hexagrams. The hexagram itself is composed of two trigrams, each consisting of three lines. Those lines are either straight (or Yang) or broken (Yin).

All materials ultimately originated from thetwo forces Yin (– –) and Yang (--). Differentproportions of Yin and Yang made eachmaterial unique.

The symbol for Tai-chi, and the tri-grams inthe Book of Change.

Links to I-Chingpacificcoast.net/~wh/

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I-Ching – book of change(s)During the Zhou dynasty (1100-256 B.C.), Lao Tzu (LaoZi) started the Tao philosophy based on I-Ching, and Confucius started the first public school that opened to commoners. This also marked the first schism in I-Ching scholars.

In Zhou, the lunar calendar based on the 10 celestial stems and 12 earthly branches was established. By marking the compass with the 10 celestial stems and 12 earthly branches, the space and time met the first time.

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Implication

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Yin-Yang philosophy

Yin originated from Yang and vice versa.

Together, Yin and Yang form ONE system, no superior part. Each and any part of a system has the ability to imbalance the harmony of the whole.

Yin and Yang could not exist alone; they co-exist with no conflict of interest. They encircled and embrace each other. The constant moving balance is the ideal image of harmony.

This philosophy came to being during the pre-class society, members being considerate. It reflects the character of many Chinese even today.

Reserve your right not to agree!

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Einstein on Religion and ScienceWhat are the feelings and needs that have led men to religious thought and belief in the widest sense of the words? A little consideration will suffice to show us that the most varying emotions preside over the birth of religious thought and experience. With primitive man it is above all fear that evokes religious notions - fear of hunger, wild beasts, sickness, death.

Stages of Religion: Social religion, Moral religion, Cosmic ReligionThere is a third stage of religious experience which belongs to all of them, even though it is rarely found in a pure form: I shall call it cosmic religious feeling. It is very difficult to elucidate this feeling to anyone who is entirely without it, especially as there is no anthropomorphic conception of God corresponding to it.

Science and ReligionThe man who is thoroughly convinced of the universal operation of the law of causation cannot for a moment entertain the idea of a being who interferes in the course of events - provided, of course, that he takes the hypothesis of causality really seriously. He has no use for the religion of fear and equally little for social or moral religion.

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Primal Substances – Plato’s natural units

Plato (427-347 BC) postulated that combinations of four primal substances:air, water, fire, and earth made up all materials.

The five regular (platonic) solids, four of whichhad been associated with the primal substance.

Earth

Fire

Water

Air

(Ether)

According to Timaeus

Show the falsity of primal substances

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Aristotle’s World

Earth Water

Cold

Wet Dry

Hot

Fire Air

Aristotle (384-322 BC) examined the ideas of primal substances from the viewpoint of causes and effects.

He added four qualities:cold, wet, dry and hotto account for the changes.

Plato's doctrine dominated scientific reasoning for almost 2000 years.

What is wrong with Aristotle’s world?

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Doctrine Challenged

Enterprise, medicine, trade, and technology lead to wealth, which brought leisure to people for the pleasure of science.

Plato doctrine was challenged by a few scholars:Bacon (1561-1626) developed methods of fact collectionDescartes (1596-1650) introduced a principle of doubtGalileo (1564-1642) invented experimental methodsHelmont (1580-1644) and Boyle (1627-1691) investigated gas

They disagreed!

Primal substance concept invalidated, as a result.

The important thing is not to stop questioning. Curiosity has its own reason for existing. One cannot help but be in awe when he contemplates the mysteries of eternity, of life, of the marvelous structure of reality. It is enough if one tries merely to comprehend a little of this mystery every day. Never lose a holy curiosity. ~ A. Einstein

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The Chemical Element Concept

During the 16th century, tools emerged for the study of gases. Not all gases the same. – Air is not a primal substance.

Boyle initiated the chemical element concept:I mean by Elements, as those Chymists that speak plainest do by their Principles, certain Primitive and Simple or perfectly unmingled bodies; which not being made of any other bodies, or of one another, are the Ingredients of which all those call'd perfectly mixt (i.e. compound) Bodies are immediately compounded and into which they are ultimately resolved.

A chemical element is a substance that cannot be decomposed into any simpler things. They are the natural building blocks (units) of matter.

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The Phlogiston Theory

Becher (1635-1682 ) suggested that combustible material contained an inflammable phlogiston, which was released during burning,

Metal residue + phlogiston

The late 18th century was dominated by the "phlogiston" theory. Phlogiston theorists identified three essences which comprise all matter: sulfur or terra pinguis, the essence of inflammability; mercury or terra mercurialis, the essence of fluidity; and salt or terra lapida, the essence of fixity and inertness.

Priestly and Lavoisier Metal + oxygen = calx (ash)

They denounced the phlogiston theory as being a pure logical speculation.

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Discovery of Oxygen as an Element

Reaction between 2 parts nitrosus air + 5 partair gives a products soluble in water.

Priestly discovered that not all air are the same.

He found nitrous air reacted with portion of air. The modern explanation is due to the reaction:

2 NO + O2 = 2 NO2 1/5 of air

NO2 is soluble in H2O.

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Additional ElementsTraite Element de Chimie lists these elements

GeneralLight, Caloric, Azote (nitrogen), Hydrogen, Oxygen

Nonmetals whose oxides are acidmetallic, Sulfur, Fluoric radical, Charcoal, Muriatic radical, Phosphorus, Boric radical

Metals whose oxides are acidsAntimony, Iron, Silver, Arsenic, Lead, Platina, Bismuth, Manganese, Tin, Colbalt, Mercury, Tungstein, Copper, Molybdens, Zinc, Gold, Nickel

Salt and earthy substance:Lime, Magnesia, Argill, Barytes, Silex

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Dalton’s Atomic TheoryDalton (1766-1844 ): all substances are made of small, indivisible, and fundamental natural units called atoms.

Various symbols like these hadbeen used to represent atoms of

different elements by Dalton

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Periodic Table of Elements

Goto Internet:

www. Webelements.com

www. periodictable.com/pages/AAE_History.html

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Natural Units in Chemical Reactions

Atoms and ions Fe + S = FeS

H + Cl = H+ + Cl–

Molecules, moles and Avogadro’s number

Arrangement of Ge atoms in crystals image from webelements.com

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Molecules

Failure of Dalton’s atomic theory

2 H + O = 2 HO 2 H + O = H2O (does not agree with volume measured) H + O = HO (does not agree with volume measured)

Avogadro(1775-1856 ): natural units (for chemical reactions are molecules rather than single atoms.

1 vol. O2 + 2 vol. H2 2 vol. H2O2 CO (g) + O2 (g)

Avogadro’s number = 6.0221367e23 molecules mol-1 (physical constant)

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Natural Units of Electric Charge

Electrostatic Force: (Coulomb’s law or Interaction)The force between two static charges of q1 and q2 C separated at distance r is

q1 q2 F = C ---------- r 2

Coulomb constant in vacuumC = (4)–1 = 8.987551787x109 N m2 C-2

C: Coulomb, SI unit of charge

Newton's law

m1 m2 F = G ---------- r 2

Gravitational constant G = 6.67259x10-11 N m2 kg-2

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Electrochemical Reactions

Galvani (1737-1798) studied medicine, but taught at university and carried out research on electric effect of tissues and muscles.

An electric cell and a voltaic pile

Zinc Copper

Container with asalt solution

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Galvani

Luigi Galvani (1737-1798): erroneously concluded that the frog's nervous system generated an electrical charge, his work stimulated much research into the electrochemistry.

The depiction of his laboratory

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Electrochemistry

A. Volta (1745-1827) experimented with different materials, and made voltaic piles (batteries)

William Nicholson (1753-1815) observed bubbles forming on the surfaces of metals submerged in water when they are connected to a voltaic pile

Humphry Davy (1778-1829) observe electrolysis of water and metal salts. Following that, … Michael Faraday (1791-1860) studied electrolysis, and discovered the relationship between charges and chemical stoichiometry

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Electrolysis

Faraday (1791-1860) discovered chemical reactions caused by electricity, and he further investigated electrolysis.

Passing 96485.309 coulomb through the cell will deposit 108 g (1 mole) of silver (Ag), or 1.008 g (also 1 mole) of hydrogen.

Faraday constant F = 96485.309 C.

The masses deposited on the electrodes dependson the amount of electricity passing the cell, and

on the atomic weight of the elements.

DCsupply

Ag Cu Zn

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The Electron A Cathode Ray Tube

High voltage source

Partial vacuum tube

Cathode raysCrookes (1832-1919) discovered cathode rays as negatively charged particles

J.J. Thomson determined mass to charge ratio in 1897.

Millikan's experiment determined the charge

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Electrons

Voltaic piles (batteries) made the following study possible

W. Crookes (1832-1919) observed cathode rays in low-pressure tubes.

1897: J.J. Thomson determined the charge to mass ratio (e– / me) of cathode rays (electrons).

1916 R. Millikan (1868-1953) measured the amount of charge of e–.

qe = –1.60217733e-19 C F = 96485 C me = 0.00054856 amu = 9.1093897e-31 kgspin = ½ (two state) magnetic moment = 9.284770e–24 J/tesla

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Properties of Electron

9.1093897x10-31 kg5.4856 x10-4 amu

0.510999 MeV (/c2) -1.60217733 x 10-19 C-4.80663 x10-10 esu-1 atomic charge

1/2

9.284770x10-24 J/tesla1.00115965219 Bohr magmetons

Rest mass

Charge

spin

Magnetic moment

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Spin of the Electron

In 1896, P. Zeeman (1865-1943) shared physics Nobel Prize with H.A. Lorentz for observed the broadening of the sodium D-lines when the source is placed in a magnetic field.

The theoretical explanation is provided almost 30 years later by quantum mechanics. George E. Uhlenbeck (1900-1988) and Samuel A. Goudsmit (1902-1978) proposed that the electrons might have an intrinsic angular momentum or spin of sz = ±½h.

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Stern-Gerlach Experiment

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Electron Spin Magnetic Moment

The z-component of magnetic moment due to intrinsic spin of the electron is expected to be

z = ±½ B

but the measured value turns out to be about twice that.

B = h / 2 m

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Electron Spin Technology

According to Nature of Dec. 6, 2001

We (6 researchers at UC St. Barbara) would like to electrically manipulate the electron spin because that's the bridge to a scalable technology. Today's charge-based electronics all use electrical gates--a sandwich of electrical plates--to guide electrons. We want to use the electrical control methods of today's technology to fabricate a spin gate. This paper reports spin gates that can make the electron spin go one way or the other or just stay put. And the gate works at room temperature.

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Protons, Neutrons and Quarks

As we shall see, the discovery of protons and neutrons made people consider them as the fundamental particles. However, physicists have evidences to show that all particles, including protons and neutrons are made up of quarks. There are two types of quarks in each of the three generations of matter.

Individual quarks have not been detected, but their existences are inferred. Please recall the Yin and Yang philosophy.

We shall give a full discussion on protons, neutron, and quarks.

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Nature’s Hierarchy – a biological view

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Sub-Atomic ParticlesAtom

MoleculeOrganelle

CellTissueOrgan

Organ SystemMulticellur Organism

PopulationCommunityEcosystemBiosphere