NATIONAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION

Poultry breeding technology

Training materials of project

IMPROFARM - Improvement of Production and Management Processes in Agriculture Through Transfer of Innovations,

Leonardo da Vinci Transfer of Innovations programme, number 2011-1-PL1-LEO05-19878

www.improfarm.pl

This project has been funded with support from the European Commission. This publication reflects the views only of the author and the Commission

cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

Content 1. The origin of the species, breeds and types of poultry. ....................................................................................................................................................... 4

2. Anatomy and physiology ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12

3. Characteristics of the breeds: ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 23

4. Utility types and breeds of geese ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 40

5. Utility types and breeds of ducks ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 45

6. Utility types and breeds of turkeys.................................................................................................................................................................................... 49

8. Poultry breeding technology ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 51

8.1 Broiler breeding ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 51

8.2 Laying hens - maintenance in flooring systems ............................................................................................................................................................. 59

8.3 Hens - keeping in enriched cages. ................................................................................................................................................................................. 66

8.4 Backyard breeding turkeys ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 67

8.5 Geese breeding ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 69

9. Poultry nutrition ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 76

9.1 Poultry diets in general ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 76

9.2 Nutrition with complete blends ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 79

9.3 Feedipedia .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 84

10. Poultry diseases .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 85

10.1 Habitual diseases ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 85

10.2 Invasive diseases ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 87

10.3 Diseases caused by nutritional mistakes ...................................................................................................................................................................... 89

10.4 Bacterial diseases ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 90

10.5 Viral diseases of poultry ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 91

10.6 Fungal diseases .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 92

10.7 Chicken feces ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 93

11. Disease prevention - precautions - veterinary care ......................................................................................................................................................... 94

12. Food safety .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 112

13. Case study ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 113

1. The origin of the species, breeds and types of poultry.

Poultry can be described as farm birds cultured to obtain from them eggs, meat and feathers. Poultry generally can be divided into:

Galliformes - chickens, turkeys, guinea fowl, partridge ,

waterfowl - ducks, geese.

In the structure of total poultry flocks species according to the last census (Agricultural Census, 2010) in Poland hens are - 87.8%, geese - 2.9%,

ducks - 2.7%, turkey - 5.7%, the remaining poultry - 0.9%.

Hens are the most popular birds in the world and certainly the most productive pets. In the Indian jungle there is still alive Bankiva chickens

(Gallus gallus), with the partridge coat, from which originated the first domesticated birds. As for the time of domestication, there are various

theories. According to one of these theories domesticated hens were used by humans already 3200 years BC, other sources give an earlier date,

4400 years before the birth of Christ. In the second century BC birds found their way to England, and at about the same time they also appeared

in the Central Europe. It is believed that chickens were the first domesticated animals which serve man till now and the production of eggs and

meat is still an important sector of the food industry.

Chickens were initially the subject of worship, which was associated with the cockcrow probably stating the coming of a new day.

Roosters used in ancient Rome for bird fights, which was in the past and is also today, in some parts of the world, sophisticated, but popular

entertainment. Currently, for this purpose of breeding there is a special breed of roosters known as fighters, characterized by a great strength and

aggressiveness (some roosters have several spurs on the leg).

Since the domestication to the present time, thanks to many researches carried out on this species breeding animals produced many races,

characterized by:

varying coat (fig. 1,2,3)

Fig.1 Phoenix Fig. 2 Multicolored Polish Crested Fig. 3 Silky

a large spread of the body weight - from dwarf hens weighing just 0.75 kg, giant chickens weighing up to 5.5 kg,

use for various purposes.

These animals began to be kept in one building in large groups, on an industrial scale as first animals. This allowed for the complete elimination

of seasonality in the production of eggs and meat, and thus increases the availability of these products in the market.

Domestication of chickens resulted in increasing their reproductive potential, significantly decreased the stress of birds. Adequate nutrition,

accommodation conditions, preventive veterinary work properly conducted breeding yielded the desired results in the form of flesh to high

growth, high-laying, eliminate unnecessary instincts and acquire new habits resulting from direct contact with the human. The simplicity of

breeding and the ability to quickly obtain valuable and diverse products desired by consumers makes the breeding of these animals very popular.

With the increasing demand for poultry products a lot of local breeds of chickens have lost a lot of economic importance and the specialized

races gained a lot of importance. In the various breeds of hens were produced families that crossed each other to give a premium material for

farm meat or egg production. By all means, besides to the so-called hens production there can also be distinguished decorative chickens, which

have many supporters and are willing to maintain in home gardens.

Poultry meat has been the most popular genre of meat in Poland. Its attractiveness is associated inter alia with the high bio logical value,

which according to the standard recommended by the FAO / WHO is equivalent to the value of the milk protein. Poultry meat is selected as a

food component because of its taste, short preparation time and a relatively low price. According to the Institute of Agricultural and Food

Economics - National Research Institute of poultry meat production in 2011 was 1,426 thousand tons that is by 3.8% more than in the previous

year. Consumption oscillated at the level of 23.7 kg, and Poland among European countries was characterized by a very high self-sufficiency in

the production. Estimated percentage was 125, which means that the production of 25% exceeded consumption. According to the latest census

chicken broilers are kept in 94.1 thousand farms and in 2,334 of them hold more than 3000 animals. Meat is not the only product obtained from

this branch of animal production industry. Certainly none of the housewives today can imagine a kitchen without eggs. From a nutritional point

of view, the eggs are accumulated source of essential nutrients, including high value and easily digestible protein, comparable to other proteins

contained in the food product, both plant and animal. In Poland egg production in 2011 exceeded 520 thousand tones, represent ing approximately

9.4 billion eggs. Poland produces about 8% of the total European Union production which places Poland on the 6th place among Member States.

Poland exports about 31% of the national production. Annual consumption in units per capita is about 207 eggs.

Turkeys (Fig. 4) have been domesticated in North America by the Native Americans 1,000 years ago. Approximately in 1530 already

domesticated birds have been transported to Spain, and from this country they came to Poland at the beginning of the seventeenth century.

Turkeys are the largest among domestic birds and are kept mainly for their tasty and valuable meat. According to the Institute of Agricultural and

Food Economics - National Research Institute, turkey production in Poland in 2011 amounted to 339 thousand tons.

Fig. 4 Brown turkey

Guinea fowl (Fig. 5) comes from Africa and Madagascar; they were probably domesticated at the turn of the second millennium BC. In Europe,

specifically in Rome they had been grown 2000 years ago and were considered as royal birds. During this period, they were bred mainly due to

the delicious meat. Guinea fowl were imported during the Punic Wars to Italy, but after the fall of the Roman Empire their farming has been

abandoned, re-started it in the sixteenth century in Portugal. Currently, the biggest European leader in breeding guinea fowl is France, where

different systems are maintained and their carcasses are sold at relatively high prices of Label Rouge logo. In Poland, guinea fowl were

especially popular in the seventies and eighties of the last century. During that time production and reproduction farms were established, and the

carcasses were exported to other countries, mainly to Italy. Currently, guinea fowl in the country can be found in small herds in the fence

breeding. Detailed statistics on the basis of which there can be estimated population size of the species of birds is not carried out.

Nowadays guinea fowl lay approximately 130-150 eggs per year. Their eggs have high health and taste values.

Fig. 5 Guinea fowl

Quail (Fig. 6.) was domesticated centuries ago by the Chinese people and is still grown in these areas, as a singing bird. At the beginning of the

twentieth century, Japanese started the breeding of this bird, who kept it for the delicious eggs and meat that is more delicate than chicken’s meat.

For this purpose this bird gained the nickname Japanese quail and under that name is now known throughout the world. Japanese quails are

utility birds, but may be as well a laboratory birds due to the low weight, high egg production, short interval between the generations and the low

demand for animal feed.

Quails are bred for two purposes: meat or eggs. Meat of these birds is not very popular in Poland, eggs are more desired.

Fig. 6 Quail

Ducks (Fig.7.) are classified as a species of waterfowl and represented by a number of races with different coloration. Domestic duck comes

from wild mallard ducks, inhabiting almost all parts of Europe, Asia, North America and North Africa. In Poland, the mallard is the most

common wild duck, migrating in winter to southern Europe and Africa.

Duck has been domesticated 2,500 years ago in many parts of southern Europe (Rome, Greece), Asia (China) and North America.

Despite the wonderful taste values, duck meat is still underestimated by the consumers, but the situation is slowly beginning to change. Even 10

years ago the vast majority of domestic production was exported, mainly to Germany. Currently about 95% of the production goes to the

domestic market and the remaining 5% is exported to Lithuania and Sweden. Duck meat consumption in Poland in 2011 was 8,000 tones, giving

a per capita 16-18 dkg.

Fig. 7 Rouen duck race

Geese - (Figs. 8a, 8b) the ancestors of domestic geese were graylag goose and wild arched goose. Wild geese were domesticated about 3,000

years ago. Geese bred nowadays differ in plumage color, body size, egg laying and the ability to grow rapidly.

Peak of popularity of goose meat in Poland occurred in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and from this period of time most recipes used

today come from. More recently, in Poland the consumption of this culinary delicacy increased, due to the special taste and guaranteed quality of

geese. In Poland the race of white kołuda goose has been bred and at the same time the technology of oatmeal fattening and nutritionally-

environmental conditions for the production of oat geese have been established. This goose is becoming more and more popular.

Even three or four years ago Poles ate an average of 17-20 grams of goose. Today - as the result of an assessment of the internal market and

consumer data - there is a doubling of consumption. Significant amounts of goose Poland exports to Germany and the UK.

Fig. 8a Rypin geese Fig. 8b Koluda geese

2. Anatomy and physiology

The integumentary system consists of the skin, the feathers and the appendages (claws and beak). The skin covers the majority of the body and

contains glands in the outer ear canal and the preen gland at the base of the tail, that the bird uses to preen its feathers. The integumentary system

is very important in providing protection to the bird from a number of potentially dangerous situations. The functions provided by the

integumentary system include:

A barrier between the external environment and the internal

systems and organs, thus providing support and protection from

infection by microorganisms and from physical injury.

Excellent thermal insulation to help regulate body temperature

in a variable environment.

Numerous nerve endings for the senses to enable the bird to be

aware of potentially harmful situations.

Pigments for display and protection from the elements.

The compounds capable of conversion into vitamin D when

exposed to sunlight.

Internal organs

Feathers

Feathers are confined to precise tracts or areas called pterylae. Areas devoid of feathers are called

apteria. Smooth muscles attached to the feather follicle from which the feather emerges cause

erection of the feather during cold periods thus increasing the volume of air trapped therein. This in

turn increases the insulation capacity of the feather layer. This ability to control the feathers is also

utilised in periods of hot weather when the birds release hot air from among the feathers by erecting

them as an aid to the elimination of animal heat.

In fowls there are five types of feathers:

Contour feathers

Plumules

Filoplumes

Down (chick)

Bristles

Types of chicken feathers

Skeletal system

Aside from the obvious role of structural support, the skeletal system

has two additional functions: respiration and calcium transport.

The skeletal system of the bird is compact and lightweight, yet strong.

The tail and neck vertebrae are movable, but the body vertebrae are

fused together to give the body sufficient strength to support the wings.

There are two special types of bones which make up the bird’s skeletal

system: the pneumatic and medullary bones.

The pneumatic bones are important to the chicken for respiration. They

are hollow bones which are connected to the chicken’s respiratory

system and are important for the chicken to breathe. Examples of

pneumatic bones are the skull, humerus, clavicle, keel (sternum),

pelvic girdle, and the lumbar and sacral vertebrae.

The medullary bones are an important source of calcium for the laying

hen. Calcium is the primary component of egg shell and a hen

mobilizes 47% of her body calcium to make the egg shell. Examples of

medullary bones are the tibia, femur, pubic bones, ribs, ulna, toes, and

scapula.

Diagram of a chicken skeleton

Digestive system

The digestive system uses the nutrients in consumed feed for the maintenance of all the other systems of the chicken’s body. Ingested food is

broken down to its basic components by mechanical and chemical means and these basic components are then absorbed and utilized throughout

the body. A knowledge of the digestive process assists in understanding the nutritive requirements of chickens. In addition, knowing what’s

‘normal’ can also help you recognize and take action when the digestive system goes awry. Frequent bouts with a particular digestive disorder,

for example, may indicate a need for improved feeding or better sanitation.

Characteristic lack of lips, cheeks, soft palate, jaws and teeth: the whole food is swallowed (not chewed), liquids transferred to the esophagus by raising the

head (force of gravity).

Production of saliva: salivary glands (salivary, palatal, submandibular, jaw) rather underdeveloped.

The esophagus is a kind of long tube (equal to the length of the neck), which connects the cavity with stomach. Jowl is an extension of the esophagus (capacity

to 12 cm3 in hen). It is a type of temporary "storage" for the feed consumed. Here follows the initial hydration and softening of the feed. Initial distribution of

nutrients is possible there (jowl microflora, enzymes, plant feed, reversing gastric juice). The stomach is composed of two parts, clearly separated from each

other: stomach glandular (secretory glands), small size, and cylindrical shape. It is responsible for secretion of HCl (pepsinogen activation, bactericidal,

denaturation of proteins), pepsinogen (pepsin, digestion of proteins) and mucus.

Gizzard, with hard epithelium is adapted for grinding grain.

The liver is the body's metabolic activity center (including the metabolism of carbohydrates, fat, protein, glycogen storage and detoxification). Its primary role

in the digestive system is participation in the digestion of fats, which is the secretion of bile salts into the lumen of the small intestine.

Gall bladder (goose does not have gall bladder) hepatic duct from the left lobe and vesicular of the right.

Intestine, very short, absorption of water occurs there, poor bacterial fermentation (production of volatile fatty acids, the formation of fecal matter. Bowel

blinds, about 16 cm, in birds are even (which is limited in the bacterial fermentation of dietary fiber, synthesis of vitamins of group B, the absorption of water)

- a relatively small role compared to other species.

Straight intestine - straight intestine passes into the front of the cloaca, which is then passed into the middle part and end. For the middle ureter, and steak male

or female reproductive system pass (vas deferens, fallopian tubes).

The digestive tract of the chicken

4. Utility types and breeds of hens

At the beginning of this chapter the reader should distinguish the following terms:

species - a group of organisms with similar structures, common origin, which can be freely interbreed, giving fertile offspring. The

species is the basic of a systematic unit, both in the world of animals and plants;

breed - a group of animals of the same species, with common characteristics relevant to distinguish it from other animals of this species. It

was established as a result of human activities designed to achieve the desired traits and conformation animals that are transmitted

hereditarily to offspring (wikipedia);

utility type - a term used in animal husbandry adapted to describe a group of sectional and physiological characteristics of the animal,

determining the type of utility and may unilateral (eg. milk or meat of bovine, rabbit fur) or combined (eg milk-meat cattle);

rhodium of chickens - hens in modern culture has lost the concept of the importance of breed. Breeds were used to generate specific

lineages (male or female), a closed population against foreign blood topping for five generations. Paternal and maternal lines are grown

within rhodium;

lines of hens - genetically consolidated defined group of individuals, within which there is a small number of improved features.

Chickens belong to the species, which is characterized by a great variability of utility and sectional features. Among these breeds there can be

distinguished breeds kept by fans because of the beautiful, original plumage and families or lines, with outstanding utility characteristics,

specialized in the production of eggs or meat. These two breeding goals are not mutually exclusive, as evidenced by a return to the old breeds of

rural chickens, which now are becoming more and more popular.

Currently, the proper choice of the breed suitable for a farm seems to be very difficult. That is why before planning hen’s breeding one has to

answer the following questions:

What are our desires?

• obtaining meat

• obtaining eggs

• maintaining ornamental breeds

A potential farmer should think about:

• what farm building does he have;

• whether he will be able to provide free range for the chickens,

• what kind of fodder can he provide;

• what kind of breeding does he want to conduct;

• what scale of production is he interested in.

Currently, there are three main types of chickens:

light type of hens - similar to the figure of the triangle facing towards the wider end to rump. Their rear part (abdomen) has been

developed more strongly (abdomen), and the chest part is less developed. They have a lot of cephalic appendages at their small heads

which allow the identification of sex early. They are characterized by light silhouette and relatively low weight. Hens weigh 1.2 - 1.6 kg,

while the roosters 1.7 - 2.4 kg. Hens in this type lay about 300 eggs per year, weighing 54 - 66 g and they reach their sexual maturation

early, after - 140 - 150 days. Their advantage is the lack of incubation. Their disadvantage is timidity and a tendency to fly. A typical

representative of this type is Leghorn breed. Light type of hens appeared for the first time in the Mediterranean region.

Medium heavy type of hens – this type emerged after the crossing of Mediterranean light type of hens with heavy hens from Asia. Their

figure is close to the rectangle and the body musculature at the front proof of their good qualities of meat. In this type of birds there is a

large variability of functional and sectional characteristics. Some families are more like light type of hens, others like heavy type. They

are characterized by a greater than light types weight (1.5 - 2.6 kg - hen, 1.8 - 3.3 kg - roosters), sexual maturity after 160 - 180 days and

they lay 160 - 200 eggs. These birds are not timid but they show the desire of incubation. The most popular hens of this type are: Rhode

Island Red, New Hampshire, Sussex, Plymouth Rock, White Rock and Greenleg partridge.

Heavy type of hens (or meat) - are of Asian origin, the shape of their bodies is like a square or circle. They have a very well-muscled

chest and thighs, widely spaced spikes and short and wide back. 20-week-old hens weight 2.7 to 3 kg, and roosters from 3.7 to 4 kg. Hens

start to lay eggs late, after 190 - 200 days and lay no more than 120 to 130 eggs a year. Due to rapid growth, very good muscle tone and a

great use of feed. They are a perfect material for the production of broiler paternity. A typical representative of this type of breed is

Dominant White Cornish (containing in their genotype genes from many breeds), which is used in the production of broilers as paternal

parent material, crossed the White Rock chickens. The offspring is intended for broiler production.

Silhouettes of different utility types of hens

egg laying type general utility type heavy type

The various breeds of hens could be structured according to one of many keys (Stern, 2008) to:

• Mediterranean (Italian, leghorn, Kastyliańska and Minorca);

• North-western Europe type (bergische, kräher, brakel, Frisian, Rhine);

• Asiatic (amrock, australorp, cochin, langschan, New Hampshire, orpington, Plymouth Rock, Sussex, Wyandotte);

• Dwarf (miniature) includes stunted utility breeds and small breeds such as silky hens;

• From hybrid production lines, which are the bases of the modern poultry production.

At present the indigenous breeds of hens are becoming more popular. The popularity of these breeds is mainly associated with their good

adaptation to local environmental conditions, characterized by a number of desirable traits by breeders as survival (especially in harsh

environments), disease resistance, longevity, high reproductive capacity and self-reliance in obtaining food. These birds are included in the

protection of genetic resources program.

By 2009, the "Protection of Genetic Resources Program of the egg laying hens" covered 10 breeds / families of egg laying hens: Greenleg

partridge (Z-11, Zk), Yellowleg partridge (F-33), Polbar (Pb), Rhode Island Red (R -11, K-22), Rhode Island White (A-33), Sussex (S-66),

Leghorn (G-99, H-22) (Calik al., 2007). These breeds were entered into the world genetic resources by FAO (World Watch List, 2000). In 2009,

the program included the protection of another 9 breeds / families: Rhode Island Red (K-44 and K-66), Rhode Island White, (A-22 and A-88),

New Hampshire (N-11), Barred Rock (WJ-44, P-11, D-11) and Leghorn (H-33).

3. Characteristics of the breeds:

Greenleg partridge - (Fig. 9, 10) was isolated as a medium heavy type already in the late nineteenth century. In the south-eastern Poland this

hen was called Galicia. Due to such characteristic ("Galician") coloration, Greenleg partridge hens during the Partitions were held in the Polish

farms. Even in the 60s this breed was kept throughout the Poland accounting for 30% of the whole population of hens. At the end of the 70s they

lost importance because they were not suitable for breeding in captivity and in large herds. Greenleg partridge run and maintained without the

possibility of exposure to the sun and with no free area for walking have impaired metabolism, there can be observed the occurrences of

cannibalism, pterofagia (feather pecking) or spontaneous loss of feathers, especially from the tail. They perfectly adapt to the conditions of the

extensive breeding, they are resistant to diseases and in such conditions they lay eggs with a much lower amount of cholesterol (30%) compared

to other breeds. Greenleg partridges have gray plumage with light green spikes. Roosters have effective and colorful plumage. The average body

weight of rooster is approximately 2.5 kg, and 1.7 kg for hens. Hens annually lay from 180 to 190 creamy mass eggs weighting 58-60 g. They

have a strong incubation instinct and conduction for chicks, they are skillful in finding food on the catwalk, they have high resistance to low

temperatures and diseases. In search of food they can move away from the house up to 1 km and return at night. Hens of this breed are crossed

with Rhode Island Red and Leghorn roosters obtaining hybrids purchased for breeding backyard.

Fig. 9 Rooster of greenleg partridge Fig. 10 Hen of greenleg partridge

Short description: medium heavy type, suitable for extensive farming, requires a fowl run, has a good health status, uses natural feeding well and

feels best in small herds.

Yellowleg partridge- (Fig. 11) medium heavy type of poultry, created by crossing Greenleg partridge with New Hampshire roosters. Due to this

hybridization hens took a little weight and lost the greenish color of strokes in favor of yellow. It has a dark grey color of feathers, yellow spikes

and yellow color of the skin. Roosters have black feathers with a green metallic sheen on the chest, stomach and thighs. Mane and saddle are

covered with bright-colored feathers – red and gold. Wing feathers have a green outer coat gloss and darts are black. Bird spikes are callow and

yellow. They reach sexual maturity at the age of 170-180 days. In contrast to greenleg partridge it feels good in larger herds. It works well on

organic farms. Yellowleg partridge is perfect for backyard farming because it makes good use of green paddocks. Hens of this breed lay up to

210 eggs per year, weighing 56-60g. Body weight of a rooster is 2.6 kg and of a hen 1.7 kg. These birds are used for crosses with Rhode Island

Red, New Hampshire and Leghorn, and the result is a hen perfectly suitable for breeding in small herds, using runs great.

Fig. 11 Yellowleg partridge

Short description: medium heavy type, feathers quickly, uses green paddocks, works on organic farms.

Polbar - (Fig. 12) is also a medium heavy type that was bred in Poland in 1948 by prof. Laura Kauffman as a result of a crossing greenleg

partridge hen with a Plymouth Rock rooster. The aim of this work was to breed auto sexing breed (to distinguish sex of chicks after hatching). A

characteristic feature that allows distinguishing between day-old chicks of both sexes is the existence of black "eyebrows" in the extension of the

eye tap. Distinguishing the sex of Polbar basing on the color is 99-100%. The plumage of adults differs between the sexes. Roosters have bright

plumage with a grey (silver) coating, while the hens are similar to partridges. These birds have red, single, medium-sized comb, standing in a

rooster, slightly tilted in a hen. They have callow, short legs that are yellow or white. Hens lay 180-200 eggs per year with an average weight of

about 55 g. Eggs shell is creamy. Body weight is 2.0 kg for roosters and 1.6-1.8 kg for hens. This breed is recognized in the amateur breeding,

because of the beautiful, fluffy plumage and auto sexing. These birds are trusting and tame.

Fig. 12 Polbar

Short description: medium heavy type, recognized in the amateur breeding, auto sexing breed, not timid.

Rhode Island Red and Rhode Island White - (fig.13, 14) is another well-known and respected general-breed, bred in the nineteenth century

(around 1840) in the United States in the Rhode Island State. In Poland, the Rhode Island Red breed was known as Redfish, associated with a

characteristic magenta color of the feathers, the color tone is similar to that of fresh, shiny chestnut fruit. American authors report that the

ancestors of Rhode Island were imported in 1830 from Shanghai, red hens (roosters) Javanese have been crossed with other breeds of hens of

Asian origin such as Cochins and Malay fighters. The creators of this breed were determined to grow nice exterier hens, resistant to low

temperatures, resistant to diseases, which lay many eggs in a year and have high slaughter productivity. These hens have been officially

recognized as a new breed of poultry in the exhibition organized in 1895 in the capital city of Providence. Characteristics appropriate for this

breed were found in 1904, but initially birds with brown plumage with a single comb were accepted as a standard. In 1906 birds with white

feathers with rose comb joined to this group. They were brought to Poland in the 80's of last century from France. Hens of this breed are large,

not timid, with a red-brown to mahogany feathers in the Rhode Island Red and white in Rhode Island White they usually lay about 190-200 eggs

on brown crust and a weight exceeding 60 g. The average body weight of the Rhode Island Red rooster is about 2.3 kg, and hen weights

approximately 1.6 kg. Rhode Island White roosters are smaller than Rhode Island Red roosters and weight about 2.1 kg, and hens achieve weight

to 1.6 kg. These hens lay up to 125 eggs with brown crust and weighing about 58 g. Hens of this breed are very lively, not skittish; they use

natural feeding grounds perfectly that is why they are well-suited to semi-intensive and extensive farming.

Due to the genetically determined relatively large resistance to infectious diseases, particularly on Mareka disease this breed is

characterized by high survival in fence farming. Unfortunately, over the past 25-35 years this breed lost a little in popularity since it was

displaced by the modern breeds (hybrids), designed for breeding ranched farming.

These families were used in the crossing program to obtain parental sets for the production of commercial hybrids of hens, characterized by high

productivity in the intensive cage breeding and on the mulch, under the trade name Astra: S, N, D, P, W-1 and W-2.

Fig.13. Rhode Island Red

Fig. 14. Rhode Island White

Short description: medium-heavy type, high

resistance to infectious diseases, breeding

characterized by high survival rate and well

adapted to semi-intensive and extensive farming,

not very skittish, best use of natural feeding

grounds.

Leghorn - (fig. 15) is classified as a light type, originating from Italy, Livorno, but it eventually came in 1830 to America, where they perfected

it, and described as a pattern. Hens of this breed were brought to Poland parallel from two countries England and Canada. It gained many

followers quickly because of the large amount of egg production at low-feed. To this day, it is one of the most popular breeds. These hens have

genetically determined white plumage, yellow beak (fading during the laying period), and the characteristic of the breed is orange iris. The spine

of these birds is of medium length, with a gentle concave going into a long tail. The wings firmly attached to the body are relatively long. They

have a single, large comb cut into 4-9 teeth standing in roosters and falling to the side in hens. Earrings are white or creamy. A rooster weights

2.0 to 2.7 kg, and hen 1.7 -2.0 kg. They lay about 220 eggs per year and at a careful selection 230-260 eggs /year of white shell and a weight of

55-66 g. These hens are lively and have skittish temperament; they have no instinct of incubation. Leghorns are adapted to large scale farming.

Fig.15. Leghorn

Sussex - (fot.16) is another type of medium heavy breed coming from Great Britain. It was bred 185 years ago in the county of Sussex. Big and

heavy country hens have been used to create this breed. These were hens from such families as Brahma and Dorking. Initially, Sussex hens were

chickens in the type of meat, nobody paid attention to their color and drawing. For the first time it was presented at the exhibition in 1845, and at

the beginning of the twentieth century they hit abroad. They came to Poland from Denmark. Hens have a nice, slim figure, white plumage with

some black feathers. Fledgling part of the face and earrings has red color, as well as a single crest gracing the head of a bird. The eyes are light

brown with a reddish tone. The legs are white-bodied. Average weight of a rooster is about 2.8 kg, hens are around 2.1 kg. They lay 180 - 200

eggs per year, with the light brown crust weighting 58-60 g. Hybridization with New Hampshire, Rhode Island Red or Zielononóżka

kuropatwiana breeds gives auto sexing progeny. It is characterized by increased and improved health status and greater ability of laying eggs.

These birds are easy to domesticate, they are friendly and peaceful in nature. In relation to people they are mild; they can be touched and

even take on your hands. They keep peace in the herd; males do not compete with each other. This breed is suitable for the beginners, since the

birds are durable and resistant to weather conditions. Hens also show the incubation instincts. They are good mothers also surrogate mothers.

Sussex chicks grow quickly and gain weight. Hens do not fly, so they can move freely in the garden or backyard.

Fig.16. Sussex

Short description: medium heavy type, easy to domesticate, not competing in the herd, suitable

for novice breeders. Birds are durable and resistant to weather, show an incubation instinct.

New Hampshire - (Fig. 17) is another type of medium heavy breed, bred in the U.S. A. in New Hampshire State in 1915. It was produced with

the significant participation of Rhode Island hens. The aim of this breed was to crate typically productive hens, laying as many eggs as possible.

They came to Europe in 1950 and have gained a lot of interest among farmers due to its early maturity, high body weight, good feed conversion

and rapid growth. They came to Poland 1962 from Austria. Although these birds are medium they are very well built, with strongly rounded

shapes. Thorax and chest are broad. The neck is heavily feathered, medium length, broad back, wings firmly attached to the body. Head of

medium size adjusted to the total figure, a single red comb with 4-5 teeth. They have large, orange or red eyes. This breed has a medium length

tail. The legs are of medium length, smooth and are characterized by its yellow color. Hens can have two colors: white or golden-brown. Adult

rooster’s body weight is 2.8 to 3.0 kg, and 2.0 to 2.2 kg for hen. Hens lay about 200 eggs per year weighing 55g and brown color. Due to its

comprehensive usability it is the most common American breed widespread in the world. This breed is a valuable material for the production of

general-hens on organic farms.

Short description: medium heavy type, a typical production hen, early maturing, fast-

paced growth and good use of feed, is a valuable material for the production of general-

hens on organic farms.

Fig.17. New Hampshire

Barred Rock - (photo 18) it is a medium heavy type, produced in America in the mid-nineteenth century. Hens of this breed went to many

countries even before its official recognition. The most important type of these breed were of so-called striped varieties. Hens of the breed came

to Poland from the Netherlands. Barred Rock birds were used in the cross mark to obtain parental sets for the production of commercial hybrid

hens under the trade name Astra: D, P, Experimental, W-1 and W-2, designed for extensive and semi-intensive breeding on mulch. Depending on

the weight of rhodium the average 20 weeks roosters weight 2.2 - 3.4 kg while hens 1.7 – 2.4 kg. Hens up to 39 weeks of life lay from 100 to 115

eggs with a brown crust and a weighting of 58 to 60 g. The highest body weight obtains roosters and hens of WJ-44 family, hens from D-11

family lay the biggest amount of eggs in a year.

Short description: medium heavy type, it is a valuable material for the

production of chickens on organic farms.

Fig. 18. Barred rock

Apart from the conservative breed kept in Poland, there are some other breeds bred in Poland:

Dominant White Cornish - it is a breed of meat-type chickens (heavy). It was established in England by crossing different breeds of chickens,

such as the Cornish Fighter from the Cornwall County, Leghorn, Malay Fighters, White Rock and Rhode Island

Red. This breed has a white plumage, angular body, a prominent breast (well-developed muscles) and widely

spaced legs. Flat head is decorated with red and low comb, cheeks and earrings are also red and legs are yellow.

Roosters achieve weight of 5.0 kg, hens 4.0 kg. These birds mature late, and their egg production is- about 110-120

eggs per year, weighting up to 60 g with brown shell. Offspring is designed for rearing the broilers.

Short description: heavy type, late maturing, well-developed pectoral muscles, a good material for crosses.

Gołoszyjka - (fig. 19) medium heavy type brought to Europe from India and Persia. A characteristic feature of these birds is bare, red neck,

characteristically curved S-shaped. The thorax of this bird has a well-arched chest in cylindrical shape. It has a medium length head and a single

comb. The top and back of the head is feathered and delicate feathers form a kind of a cap. The beak is strong, light or dark in color depending on

the color of bird feathers. Iris eyes are orange-red. Plumage can be white, black, red, yellow, blue or striped. Body weight of the rooster varies

from 2.3 kg to 2.8 kg, hens from 1.9 kg to 2.3 kg. Hens lay 170-190 eggs per year, weighing 55-65 g egg. This breed is now considered as an

amateur in Europe.

Short description: medium heavy type, high-laying percentage, well-developed pectoral muscles, amateur

breed.

Fig. 19 Gołoszyjka

Australorp – medium heavy type, bred in Australia around 1920. Today, it is difficult to determine from which crosses it was created, it is

certain that one of her ancestors were black orpingtons.

They initially went to the U.S.A. where they were grown in

order to increase the number of eggs and usefulness of

meat. They appeared in Europe in 1950 and many farmers

initially kept them for exhibition reason. It is a medium-

sized chicken with massive body and balanced posture.

Tail is carried in a half-raised position. This breed is

characterized by the average length of spikes of blue and a

single medium-sized comb. These birds have medium-

sized, red earrings. Eyes are dark brown. Luxuriant

plumage comes in three color variations: white, black and

blue. The body is mounted on well-spaced legs. Weight of

hens varies from 2.5 to 3.0 kg, while roosters weight

approximately 3.0 - 4.0 kg. Australorps are the most

productive breed. Hens lay 260 to 280 light brown eggs per

year. Birds are softly disposed, friendly to people and are easy to tame. You can keep them on the unsheltered range of about 1.5 m, they are

unwilling to fly. They have high climatic and environmental requirements.

Short description: medium heavy type, very productive, gently disposed, easy to tame, they can be kept free-range, high climatic and

environmental requirements.

Barnevelder – medium heavy type bred in the Netherlands near the city of Barneveld, very productive, with excellent slaughter productivity. It

was created as a result of the crossing of large Asian races (including Cochins, Lagshans and Brahma) with local laying hens. In the twenties of

the XX century, first hens of Barneveld came from the Netherlands to England. Currently, the

chicken is probably the most popular breed in the world. The body is solid, stocky, with an

average long back and rounded, broad chest. The wings are folded and worn close to the body.

Head is decorated with red earrings and a single comb with four or five teeth. Barneveld is

characterized by an unprecedented figure on feathers and brown plumage. There are also

individuals with feathers trimmed with double black feathers on a brown background. The legs

of males are dark yellow; females’ legs are yellow with a red tinge. This breed is known for its

robustness and ease of adaptation to different conditions. These hens fly poorly, so they can

move freely around the paddock or back yard surrounded by a fence. They are usually gentle

and friendly, quick to tame. It is a high-laying breed. Annually, hens lay around 200 eggs with

dark brown-colored crust. Body weight of a hen is about 2.7 kg, roosters weight around 3.5 kg.

Short description: medium heavy type, high efficiency, gentle breed, quickly familiarizing,

resistance and ease of adaptation to different conditions.

Brahma - the type of heavy breed coming from Asia. It was formed in America from imported chickens mainly from India. In 1850, it was

presented for the first time at the exhibition by the American breeder. They were called Brahmaputra. First Brahmas had single combs and were

probably a cross between the Malayan fighters and Cochins. They came to Europe in 1853 brought by the American breeder

G. Berghom as a gift for Queen Victoria, and then in 1856 they reached Germany.

Characteristic feature of this breed is the size (one of the largest chicken) and very rich

plumage. Body weight of hens is from 3.5 to 4.5 kg, and 5.0 kg for roosters. They have a

low set body and short back and short and strongly feathered neck. Legs and yellow toes are

covered with feathers. Hens have a small and wide head with pea comb with three rows, of

which the center is higher than the other two. This breed has many varieties of color: black,

white, legged, birch, yellow and blue. They achieve reproductive maturity at 7 months,

roosters at the age of 1.5 years. Eggs (up to 140 per year) are creamy and have small size of

up to 53 g. These chickens are difficult to culture due to late maturation, slow growth, thick

bones, loose feathers, low percentage of hatching eggs. They have large environmental

requirements.

Short description: heavy, meat type difficult to culture, late maturing and feather late, low

percentage of hatching eggs, large environmental requirements.

Cochin - heavy type, one of the oldest breeds bred in China. Currently it is maintained as an ornamental breed. Wild chickens Bankiva probably

participated in the creation of this breed. The first birds were brought in 1843 to the court of the Queen, who liked to keep the unique species in

Europe. An adult hen weights 3.5 to 4.5 kg, roosters weight from 5.0 to 6.0 kg. The silhouette is strong and muscular. Low set body, almost

completely covers the yellow, short legs with feathered feet. The chest is broad, rounded, short neck is heavily feathered. Head is adorned with a

small single comb. Cochins come in many color variations including: black, blue, white, buff and black spotted. Hens lay about 120 eggs per

year with yellow-brown color, they are very good mothers. Despite its size, the hens are extremely quiet and gentle, easy to be tamed. In their

culture special attention must be paid to the quality of the ground, after which the birds go, it should be dense grass or sand, so as not to destroy

the planking jumps. They have large climatic and environmental requirements.

Short description: heavy type, nowadays kept as a decorative, high efficiency, quiet and gentle, due to the high mass of the body requires

adequate welfare.

German Salmon - heavy type, coming from Germany, but is now held all around Europe. It was originally bred exclusively for meat. Its

characteristic feature is interesting feathers, forming a cape around his neck. For females salmon plumage is typical, roosters have more diverse

plumage. This breed is characterized by high egg production and tight, juicy and with very good quality meat. It combines attractive appearance

with high economic quality. Adult body weight of a hen is about 3.2 kg to 4.0 kg for roosters. This breed is resistant to frost because their neck is

covered with thick feather. Birds are not about to fly, they are confident and easy to tame. A hen lays about 120 eggs per year with a dark crust.

Short description: heavy type, relatively high productivity, quiet and gentle, has a high economic value, gives the meat of a very good quality.

German reich – medium heavy type, it is a very productive breed originating in rural Germany. Chicken silhouette is shaped like a rectangle.

The legs are strong, of medium length. Body weight of hens is approximately 2.5 kg, roosters around 3.5 kg. It comes in many varieties of color

and is often presented at exhibitions. Chickens have good, delicate meat and plenty of eggs. Birds are resistant to the weather and are suitable for

small domestic breeding.

Short description: medium heavy type, provides tasty meat, weatherproof, suitable for domestic farming.

Wyandotte –it is an American breed of hens registered in 1883. Initially, these hens were called "excelsiors", until one of the farmers called the

breed after the name derived from the name of a ship belonging to his father - Wyandotte. In recent years, Wyandotte breed has lost popularity

for its dwarf variety. Hens of this breed are large, heavy (3.0 kg hens, roosters 3.5 kg), with a rounded shape. The body is fairly broad, long back,

chest deep and well rounded. Head is small, round and short, it is adorned with rose comb formulate the spike along the neckline and bright red

earrings. Eyes are brown with a reddish tinge. Legs are yellow. Wide rear part of the body clearly indicates that this breed lays many eggs. They

can lay 180 tan-colored eggs weighting 58-65 g. Originally they have silver plumage. Now they are bred in many other color variations such as:

white, black, blue, red, buff or striped. These hens are excellent mothers. They can sit on the eggs up to 2 times a year. If held in small spaces

they very quickly put on weight. They have a very good and tender meat. They have large climatic and environmental requirements, they need

roosts.

Short description: medium heavy type with soft and tasty meat, hens are good mothers, quickly put on weight, high climatic and environmental

requirements.

Plymouth rock - the medium heavy type, bred in the U.S.A in Massachusetts, in the mid-nineteenth century. It was the result of crossing

Dominican hens, Cochins and Brahma. In 1870 hens went to the United Kingdom. In comparison with other breeds, these hens are distinguished

by beautiful plumage. Roosters are always brighter than the hens. The body of hen is stocky, with a characteristic horizontal line of the back, a

full belly and a deep, rounded chest. The tail is short, more abundant in a rooster, carried high over the back. Facial part is red, earrings are also

red and the beak is yellow. Eyes are light brown with a reddish tinge. Legs are pale yellow. At the age of 20 weeks cocks weight ranges from 2.7

- 3.4 kg, and the hens 2.1-2.5 kg. Egg laying for hens is annually 170-200 eggs weighting 58-63 g with brown crust. Plymouth Rock chickens are

easy in breeding. They are not very demanding, do not need a large space, but because of its size should be provided with at least a small fowl-

run. The fence does not have to be high, as these birds fly very poorly. They are friendly, sociable, easy to tame, they are also tolerant to other

chickens and they can be grown together with other non-aggressive breeds.

Short description: medium heavy type, a high egg laying index, easy to culture, not demanding, easy to tame, does not require a large space.

White rock - race bred in the United States in the twentieth century. Birds have white plumage, which is the result of a gene mutation of a

dappled Plymouth Rock breed, crossed with Leghorns and a selection carried out in the direction of the dominant color gene of white plumage.

Birds of that breed came to Europe after World War II. They have a rounded body with a concave back lines that are set low on the legs. Comb is

always single, medium-sized, red and standing. Earrings, and cheeks are red, and the iris is brown or in the color of a clay. Body weight ranges

from 2.8-3.2 kg for cocks; hens weight from 2.4-2.6 kg, this breed feathers fast and grows rapidly. Hens achieve sexual maturity at the age of

180-190 days. Annual egg production reaches 150-160 eggs weighing 58-63 g. Egg shell color is cream to brown. Females of this breed are used

for crosses with males Dominant White Cornish breed for the broiler hybrids. This breed has an intercontinental range.

Short description: medium heavy type, a good egg laying, fast feathering, it is used for crossings to obtain hybrids on the broiler.

Welsumer dwarf – dwarf type, hens bred in the early twentieth century in the eastern Netherlands in the small town of Welsumm. It was created

by crossbreeding breed of fowls, Barnevelder, Leghorn and Wyandotte. Prototype of this breed is a partridge variety. Currently there are also

other variations of colors. In 1969, the orange variety has been grown. The body of the bird is highly elongated and is similar to a rugby ball.

Roosters achieve weight to 1.0 kg hens 0.9 kg. Hens lay about 180 eggs per year weighing 55 g. This breed is very popular among farmers

because of the special elegance and functional parameters. They are characterized by long life and friendly nature, however, have large climatic

and environmental requirements.

Short description: a dwarf type, a good egg laying index, large climatic and environmental requirements.

4. Utility types and breeds of geese

Different breeds of geese significantly differ in terms of weight, predisposition to egg incubation and rearing offspring. There are some breeds

spread worldwide, for example: Chinese, Rhenish, Toulouse, Pomeranian, Italian and Cuban. In Poland, there are kept mainly three: Italian,

Pomeranian and Zatorska and several national, regional varieties: Kielce, Kartuska, Koluda, Lublin, Podkarpacie, Rypińska and Suwalki. They

differ in plumage, body weight, egg laying and the ability to grow rapidly. Geese are birds that have poorly marked sexual dimorphism while the

ganders are always bigger, heavier and have a longer neck. Geese are kept for meat rather than for eggs. Feathers are also gain from geese. There

is a division of the direction of meat usage. There can be distinguished early maturing - a greasy goose meat and late maturing, which are suitable

for late autumn industrial fattening - grease type.

Pomeranian Goose - this breed is known and appreciated all over Europe and even in other parts of the

world. It was produced in Pomerania by the topical material selection. Several types of local

Pomeranian geese are distinguished: Poznan, Rypińska, Wieluń and Kartuska. Pomeranian Goose in its

structure is similar to the wild geese, except that it is much larger and heavier, heavier boned and slow

movements. The head of a typical representative of this breed is a bit flat. Iris is brown, often blue at

white individuals. The beak is orange-colored, jumping slightly darker. The chest is wide, the sternum

not too long. The plumage is white, less gray. The body mass of autumn Pomeranian geese not fattened

is for gander - 4-6 kg, goose - about 3.5 kg. Pomeranian goose egg laying begins in early spring, with an

average of 15-40 eggs weighing 120-180 g often carries twice a year, first in February or March, and the

second time after a period of incubation, in May or June. Young geese grow fast. Geese achieve sexual

maturity late. Sex drive, and therefore a significant reduction in body weight, particularly ganders, occurs at the end of December and January.

Short description: late maturing, high body weight, easy to culture, readily adapts to changing environmental conditions

Suwałki Goose - these birds are characterized by mostly white feathers, but sometimes it is spotted. A small head is set on a long and massive at

the base neck, beak and legs are short and orange-red. The thorax is short and not too

long. Suwałki geese are characterized by good reproduction indicators, good

musculature and low fatness of carcasses. They are also characterized by long life,

resistance to diseases and extreme environmental suitability for breeding in small

farms, they also use fodder very well. Suwałki geese are classified as heavy birds as

their body mass of a gander at the age of 12 weeks varies from 4,0 to 4,9 kg and

goose: 3,7-4,3 kg. During the laying period female lays up to 36 eggs with good

fertilization rates (about 90%) and hatching chicks. Suwałki geese hatch the eggs

well and willingly lead chicks.

Short description: resistant to diseases, good reproduction rates, low fattening, well

suited for the ecological breeding.

Toulouse Goose - breed originated in France, in the area of Toulouse, The first references of this breed comes from the sixteenth century, when

it has been used mainly because of the production of fattened livers. It is one of the largest geese with high meatiness, formerly cultivated

commercially in very intensive fattening. It has a medium head, flat

forehead is connected with a short, dark orange beak, which is high at

the base. Their characteristic feature is so called “purse”, created

below the beak till the top of the neck, feathered and occurring in the

place of dewlap. Eyes are orange with dark brown setting. The neck is

relatively short, thick and firmly seated. Breast is broad, well-

rounded, which causes its bulge. Stomach is covered with distinct

folds, fading to a very large long and wide abdomen. The wings are

strong and broad, well-fitting to the body, darts short but well

developed and thick. The legs are short and strong in red brick color.

Plumage of these geese is grey; breast is light grey, the abdomen is

grey and white. The tail feathers are dark with bright trimming. These

geese are very heavy - weight of a gander is up to 12 kg, but there are

individuals with a mass of 15 kg, ganders up to 10 kg. Egg

production is relatively low and is approximately 20 - 40 eggs per

year to a weight of 200 g, whereby a large percentage of eggs is

unfertilized.

Short description: very heavy breed, with a relatively low egg laying and high percentage of unfertilized eggs, high meatiness.

Emdenska white goose - geese with white plumage, bred in Germany in the area lying on the coast of Emden. It is one of the most popular

breeds of geese, reaching the weight of 12 kg. It is spread in North America and Europe, and is characterized by good growth during the

fattening. It lays relatively many eggs (about 80) and a high content of feathers fluff. Unfortunately, birds of that breed are not good at rearing

chicks. Adult gander weighs about 11-12 kg, goose weights 10-11 kg.

Short description: a very heavy breed, with a relatively high egg laying, but poor chicks rearing, high meat content and grows quickly.

Chinese Goose (arched) - comes from China, Siberia and Japan. It was brought to Europe

in the seventeenth century. It is characterized by a hump extending from the base of the

beak to the center of the head. Purely racial birds can be identified by the dark-colored

beaks without orange discoloration. Body weight of birds ranges from 4 to 6 kg. This breed

is considered to be a good pasture race. Breeding them is simple and does not require too

much effort. These geese lay their eggs in two series of 15 each, they hatch eggs well, and

their chicks are extremely resistant to rearing conditions. The meat of this breed is

considered a delicacy. Short description: race considered as a pasture breed, with a

relatively high egg laying, well rearing offspring, young birds have good immunity, meat

considered a delicacy.

Italian white goose – breed with versatile utility, bred in Italy. It is characterized by high body weight and a good egg laying. Birds are white. A

small head is set on a long neck, relatively long, orange-red beak and large eyes are located high. The body is long, gently rounded with convex

breast. Jumps are strong and red-orange color. Females are good laying - due to the lack of a tendency to incubation. In the laying period they lay

50 - 70 white eggs, weighing 150 - 170 g. This goose is perfect for oat fattening and production of fattened livers. The weight of 16 - 17 week

gander ranges from 6.0 to 6.5 kg, and goose from 5.5 to 6.0 kg. After the slaughter, from one goose 170-190 g of feather can be obtained and

about 60 g of fluff.

Short description: versatile utility breed, high body mass, high-laying, suitable for oat fattening.

Cuban Goose - (fig. 20) derived from the Chinese geese. It was brought to Poland from the Cuban Plain (Russia). Birds of this breed have a

characteristic outgrowth of a dark color on its head. Bird plumage is grey with a shade of brown. They have a dark beak and dark brown stripe

running from the front, along the dorsal part of the neck to the thorax. Geese have very good and low fatty meat. Body weight is approximately 5

kg for gander and 4 kg for goose. In the laying season they lay from 50 to 100 white eggs, weighing 130-150 g. Young geese grow very quickly

and do not accumulate a lot of fat.

Fig. 20 Cuban goose

5. Utility types and breeds of ducks

Ducks, (Fig. 21) as well as chickens are divided into groups according to their utility breeds. There can be distinguished light laying breeds,

medium heavy breeds and meat breeds. There are also amateur breeds (miniature and ornamental). In general, domesticated ducks are not worse

egg laying animals than hens. Egg laying ducks (Sandpipers) and some medium heavy breeds (Khaki Campbell) give 200-300 eggs per year, and

the Beijing breed more than 150 eggs.

Fig 21. Cuban breed geese, Beijing duck, Rouen duck

Indian Stilt - (fig. 22) comes from Southeast Asia, the Malay Archipelago. It was brought to Europe in the second half of the nineteenth century

where it has been improved. Birds of this breed have a long, cylindrical thorax mounted almost vertically on the wide seeded legs. They are very

vital and can run fast. Bird's head is mounted perpendicular to the neck. Coloration is very different from white, yellow, mottled brown to black.

Body weight of a drake is about 2 kg, ducks 1.5-1.7 kg. They lay from 150 to 250 eggs, weighing 65-80 g and having white, yellowish or

greenish shade of blue shell depending on the color of the plumage. Ducks of this breed are highly resistant to the weather and they acclimate

easily.

Fig. 22 Indian Stilt

Short description: type of egg laying ducks, easy to culture, resistant to changing environmental conditions.

Musky duck - meat type of duck, also known as Brazilian or Berberi, derived from Caińna Moschata duck, living in the wild forests of Brazil

and Peru. These birds were brought to Europe in the middle of the sixteenth century. Breeding them for commercial purposes was spread almost

exclusively in France, and after World War II in Hungary. In other countries, it is treated as an ornamental bird. In this breed sexual dimorphism

is very strongly marked. Drakes weight from 4 to 6 kg, ducks from 2.5 to 3 kg. The thorax is elongated; legs are strong, equipped with sharp

claws. The head is convex, beak is narrow and long. The decoration of the male is not feather red skin on both sides of the head, near the beak

and around the eyes, large papillae at the base of the beak and feathers elongated in the upper part of the neck. The color of the plumage is black,

white or spotted. Ducks of that breed lay about 140-180 eggs, weighing about 70 - 80 g, a crust of white with yellow tinge. They have a relatively

dark meat but with high juiciness and less fat than meat of other breeds. Fat from Muscovy duck is characterized by an expedient content of

unsaturated fatty acids, which indicates a very high dietary and nutritional qualities of meat. Slaughter percentage is very high at 72-76%. Birds

are resistant to varying environmental conditions are gain weight in a short time. They can be crossed with the popular Peking duck-type, and get

infertile hybrids (mulards) characterized by interesting appearance, good meat content and a large mass of the liver.

Short description: meat type, easy to culture, resistant to changing environmental conditions, provides high juiciness of meat, little fatty, high

slaughter percentage.

American Peking - the most common breed of duck known in the world that has all the qualities necessary for the production of young ducks

for fattening. Americans brought large, creamy white ducks from China in 1870 (near Beijing) . These ducks were characterized by

unprecedented fertility at that time. Head of the American Beijing duck is elongated with a slightly convex line of the skull. Eye is dark with a

touch of blue. A beak is long and wide with orange and yellow color. Jumps are brick color, neck is proportionally elongated and the chest is full.

Plumage color should be white. Characteristic of males turning out four brakes in the tail appears after 4-5 months. After hatching ducklings are

covered with yellow fluff. At 4-5 weeks they turn white because they are covered with maturing fluff. Ducks body weight should be at the age of

8 weeks - males 2.5 kg, 2.3 kg females at the age of 20 weeks, respectively - 3.0 and 2.7 kg. Peking ducks grow very quickly in the first weeks of

their lifes. Minimum egg laying number should be 125 eggs. Under the right conditions they can give 150 eggs, sometimes 200 eggs, are not

unusual. Eggs have a smooth, slightly glassy, white to off-white shell, and the mass of 80-90 g. As a valuable feature of this breed is the ability to

the adaptation to different climatic conditions, good vitality, ease of breeding, rapid growth in the first weeks of life. Peking duck meat has thick

fibrous.

Short description: duck of medium heavy type, easy to culture, resistant to changing environmental conditions, a high lay, suitable for early

production of ducks for fattening.

6. Utility types and breeds of turkeys

There can be distinguished light, medium and heavy breeds of turkeys.

Broad Breasted Bronze – it is a medium or heavy breed which was bred in the thirties of the twentieth century in the United States. It came to

Poland in the 60s of the last century. This variety derived by a selection of Standard Bred Bronze race turkeys. A selected race has been called

the Broad Breasted Bronze. In terms of the feathers nature and features of the species it is similar to the Mexican wild turkey. The color of the

plumage, usually described as brown, is on his chest, neck and back black, but twinkling purple and golden colors. Each feather on the chest is

decorated with a black velvet border. Males reach a body weight of 12 to 16 kg, females from 6 to 8.5 kg. Females during reproduction lay from

70 to 100 eggs weighing between 70-100 g and having dark creamy shell of dark spots.

Short description: medium or heavy type, well-acclimating, high slaughter productivity.

Broad breasted white - medium or heavy type of turkeys. It was created in the 20s of the twentieth century in the United States from crosses of

White Dutch with Broad breasted Bronze turkeys. It differs from the discussed above breeds only in the color of the plumage. All other features

of both the utility and the exterior will be similar in both races. White color of feathers is conditioned to an autosomal gene, recessive relative to

dark colors. According to the guidelines for the selection of breeding farms minimum weight of young turkeys should be: in turkeys at the age of

8 weeks 1.8 kg, 1.5 kg in turkeys at the age of 20 weeks, respectively 5 and 4 kg, and 30 weeks 10 and 7 kg. Turkeys selected to increase body

weight, growth and better slaughter productivity show a worse number of egg laying .It is estimated to be approximately 40 eggs. Therefore, in

the seed breeding separate maternal lineages is carried out, with a capacity of laying 70-100 eggs weighing 80 - 90 g and good hatchability and

paternal lineages of the outstanding features of muscle and a higher body weight. This breed has an intercontinental range, in Poland it is more

than 95% of the population of all turkeys. These birds are characterized by high slaughter productivity.

Short description: medium type, well-acclimate, high slaughter productivity.

Beltsville - light type, grown in the United States in Beltsville (Maryland). In 1934 they were recognized as a new breed. Turkeys of this breed

are the smallest representatives of the American breed. They are fairly stocky and they have a relatively long, heavily muscled sternum. They

were imported to Poland in 1960. In terms of construction Beltsville turkeys are similar to broad- breasted bronze breed, but have a lower body

weight and white plumage. Birds of that breed mature early (at the age of 30 weeks). The male reaches a weight of 8-12 kg, female - 4-6 kg. Egg

laying is almost twice higher than in the heavy breeds, ranging from 90 to 120 eggs, with an average weight of 80 g of yellow creamy-colored

crust with brown spots.

Short description: light type, well-acclimate, good egg laying, relatively low growth of young individuals.

8. Poultry breeding technology

8.1 Broiler breeding

In this production system, the birds are kept from one day-old till they reach the slaughter weight. Premises (buildings) are mostly without a

fowl-run and are heated with double ventilation system - normal and emergency. Due to existing climate it should be predicted that in addition to

the indoor heat there will be a need to use heat cooling during warm periods. Birds should also be ensured proper microclimate through adequate

air exchange, optimal temperature, light intensity, and undesirable noise attenuation. For early disinfected, dried and heated rooms day-old chicks

are imported. Birds from the beginning of their stay must have permanent access to water and feed. Length - the time of breeding depends on the

target weight of birds agreed with the customer. In the final period of fattening the concentration of birds must not exceed 43 kg/m2. Stocking

density is one of the critical factors affecting the development of the birds, their health, carcass quality, and most importantly for their well-being.

Therefore, in addition to the appropriate temperature conditions and humidity a breeder must abide warnings on stocking. It is possible to use

partial thinning of the stock consisting of the withdrawal of 10 - 20% of the birds to be slaughtered earlier.

Table 1. Broiler staff for one and two-bird reception

Body weight at slaughter (kg) Number of birds per 1 m2 (36 kg/m

2) Number of birds per 1 m

2 (43 kg/m

2)

1,25 28,8 34,4

1,50 24,0 28,7

1,75 20,6 24,6

2,00 18,0 21,5

2,25 16,0 19,1

2,5 14,4 17,2

Environmental requirements

In the room where we keep broilers it is necessary to provide the exchange of air - in the winter, when the outdoor temperature is -20°C it should

be 0.6 m3/h/kg, and at +30°C in the summer outside, up to 6.0 m

3 /h/kg. Ensuring the exchange of air in the house it is necessary to avoid

aerations and the maximum permissible air flow in the occupied zone of broilers - winter -

0.1-0.3 m/s, while in summer - up to 1.0 m/ s.

Table 2. Temperature and relative humidity in the building

Week Temperature oC Relative

humidity % in the room with additional local

heating

in the room without

any additional local

heating Under a lamp In a room

1 34-30 24-20 33 70-75

2 30-26 20-28 29 55-70

3 26-24 20-18 25 55-70

4 24-20 20-18 22 55-70

5 - 20-18 20 55-70

further - 20-18 18 55-70

The differences in growth rate of broilers in the range of 20-25oC are small. Therefore, when the outside temperature is below 20 °C the target

internal temperature of 20 °C ensures maximum fresh air with simultaneous low expenditures on heating.

Table 3 Estimated additional heat demand depending on the outside temperature.

Outside temperature oC Heat demand kcal/h/kg

- 20 4,9

- 15 4,0

-10 3,1

- 5 2,1

0 1,2

+ 5 0,2

Table 4 Maximum concentrations of gases in the building

Gas ppm % volume mg/m3 g/kg

CO2 2500 0,25 4949 3,822

NH3 26 0,0026 20 0,016

H2S 10 0,001 15 0,012

High temperatures outside with the heat generated by the birds and may cause dangerous litter temperature rise in the environment of broilers. In

keeping broilers aged 35 days litter surface temperature may be higher by about 6-8oC from the temperature in the chickencoop. Lowering the

temperature can be achieved by convection method, or by forced air movement through the use of fogging water.

The intensity of the light

At the beginning of the rearing of broilers intensity of 20 lx with a smooth reduction in the increase of the birds is required. Lighting programs

used should comply with the recommendations of the supplier of chicks. Chickencoop must be fully prepared for a new flock even before its

arrival. All the systems (lighting, feeding, watering, ventilation, etc.) should be checked. In pans there should be fresh feed, clean water in

watering troughs, and in the right places on the floor - clean litter. If the settlement takes place during cold weather it is recommended to heat the

room to 15°C for two days before the arrival of the herd.

Litter used in the chicken coop must create the appropriate conditions for ensuring the welfare of hens. For litter we can use straw, sawdust,

wood shavings, peat and sand. Barn systems are used both for the rearing of young roosters, commodity stocks and broiler breeding. The biggest

advantage of this technology is enabling animals to live in conditions similar to their natural environment. An important role is the choice of

litter, because it has a significant impact on the shaping of the microclimate in the house. Material used for litter must be dry and clean, free from

any mechanical and microbial impurities and from unknown odors. Therefore it is very important to properly store litter before using it. Chopped

straw is one of the best insulators, and also possesses hygroscopic properties. (Table 5)

Table 5 the possibility of water absorption by 100 kg of litter

Type of material Mass of water (kg)

Scrap wood (from deciduous trees) 145

Sawdust 152

Wheat straw 257

Rye straw 265

Peat 404

The distribution of litter should be carried out by hand to reduce dust. In the presence of birds in the house the litter is added. It is important to

focus on quality of the litter, to prevent their excessive moisture and compaction (Table 6).

Table 6 Required litter layer (initial and added layers

Wyszczególnienie Cut straw (cm) Shavings, sawdust, peat (cm)

Egg laying hens 20-30 10-12

Young hens 20 6-8

Broilers 10 6-8

In normal conditions, environmental litter in the house should be loose, and its humidity should not exceed 18%. Too much moisture causes a

threat of coccidiosis as well as the presence of parasites. In addition, too wet litter causes growth of humidity and increases concentration of NH3

and H2S. Other effects include ammonia burns and dermatitis on the feet, as well as dirty or damaged plumage. In turn, excessive drying of litter

for example at elevated temperature in the house can cause inflammation of the eyes or respiratory system failure. Litter quality during the

production cycle is primarily dependent on the correct operation of the watering system. Not working watering troughs, too low or high hanging

causes water leaks to the litter.

In the case of strong litter moisture it should be dried by raising the temperature and increasing the ventilation of the house. Breeder’s actions

must be immediate, because drying of litter increases maintenance costs significantly, and makes litter hard. Nowadays computerized system of

ventilation and heating is used frequently.

If the farmer chooses to use sand he should provide a high temperature above 150C because of poor insulation properties and relatively low

hygroscopicity of sand and the appropriate level of ventilation to reduce humidity levels. Sand is usually not supplemented, however, if it gets

wet and sticky it can be supplemented by small amounts of wood chips.

Colonization of the chicken coop

All preparatory works before the adoption of chicks must be done with utmost care.

Picture 1 Chicks under the radiator.

Transport of chicks is held in disposable

perforated cardboards or in disinfected corrugated

paper lined special transport containers using 25

cm2/piece. Unloading the vehicle in which the

chicks were brought should be carried out inside

the building. Lighting of the building should be

set on the first day at 20 lux and kept for about 23

hours with one hour for adaptive break. After

placement of chicks in the house, leave them a

few hours to adapt, and then check if they do not

focus too much (too low temperature) or do not

run away from radiators.

Picture 2 Chicks in properly prepared chicken coop

It should be observed if chicks drink water and

approach the feeders. If necessary, injured or

sick animals should be removed. Time of

turning off the artificial sitter depends on the

season, which is settled in a chicken coop. With

very low humidity in the room it should be

sprayed 3-4 times a day the equipment and litter

with disinfectant solution.

Keeping the herd

Ensuring the chicks in the first week of life, an optimal living condition is essential to achieve success and good production results. Before

importing the chicks, at least 3 days earlier the chicken coop should be heated. Two days before cut straw or wood shavings should be spread in

the chicken coop. After preparation of the litter the watering trough is placed at eye chickens’ height so that they can see the water. The chicks

are introduced into the house through the door previously disinfected with slaked lime or sodium hydroxide. In the same way, we disinfect the

platform in front of the building. From the first moment of chicks presence in the house ventilation is set at the minimum air exchange, so that

the concentration of CO2 in it does not exceed 2500 ppm. At the time of the settlement the internal temperature of the house should be at 33 -

34oC. In the next days of birds’ stay the temperature decreases by 0.5°C. At the end of the first week of stay chicken must come to the

temperature of 30oC. Equally important is to ensure the proper humidity in the house. Initially, the relative humidity should be at the level of 60-

72%. With such intense heating obtaining this level of humidity can be difficult. Chicks maintained under suitable moisture are less susceptible

to dehydration, and grow faster. It should be noted that too high relative humidity can affect the quality of the litter and lead to its deterioration.

In this case, the relative humidity must be reduced to

55-60%.

Chick feeding is done by pan. However, in the first three days you can spread feed on paper strips. It stimulates the chicks to show greater

activity and reduces the number of slowly growing animals.

Transferring broilers to slaughterhouse

Before transferring birds to the slaughterhouse the date and time of receipt must be set. Knowing the date of completion of rearing birds a breeder

should stopped giving them drugs a week before. For 6-8 hours before transport feed is not given. Birds have provided access to water to the end

of their stay in the chicken coop. Catching and loading birds is carried out by hand or by machine. The number of employees required for the

operation of loading should be predicted, the intensity of the light reduced and ventilation increased. Transport containers should be prepared.

Number of broilers inserted into the container has to meet the following standards 200 cm2/kg for birds weighting 1.6 kg and 160 cm

2/kg for

birds with body weight from 1.6 to 3.0 kg. During manual capturing portable fences are used that limit the movement of birds. Broilers are

grabbed in their jumps and move in 3 pieces in one hand gently, so as not to cause damage to the body. During mechanical capturing broilers are

beat up to the conveyor belt, from which they are loaded into containers. At the end you need to pay attention to protection in transport from rain,

sun and wind.

8.2 Laying hens - maintenance in flooring systems

Birds in this system stay in buildings with no fowl-runs. Floor areas are covered with litter. Chicken coop is inhabited by 16-18 weeks old hens.

They stay there until the end of lay period. Density of birds per 1 m2 cannot exceed 9 hens.

The lighting in a building can be natural or artificial. Birds should have the opportunity to find food and water and prevent cannibalism.

Environmental conditions in the room for layers are as follows:

- Temperature in the range of 13 to 16°C;

- Relative humidity of 65% (ranging from 55 to 75%);

- Exchange of air between 0.5 (winter) to 6.0 m3/h/kg (summer);

- Flow velocity of 0.3 m/s (winter) to 1.0 m/s (summer), - permissible gas concentration: NH3 - 0.0026% (0.02 mg / l), CO2 - 0.20 % (4 mg / l),

H2S - 0.0005% (0.008 mg / l);

- Artificial lighting, adjustable from 0 - 30 lux.

Equipment of the chicken coop

Nests in facilities for laying hens are a basic piece of equipment. They can be set in one or two rows. Requirements according to EU standards

say that for every 120 hens there must be 1m2 of nests.

Picture 3. Nests - photo taken in the Experimental Station of the National Research Institute of Animal Production in Chorzelów.

In professional production nests with appropriate

conveyors belt are used for automatic transport of

eggs to packing.

Roost

Roosts are installed above the floor crevice in

accordance with the EU regulations. The

requirements are as follows: for one laying hen

should be reported 15 cm of roost, the minimum

distance between roosts are 30 cm and 20 cm from

the wall. Frequently roosts are made of wooden

strips 50 x 37 mm.

Picture 4. Roost - photo taken in the Experimental

Station of the National Research Institute of

Animal Production in Chorzelów.

Equipment for feeding laying hens.

Hens feeding system consists of the following components:

feed silo, silo unloading conveyors, gravity feed connected

to a recording device, charging racks and conveyors for

distribution inside the house and the feed pan. Silos settle

on the side wall of the house at a distance of up to 2 m on a

concrete plinth. Silo capacity should be sufficient to store

feed covering 7 day birds demanding (it may be extended

to 10 days).

Picture 5. Feed silo - photo taken in the Experimental

Station of the National Research Institute of Animal

Production in Chorzelów

Picture 6. Hopper

with feeding system -

photo taken in the

Experimental Station

of the National Research Institute of Animal Production in Chorzelów

Feeders must protect as much as possible from scattering of

feed dumping it to the litter. In addition, they should be

equipped with the regulation of feed level and hanging over

the floor. Feeders are hung directly on the conveyor or on

the structural elements of the building. The entire system is

installed on a set of ropes and pulleys to allow mechanical

(manual or electric) height adjustment by raising or

lowering. The number of feeding lines and feeders is

determined depending on the size of the rooms and the cast

of birds taking into account the length of the edge of the pan

per hen. It cannot be less than 4 cm (Council Directive

1999/74 EC). Feeders in a line must be spaced at a distance

of 0.75 m for the spiral feeder or 1.0 m for other types of

feeders. Pan can be fitted with a mechanical device to dump

or electrical wires to prevent birds to sit on them.

Picture 7. Feeder - photo taken in the Experimental Station

of the National Research Institute of Animal Production in

Chorzelów

Drip watering troughs and round automatic watering

troughs are used nowadays. Round watering troughs

designed for laying hens are slightly larger than those

used for broilers and troughs with water are deeper.

Drip watering troughs for hens are better protected

against water flow as the internal pins move only up

and down when the drinker for broilers responds to the

side impact. When installing the watering system, it is

assumed that for one hen there is at least 1 cm length

of round watering trough, and at least one drip

watering trough for up to 10 hens (Council Directive

1999/74 EC). It is estimated that the daily

consumption of drinking water is between 0.3 - 0.5

dm3 per one bird.

Picture 8. Watering trough - photo taken in the Experimental Station of the National Research Institute of Animal Production in Chorzelów

Lighting

The light source on a farm can be fluorescent lamps or bulbs. For laying hens, it is recommended the source of light giving light with the

supremacy of long waves. The light points should be arranged is such a way to provide regular illumination throughout the house. The light

intensity of 10-20 lux is the smallest intensity which not allows creating a dark area on the floor. Their presence causes laying eggs on the floor.

Uniform illumination is achieved by placing the bulb so that each illuminates area of about 40 m2, while the fluorescent lamp should illuminate

approximately 16 m2. Light source should be placed at a height of about 2.5 m above the floor. Many years of experience in poultry production

shows that the largest egg production is at a light intensity of 5-6 lux. While keeping hens in the floor system special attention should be paid to

cleaning. Despite standard disinfection operations carried out at empty premises attention should be paid to cleaning accessories (nests, grids,

perches, egg collection systems). In poultry houses for laying hens’ very common problem are red-mites (Dermanyssus gallinae). During the

production cycle, it can be controlled by applying insecticides; however, the most effective way to get rid of it is the heat ing of the building and

equipment to a minimum temperature of 45°C for a period of 48 hours. This procedure should be performed after disinfection of chicken coop

and equipment.

8.3 Hens - keeping in enriched cages.

In this system of breeding environmental requirements are the same as in the breeding on the litter. According to EU rules for one laying hens

should be at least 750 cm2 of cage area and 600 cm

2 must be usable. The total area of the cage shall not be less than 2000 cm

2. In the equipment

of a cage there must be nest with the height at least 20 cm. For one hen there should be at least 20 cm of perch. In each cage there must be a

claw-shortening device. A typical claw-shortening device is attached in a cage a sheet of grass-paper. Per one bird there should be access to at

least 12 cm of a feeder. Birds kept in enriched cages must have access to at least two bowls or drop drinkers. Transitions between successive

rows of cages should be at least 90 cm in width, and the lowest tier of frames must be at least 35 cm above the floor of the house. In the cage

system coops are placed directly above one another. Under the cages, at each level, there is a belt for fences which are removed two to three

times per day. Thanks to the sloping floor of the cage, eggs automatically goes onto a conveyor belt that transports them towards the peak of the

house wall. There, through the elevator and / or transverse conveyors eggs are transferred to the packing room. In view of the fact that the frames

are equipped with nests in some models of cages, eggs gather in a small area and it is necessary to run several times during the period of bringing

the conveyor.

In caged system of egg production lighting systems are installed in series on the areas of corridors between the rows of cages. The sources of the

light are bulbs that are spaced appropriately to provide uniform distribution in all cages. It is necessary to connect the lighting system with

controls that allow the change of light intensity during cleaning. The light intensity inside the cage should range between 10 and 20 lux. In case

of cleaning activities or during inspection light in the house should be stronger. It is also advisable to install control panel and timers so that the

circadian rhythm of light will be determined by the breeder.

Detailed rules for maintaining hens are contained in the Annex to Council Directive No. 1999/74 of 19 July 1999. These rules define the

minimum standards of keeping hens. Person responsible for chicken coop must make inspection of all birds every day. The noise level in the

house should be as low as possible. Continuous noise and violent sounds should be avoided. In all rooms the light intensity should be large

enough so that all the chickens see each other.

These parts of the building or its equipment that are in contact with chickens, should be carefully and regularly cleaned and disinfected at least

every time the herd is disposed of or before the arrival of a new part of birds.

8.4 Backyard breeding turkeys

Before starting rearing turkeys suitable room for the chicks has to be prepared. For this purpose, two weeks before the rooms should be

thoroughly cleaned to remove the old litter, wash the walls, floors and equipment. The room should be sprayed with disinfectants. Then 15-cm

layer of litter should be applied, covering it with paper (this prevents eating litter in the first week of life). Good materials for litter are: straw,

wood shavings, shredded corn cobs and peat.

Not good are:

- Forest sand

- A short chopping of straw,

- Sawdust, husks, pine needles, leaves from the trees.

Before placing litter the groundwork should be sprinkled with lime (0.5 kg/m2), superphosphate (0.5 kg / m

2) or Biosan GS (2 g / m

2). Another

important treatment is to remove the drenched litter. If we want to keep more fattening turkeys we should made so-called chicks’ circles. The

heat source should be turn on 24 hours before placing the chicks. It is essential to note that the dispensers must constantly have fresh and clean

water, and parts of feed that haven’t been eaten systematically removed. The most difficult period in the life of chicks is the first days after

hatching. They should be given vitamin A + D3 together with water. It is also an essential element to establish the cast of chicks. In the period

from 1 to 6 weeks of age there should be 8 -10 birds per 1 m2. For one heavy turkey there is allocated 1 m

2 of the floor, medium - 0.75 m

2, light -

0.5 m2. In the case of good conditions and proper rearing, after about 4 days, you can expand the circle for about 50 cm from the heat source. On

day 10, the circles can be joined together, and after about 14 days chicks can move all over the brooder.

The temperature in the occupied zone of birds, in the first week of life should be 34-360C. To 6 weeks of age it should be lowered once a week to

about 3° C to 18-220C. The temperature measured at the edge of the circle should be 21-23

0C.

Light plays an important role in the rearing of turkeys. Appropriate light intensity and length of day light limit the occurrence of cannibalism. In

the first days of life, 24 hour lighting is necessary (1-100 W light bulb for each circle). In the following days, day light is reduced to 12-14 hours.

From 14 weeks of age lighting extends to 16-18 hours/day. The recommended air exchange for turkeys is about 5 m3 for 1 hour per 1 kg of body

weight. Special attention should be paid to efficient ventilation in the nursery, because an excess of harmful gases, such as ammonia and

hydrogen sulfide cause serious respiratory diseases.

Turkey chicks in terms of dietary and nutritional needs are the most demanding group of poultry. Endowed with very rapid growth, they need

feed rich in protein and vitamins. The most convenient way to feed the chicks from the purchase of complete feed that is balanced according to

the requirements of turkeys in different periods of life.

8.5 Geese breeding

Body weight of chicks after hatching is from 63 to 65% of eggs mass with an average of 95 to 125 g. Chicks with lower body weight derived

from females from the first laying season, geese older, 3-4-years, lay larger eggs (190-200 g) and hatch their chicks weighing more than 110 g.

Initial mass of a chick does not affect the final result of fattening. Day-old chicks should be vigorous, lively, with a healed umbilical cord,

covered with a thick, shiny fluff.

Weak, dry, with unhealed umbilical cord from defects build, with dark, damp rimmed around the eyes, where the weight is less than 80-85 g

chicks are not suitable for rearing purposes.

Transport

For the transport of geese chicks we use clean, disinfected and dry plastic containers or disposable boxes, with straw rye. In one carton there are

40 chicks, 10 pieces for each of the compartments. They are carried in thoroughly cleansed and disinfected car with full air-conditioning. The

temperature inside the vehicle should be from 18 to 20°C. Birds during transport must be protected from cold and aerations. For transport we use

disposable cardboard boxes or plastic containers. Cartons ensure proper hygiene, have higher heat absorption compared with plastic. Board walls

are made of several layers of paper between them there is air, which, as known, is a good thermal insulator. Plastic containers can be reused

because of the possibility of a thorough cleaning and disinfection. Containers are covered with lid, which provides optimum climate which is

characterized by a relative air humidity of 60-70% and a temperature of about 30°C. In open containers birds are cooled down, and in these

conditions, the increased air flow results in dehydration.

Preparation of a farm

For rearing and fattening of geese can be used properly adapted livestock buildings: for the brooder - barns, piggeries, and for further rearing

(fattening) - barns, sheds. Not suitable for the production of geese are buildings made of stone which are damp, dark, and moldy, without proper

ventilation. Distance of a farm from compact residential development should be about 500 m. When planning the location of farm buildings

attention should be put to access of energy, drinking water supply and sewage disposal. Before the entrance and at crossing the locks disinfectant

mats should be arranged filled with 2-percent solution of caustic soda. The runs near the brooder should also be disinfected. Black runs are

disinfected with chlorinated lime. Limed area are sunk with water and after 2-3 days we plough to 15 cm. Cured fowl-runs are then disinfected

with 2-3-percent solution of copper sulphate or ferrous sulphate. Before the introduction of birds to the brooder room has to be prepared. First,

we perform preventive treatments such as rodent control, cleaning rooms with hot water under pressure, decontamination of 2-percent solution of

caustic soda or 5-percent solution of formalin, bleaching walls and ceilings.

Current maintenance of hygiene in areas and on the fowl-runs provides good health, growth, and as a result breeder can receive good economic

results.

The basic equipment needed in the nursery include pan and watering trough. Feeding trough should be made of aluminum or dry wood and

replaced with larger with the increase of birds: up to 14 days of age, use the pan size 100 x 15 cm and a depth of 7 cm (pan for 20-30 birds), from

15 to 28 of age: 150 x 30 x 15 cm, more than 4 weeks of age: 170 x 30 x 25 cm.

Adult goose consumes about 1.5 liters per day of water. Watering troughs are exchanged according to the age and growth of geese by sizes up to

14 days of age, use watering trough 100 x 4 cm and a depth of 6 cm, up to 28 days of age: 100 x 15 cm and a depth of 12 cm, more than 4 weeks

of age: 100 x 20 cm and a depth of 25 cm. In the first two weeks of rearing the most practical are plastic watering troughs, reversible (1 watering

troughs for 30 birds), or choose automatic for 50-60 geese.

The length of watering trough edge per one 2 week old goose should be: 2 cm, up to 4 weeks: 4 cm, above 4 week 5 cm.

Pan edge length per 1 goose is: up to 2 weeks: 4 cm, between 2 and 4 weeks: 8 cm, between 5 and 7 weeks: 10-15 cm, between 8 and 24 weeks:

20-25 cm.

Temperature

The hardest and most time consuming is rearing geese to 4 weeks of age. During this time, the heat is the most important condition for the proper

growth and development. Geese are sensitive to undertemperature, moisture and overheating. The temperature in the nursery before introducing

birds should be 25°C. Brooder can be heated by central heating or gas (1 gas heater heats the surface of 55 m2), which helps to maintain a

uniform temperature throughout the room. You can also use storage heaters, oil heaters or other heat sources. Required brooder temperature

measured at a height of 1.5 m from the floor should be as follows: for the first 3 days: 26-25°C, 4-7 days: 25-23°C, in week 2: 23-21°C, at 3

week: 21-20°C, 4 weeks : 20-18°C, from 5 to 7 weeks 18°C, 8 to 24 weeks: temperature the same as outside. In the first days of rearing radiators

of artificial lightings are hung at height of 40-50 cm above the litter. The height should be regulated depending on height and age of geese. The

temperature at the radiator or artificial lighting should be: 1-3 days: 33-30°C, 4-7 days, 30-27°C, in week 2: 27-25°C, at 3 week: 25-23°C , at

week 4 do not use additional heating, unless the weather conditions are unfavorable.

The best test of proper thermal conditions in the brooder is the behavior of birds. If the temperature is too low, birds focus under artificial hen,

going to one another, resulting in suffocation. The right temperature can by recognized by free seat under the umbrella of artificial hens or

radiator.

Ventilation

Insufficient ventilation in the nursery is caused by: increase the water vapor content in the air, litter moisture (bacteria growth), lack of oxygen -

reduces vitality and birds ‘resistance and causes inhibition of growth and development, the accumulation of harmful gases such as carbon

dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide , cause inflammation of the upper respiratory tract, anemia, poisoning. Relative humidity of the air in the

brooder should be maintained at level of 65-75%. Too low humidity (below 55%) is harmful for geese. It can occur in the first week of rearing in

heating the building with central heating. In order to increase the humidity in the first week of rearing it is recommended to spray corridors with

water.

Cast

Excessive concentration of birds per 1 m2 of floor area negatively affects their health and development. It increases the risk of diseases and

parasites. To high cast causes fall, increases litter and room moisture. Proper cast per 1 m2 of floor on deep litter: 1 week: 10 pcs, 2 weeks: 6

pieces, three weeks: 5 pieces, 4 week: 3 pcs, 5 to 16 weeks: 2 pcs. Running out geese to fowl-run is an important factor in stimulating growth. In

the sunny days (above 20°C) ten-day old geese can use the fowl-run for 20-30 minutes and this time can be gradually elongated.

Litter

Litter is an important part of taking care of geese. The best bedding is wheat straw, barley, whole or cut into chaff length of 5-8 cm. Litter

insulates the ground, absorbs moisture and its daily filling up is a part of their hygiene and prevention.

Light

Light stimulates the growth and development of geese. During the breeding for the first 3 days we use 24-hour lighting. From 4 day to 3 weeks

geese are lit 14-16 hours a day. From 4 weeks to the end of the rearing and fattening – we use natural day light. At night, we use such lighting so

that geese see feed and water.

Proper fattening

The maturity of plumage limits the date of slaughter which usually occurs in 16-17 weeks or 23-24 weeks. The purpose of feeding geese during

the fattening is to obtain maximum weight gain, especially subcutaneous fat and intracellular decisive for the appearance of the carcass and meat

quality. Proper goose fattening takes 21 days. It should be done in groups of no more than 250 pieces. You should also restrict the movement of

geese, reduce fowl runs, and allocate 2-3 geese per 1 m2 which increases the efficiency of fattening. Under good environmental conditions and

with adequate nutrition birds gain 1.2-1.3 kg or more. Proper fattening of geese is run by three weeks before the slaughter. 12 hours prior to

detachment goose starve, leaving them with only water to drink. Starvation is carried to empty the gastrointestinal tract, not leading to loss of

body weight. After finishing the fattening, 16-17-week-old geese reach an average weight of 6 kg and at the age of 23-24 weeks - 7 kg. Geese

well-fattened have properly constructed carcass, well-muscled, covered with a layer of subcutaneous fat, without damage and valuable export

material.

Plucking

Properly conducted plucking of goose provides better quality of carcass; increases body weight, and give farmers an additional income from

feathers collected in 4-6%. From the first plucking of white Koluda geese we receive about 70-80 grams of feathers, including 11 g of fluff from

1 bird. The second plucking is more abundant and more valuable. From 1 goose we can obtain 100-110 feathers, including 28-33 g of fluff.

Plucking is made when the feathers are mature. Sign of maturity is dry, clear scape, completely dried core, loose feathers stuck in the skin, no

trace on the pen and on point break. The flag is grown and fully developed. Fresh pluck contains about 30% moisture and easily deteriorates. In

order not to reduce the feathers during storage, it should be dried so that it contains no more than 15% water.

Breeding oats geese by organic methods

Importance of breeding and rearing geese in Poland stems from the fact that almost 100% of production (carcasses and parts) is intended for

export. Very valuable products are fluff and feathers, which are mainly exported to Germany, Japan, USA, Switzerland and Thailand.

Goose meat in Germany is a delicious, and above all classified as safe food product. In order to obtain desirable products for consumers, it is

necessary to select the appropriate genotype and maintaining appropriate environmental conditions.

It should be noted that geese, which remain as the least domesticated farm birds, perfectly exist in the natural environments. This creates the

conditions for the goose organic farming. Organic methods include comfort of geese, behavioral flexibility, the use of unrestricted areas of

meadows and pastures. Products produced in such conditions have excellent quality and goose meat is defined as a healthy and safe food.

Products from White Kołuda goose fluff and feathers held in harmony with nature provide comfort to the user, due to the light weight, thermal

insulation and high practicality. The basic components of the meaty mixtures used to feed oat geese on farm are cereals (up to 65% of the dose),

high-protein animal feed, including legume seeds, oil cake and bagasse (20-25% of the dose), dried grasses (up to 5-7% dose) and yeast feed (up

to 3% of the dose) and mineral supplements. Feed mixture for goose cannot contain animal feed, coccidiostats and drugs. Legume seeds and

grain may undergo expanding or extruding process to reduce the number of microorganisms, as well as reducing the amount of anti-nutritional

and toxic substances. Very important element in maintaining ecological goose is the quality of drinking water. Drinking water should not contain

pathogenic bacteria, as well as cannot be more than 15 mg / l of nitrate and nitrite, and no more than 3 g / l of water-soluble compounds. The

water temperature should be 10-12°C, and the pH 7 to 8.5. Fresh water in clean dispensers must be available to geese in the building and on the

runways or pasture. It is especially important after placing geese in brooder. If possible, as early as 1-2 weeks geese should get used to collect

green fodder. These may be fresh, finely chopped nettles, grass or puffball. Chicks eagerly learn new food, which is also part of the fun, exercise

and well-being. Taking litter from the pasture also provides natural minerals and vitamins.

The area of the pasture must be adapted to the nutritional requirements of geese, but should take into account the environmental pollution, and in

particular natural resources: the soil and water. Per 1 ha of pastures there should be more than 100-120 birds. Reasonable and in line with the EU

regulatory framework for animal production and the environment is rotating grazing, but allowing free feeding for geese. While grazing on

pastures birds must have continuous access to fresh, clean water. Forage intake is dependent on the botanical composition and the growing

season. If the pasture is younger, more luxuriant, with high biodiversity value, the more likely it is eaten by geese and then the additive

concentrates (which may be the same meal cereal) should be limited. The best are natural pastures; permanent, made from mixed plants mixed

which are short and resistant to trampling. Good pasture should consist of a variety of grass species (70-90% regrowth), fine-grain legumes (10-

13%) and herbs.

While establishing permanent pasture it is recommended to sown for 1 ha of English ryegrass and clover (after 6 kg), Italian ryegrass (12 kg),

brome grass (10 kg), meadow fescue (6 kg), herbs (2 kg).

Good forage can be corn, sunflowers, kale, beet leaves, as well as the remains of the gardens. Oatmeal geese kept on organic farming system

reside in the pasture till about 20 to 21 weeks of age or more. At the end of 21 weeks their body weight is 5,3-5,6 kg, the total consumption of

about 20 kg of fodder and about 130 kg of green fodder per 1 goose. During the three-week feeding geese fed on grain oat paddocks, pastures

and shelters birds obtain gains of 0.6-0.9 kg. During feeding oats without limitation geese may also feed on pastures. Oat consumption during

this period is approximately 10-10.5 kg per 1 goose. Movement of the sun, fresh air, varied feed, forage for natural conditions in which goose

thrives, grows and the result is a "producer" of a healthy, safe food.

Maturation of feathers depends on many factors, mainly on the health of the birds, the intensity of nutrition, housing conditions, including the

cast of the building, the time birds stay in pastures and paddocks. The quality of feather and fluff so the degree of rise, color, elasticity, in

addition to these factors a huge factor is played by breeding hygiene, including, significantly, making bird baths, natural or in specially equipped

pool with s exchanged water. The first maturity of goose feathers in organic breeding geese achieve later than in a traditional, because about 10-

11 weeks. Regrowth of fluff and feathers is from 6 to 7 weeks. Geese maintained over 20 weeks of age may be plucked twice and sold in full

plumage at the age of 23-24 weeks.

Properly conducted plucking does not adversely affect the health, condition and breeding results, but provides better quality of carcass. It is not

the norm, or even necessity, to make the first or subsequent plucking. From the first plucking we can get 60-65 grams of feathers, including

about 10-11grams of fluff. Second plucking is heavier and more valuable because from one goose we can obtain 100-110 g of feathers, which

contains from 28 to 33 g of fluff.

Ecological breeding of oat geese is run in harmony between the bird and its environment. It is a relationship so dependent and consistent that any

changes occurring in the environment adversely affect the health and productivity of geese. It is therefore necessary to prevent violation of

homeostasis through proper prevention. In order to reduce microbial and fungal hazards one has to strictly stick to the rules of hygiene consisting

of washing, cleaning, decontamination facilities, equipment, cleaning and decontamination enclosures and access roads and entrances. A very

important element of geese breeding hygiene is cleaning enclosures, swimming pool and proper preparation of pastures.

9. Poultry nutrition

9.1 Poultry diets in general

Feed cost is the largest single item in poultry production & accounts for 60 to 75% of the total production cost from hatching eggs to processing plant.

Availability of low-priced, high-quality feeds is critical for the expansion of the poultry industry. For maximum performance and good health, poultry need a

steady supply of energy, protein, essential amino acids, minerals, vitamins and, most important, water.

The bases of feeding poultry are plant fodders which must be supplemented by additives of animal origin. Cereal grain is the main

nourishment of poultry but it cannot be the only feed because of low biological value of protein and low content of minerals and vitamins. Only

some of vitamins from B group which are found in grain are in sufficient quantities. The quality of cereal depends largely on the conditions in

which it was collected. Poultry is very sensitive to rotten feed that is why its quality should be checked before giving it to poultry. Because grain

of cereal is also human food, hens are often fed with the offal which value depends on the degree of contamination. The seeds of some weeds

(cockles) are toxic.

For chickens, which are particularly sensitive, given seed should have an excellent quality. It cannot be moldy. Molds produce

mycotoxins, which cause poisoning and lead to falls.

Wheat is the seed richest in protein, containing little fiber. It has a high energy value. This is the most common grain used in hen nourishment.

Corn is often eaten by chickens. It has a high energy value; therefore, it is the basic material in the compound for broilers. It is suitable for fodder

for chicks and egg-laying hens, it is a source of pro-vitamin A-carotene. Yellow grain of corn contains a lot of plant pigments, which contribute

to the intense color of egg yolks.

Barley is widely used in the nutrition of hens, but it contains less protein and more fiber than wheat. Greater nutritional values in feeding hens

have smooth brome varieties due to lower fiber content. Barley is given to egg-laying hens. It is also an element of mixtures for fattening due to

its high energy value.

Oat is less likely eaten by hens but after some time, they get used to it. The oat grain is rich in energy, but contains a lot of fiber (about 10%).

Although this is a valuable feed due to its content of vitamin E. The addition of this grain is beneficial for egg laying and hatching eggs. Soybean

from husked oat is a part of the industrial compound. In the hatching period hens are often fed with sprouted grain of oats or barley, because the

process of germination increases in the content of vitamin E. Sprouts are a good vitamin supplement for chicks.

Triticale is richer in protein than other cereals grown in the country and has more energy. So it can be a good substitute for corn and wheat.

Rye is the least likely eaten, so it is best to give it to adult hens in combination with other grains. It may cause problems in digestion in chicks.

Fresh rye can cause diarrhea.

Soaking or scalding of given grains increases their digestibility by an average of 20%.

Wheat bran contains a lot of fiber, but is richer in protein, minerals and vitamins than the whole grain. In feeding hens, the content of fiber in

doses must be limited. It is not possible to give them a lot of bran. They are used in exceptional circumstances and in an amount not exceeding

10% of the dose.

Soybean meals and flour are very important in feeding of poultry as they are a source of protein. Soybean meal is a valuable feed for chickens,

contains protein of high biological value and has relatively low fiber.

Post-extraction rapeseed meal from double-refined varieties is a valuable source of protein.

Yeast fodders provide B vitamins. They contain 50% of protein of standard value and only 0.5% of the fiber. But they cannot be used in large

amounts as they cause diarrhea.

Root plants are not vital in the nutrition of hens. From this group, the most relevant are potatoes, but these are one-sided feed, providing

carbohydrates. Animals are fed with potatoes after its steaming, which involves a lot of work and increases costs of feeding. Poultry eat potatoes

very willingly, but after giving them large quantities of potatoes they easily become fat.

In the intensive rearing of chickens steamed potatoes do not have any importance, because by introducing mechanization of feeding, the

administration of wet feed has finished. In small-scale farms hens are still fed with potatoes, but it must bear in mind that it cannot be the only

feed, and their daily dose should not exceed 30 g per hen adult.

Potato flakes are also eagerly eaten and can be included in the dry mixtures; 10 g of cereal has a value of 45 g of potatoes. Red carrot is also

willingly eaten by poultry. Due to the high content of carotene, it is a desirable supplement for chicks and hens producing eggs for hatching. It

can be given raw or pickled in the amount of about 30 grams per piece. Young, not woody parts of plants are a valuable feed additive for poultry,

as a supplement of vitamins, minerals and protein. In addition, they increase appetite and act positively on the digestion but they cannot be fed in

large amounts. The most important in the nutrition of hens is lucerne and wild nettle plants. Dried leaves of the young plant are the source of

vitamins in the winter and part of some industrial compounds.

Skim milk without vitamins A, D, E is also used in the nutrition of hens. Due to the fact that fresh milk sour quickly, and over-soured is harmful,

it is the best to serve it as curdled. Chickens drink a day about 100 g of milk, but hey can be forced to drink larger quantities, while reducing the

amount of water. Milk should be served in vessels made of timber or stoneware, never in metal containing zinc as lactic acid dissolves the metal,

resulting in the formation of compounds harmful to birds.

Dairy wastes - cottage cheese, buttermilk, whey have high nutritional value. Particularly favorable effect on egg production has whey, which

contains water-soluble vitamins, minerals and soluble protein (albumin). Liquid dairy products are used in semi-intensive and extensive breeding.

Fish meal, which is a component of all industrial mixtures for poultry has great importance in the nutrition of hens. Despite of containing large

amounts of standard value protein it also contains many valuable minerals and vitamins from B group. In the fish meal from blood there is about

80% of protein, but this is quickly perishable feed and contains relatively little amount minerals. This fodder provides a lot of protein and

minerals.

The demand for minerals is very high. Usually, there exists a shortage of calcium, phosphorus and manganese, for this reason, there should be

used special mineral additives. Egg shells, snail shells and chalk provide mainly calcium carbonate. Crusts and shells before grinding and

bruising should be boiled and dried. These additives should be administered in separate pots that hens could use them as they need.

9.2 Nutrition with complete blends

In the commodity nutrition only complete blends are used. They are the only solid food while still giving access to drinking water. For laying hens the fodder

is supplemented with chalk mixture. Stuffs bird feed compositions provide essential nutrients such as proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates and fats, and

essential biologically active substances such as minerals or vitamins. The meal consists of cereal mixtures (60-80%), extracted meal (5-15%), animal feed (5-

10% - currently prohibit the use of meat and bone meal), vegetable fat (2-8%) and components of minerals, vitamins, and various biologically active additives.

The market is distinguished by the following types of complete mixtures:

- mixtures for broiler chickens: the type of starter used DKA to 3 weeks of age, DKA grower used from 4 to 6 or 7 weeks of age and DKA finisher diet for the

last week of feeding,

- blend for meaty and laying breeding chickens and hens, usually for three rearing periods: DKM 1 to feed the chickens in the first 6 weeks of life, DKM 2 in

the period between 7 and 12/15 weeks of age and DKM 3 for birds between 13/16 and 18 / 22 weeks of age,

- mixture for laying hens and breeding marks (DJ-R and DJ),

- complete mixtures for turkeys, wherein the 4-5 ranges depending on the fattening period,

- mixture for water poultry, especially a starter (KB 1) and grower-finisher (KB 2 KB 3) used in the fattening of geese and ducks.

Nutrition of young geese during rearing

Geese are herbivorous birds. They utilize the nutrients contained in cereals and green fodder well. Fattening geese to the age of 16-17 weeks or 23-24 weeks is

extensive production. During this period, in addition to the necessity of intensive feeding to the end of 4 weeks, important are green fodders. Concise mixes

are also very important in nutrition. The main components that are mixed for the goose meal are cereals (wheat, barley, corn, high protein soybean meal and

rapeseed) and dried grasses. Supplement for a ratio for goose must be vitamin and mineral supplements (chalk fodder, Awimix, MMD, Polfamix 2). For

proper fattening of geese it is necessary to give them barley and oats. Forage or pasture are required for proper growth, development and proper fattening of

geese, the more that the amount of fodder used in breeding is dependent on the quality of green mass. Good pasture should consist of a variety of grass species

(70-90% regrowth), fine-grain legumes (10-30%) and herbs. To pasture sown long recommended (per 1 ha) English ryegrass and clover (6 kg), Italian

ryegrass (12 kg), brome grass (10 kg) and meadow fescue (6 kg). If there is no permanent pasture, fodder production should be provided on arable land of

winter catch crops or intercrops secondary, so choosing the plants and their cultivation area to provide a set of geese cover the needs of mid-April to the end of

the fattening season. You can use the following plants: in winter crops (first fodder) winter rye, providing good quality feed from mid-April; yield of 1 ha,

depending on the development phase is 5-10 tons, better quality silage, richer in protein gives sown winter rye with hairy vetch, vetch should be sown in mid-

August, and rye (60-80 kg) at the beginning of September.

Forage of good quality given in the appropriate amount (depending on the period of feeding) is a prerequisite for good growth, muscle growth and,

consequently, for the meat of the specific taste and high nutritional value. Geese need for their growth and development, a certain amount of protein, energy

and mineral-vitamin supplements. Due to the lack of thermoregulation geese should be fed with high-energy feeds with low fiber content. Young geese are

very sensitive to vitamin and mineral deficiencies, and susceptible to rachitis. Young geese react quickly to poor quality feed containing toxins - there are

massive failures. Falls subside in 4-5 days after the change feed of a good one.

Nutrition of geese during rearing is divided into 3 periods:

The first feeding period - from the first day to 4 weeks. In the first period of nutrition young geese grow quickly and in the first three weeks their weight

increases, reaching an average of 1.7 kg. They should be fed a small volume of feed, rich of protein and energy. For the first three weeks feed is served at will,

in a 4 week there is a limit to 210 g of the mixture per day. By the end of 4 weeks of rearing there is a need of 3,7-4 kg of feed for 1 goose. From 4-5 they are

fed with small amounts of green fodder, gradually increasing its number. Forage should be young, fresh, finely chopped (nettle, dandelion, grass or forage

rye).Young geese of the early broods may receive grated carrots.

The second feeding period - from 5 to 12 weeks

Geese in this period are fed with a mixture of KB2 or other complete mixtures. Approximate feed intake in g / pcs. 22 per day for each week:

- 5 weeks - 220 g,

- 6 weeks - 230 g,

- 7 weeks - 230 g,

- 8 weeks - 220 g,

- 9 weeks - 210 g,

- 10 weeks - 210 g,

- 11 weeks - 230 g,

- 12 weeks - 200 g.

From 4 weeks to the end of rearing (13-14 or 20-21 weeks) and fattening (15-17 or 21-24 weeks) they are given in separate trays mineral blend consisting of:

- Coarse gravel - 40%

- Awimix - 40%,

- MMD mineral blend - 20%.

At 10 weeks of age, depending on the maturity of feathers the first plucking is conducted. After plucking for the period of 2-3 weeks we increase feed content

of 20-30 g / pcs per day. In total, from 5 to 12 weeks old goose eats 12 kg of concise mixture.

Daily intake of forage for geese is:

- At the age of three weeks - about 100 g / day,

- At the age of 4 weeks - about 300 g / day,

- 6 weeks of age - about 600 g / day,

- At the age of 8 weeks - about 800 g / day,

- At the age of 12 weeks - about 1000 to 1500 g / day.

The third period of nutrition - from 13 to 21 weeks of age

During this period the need for energy and protein is reduced. The basis of feeding geese is pasture and mowed forage given at will. Per 1 ha of pastures there

should be no more than 100-120 birds. Throughout grazing on the pastures geese must have constant access to fresh, clean water. During this period using

concise fodders is limited to 130-150 g of mixture per bird per day, depending on the quality of pasture or forage fed. Geese can be fed a mixture consisting of

94% of cereal pellets, 5% of the concentrate KDJ or extracted rapeseed meal "00" and 1% of Awimix. In the period from 13 to 14 weeks (16-17 weeks

slaughter) we must prepare 1,8-2,10 kg compound feed per bird, and from 13 to 21 weeks (23-24 weeks slaughter) - 8,2-9,4 kg / bird.

NOTE: in the 16 or 17 weeks make plucking, which makes it necessary to increase the amount of concentrates of concise fed to 20-30 g per bird for 2-3 weeks

after plucking. One day before and three days after plucking Polfamix must be administered in an amount of 2-3 g / pc.

Proper fattening

The maturity of plumage limits the date of slaughter, which falls in the age16-17 weeks and 23-24 weeks. The purpose of feeding during the fattening is to

obtain maximum weight gain, especially subcutaneous fat and intracellular decisive for the appearance of the carcass and meat quality. Proper fattening takes

21 days. It should be done in groups of no more than 250 pieces. You should also restrict the movement of geese; reduce fowl-runs, preparing 1 m2 for 2-3

birds, increases the efficiency of fattening. Under good environmental conditions and with adequate nutrition birds gain 1.2-1.3 kg or more. Fattening is run

three weeks before the slaughter. During that period, diet is based on oat grain. A week before the proper fattening birds get used to take oats, and fodder and

steamed carrots or potatoes still fed without restriction. Consumption of oats varies from 11-12 kg per goose. Throughout the period of fattening birds should

be provided regular access to clean drinking water and mineral mix. 12 hours prior to detachment goose starve, leaving them with only water to drink.

9.3 Feedipedia

Feedipedia is an open access information system on

animal feed resources that provides information on

nature, occurrence, chemical composition, nutritional

value and safe use of nearly 1400 worldwide

livestock feeds. It is managed jointly

by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO.

The main objective of Feedipedia is to provide

extension and development workers, planners, project

formulators, livestock farmers, science managers, policy makers, students and researchers with the latest scientific information to help them

identify, characterize and properly use feed resources to sustainably develop the livestock sector.

This is particularly important in emerging and developing countries where feed resources available locally are often under-utilized due to lack of

information. Providing global knowledge on feed resources, including unconventional and lesser known ones, contributes to the development and

use of innovative and appropriate feeding options and strategies.

Feeds datasheets contain the following information:

Feed names, including vernacular and scientific names Description of the plants or plant parts/products used as feed Feeding recommendations for the main livestock species: cattle, sheep, goats, camels, poultry, pigs, rabbits, horses, fish and crustaceans Tables of composition and nutritive value Illustrations, including photos and processing charts Distribution and basic agronomic information Forage management Processes for improving nutritional value Potential constraints such as presence of anti-nutritional and toxic factors Environmental impact of the production and use of feeds

10. Poultry diseases

Diseases especially infectious cause a serious threat to the culture. They cause very large losses often leading to the liquidation of the entire herd.

That is why prevention is very important. It should be borne in mind that it is much better to prevent disease than to treat them. The costs of

treatment are very high and treatment in many cases is sometimes ineffective. Many diseases are caused by improper maintenance conditions or

inappropriate feeding. Therefore, in many cases the change in environmental conditions, hygiene and nutrition can improve health, productivity,

and in ornamental breeds it can improve the appearance of birds. Unfortunately, in practice it is not that easy especially if the breeder does not

have experience in this branch of production.

Poultry diseases can be divided into several groups, their description we will start from the so-called habitual diseases also named as diseases

caused by improper management of the farm, which include: cannibalism, pterofagia and eggs eating.

10.1 Habitual diseases

Cannibalism - is one of the habitual diseases that can be referred to all breeds of poultry. It can cause large economic losses on some farms.

Birds peck each other what leads to the formation of extensive injuries. Unfortunately, it is impossible to identify a clear cause of the disease,

because in practice it is not easy to determine them, and it usually involves several overlapping factors.

The first group of factors include: inadequate environmental conditions such as rearing chickens in battery, too much density, overheating, low

humidity, poor ventilation, intensive lighting (irritation), infection with extensive parasites and disturbance of the herd (stress) or sterile - dull

environment.

The second group includes dietary factors such as deficiency of protein in the fodder, vitamins B12,

K, minerals, mainly calcium, magnesium and salt, fiber and sometimes even feeding with granulated fodders.

Finally, the third group is the innate tendency of some birds to peck. The birds peck feet, wounds, and cloaca region especially when it is

swollen; the mucous membrane steak was not pulled after laying eggs or feces contaminated with blood (coccidiosis). The taste of blood

stimulates them to pecking, which turns into cannibalism.

Because of the many reasons that can affect cannibalism the therapeutic procedures should be multidirectional. It is therefore recommended to

reduce the density of the chickens. Appropriate feed enriched with fish oil, table salt (for 3 - 4 days in increasing doses from 0.5 to 3%,

manganese sulfate (in an amount of 0.02 mg / bird) and calcium compounds should be applied. You can also spread dung on the fowl runs

(vitamin B12), give to peck carrots and beetroots.

Pterofagia - feather pecking and eating, especially young, soft-yet undeveloped quills and labels. Birds usually peck each other, but it happens

that they peck themselves. Pterofagia often turns into cannibalism; we can say that sometimes it is the first stage. It affects birds in all living

systems, in the cage, on the ground, and also at free-range breeding. Pterofagia may take a gentle form, which implies a soft feather ends pecking

and destroying their structure. Acute form leads to feather pecking by pulling them vigorously. Feathers are frequently pecked from the region of

back, cloaca and chest. Therefore, in young birds there is no full plumage formed and older birds have bare and red spaces.

Egg eating - a common cause of this habit is the lack of vitamin D or calcium dose. Weak egg shell can be easily broken and the pouring of the

content encourages the birds to peck. In the case of vitamin and mineral deficiencies in the feed it can be stated that self-preservation bird’s

instinct starts to work here - the bird seeks in this way to supplement dietary deficiency.

Proper care and improvement of environmental conditions plays an important role in the prevention of egg eating. Big density and thus too small

number of nests are favorable factors of the case. Particular attention should be paid to young hens starting egg laying birds to teach them how to

use nests. If they begin to lay eggs out of the nest, often in the membrane and in the blood-stained shell, it evokes an immediate interest in the

rest of the herd.

10.2 Invasive diseases

Diseases caused by external parasites - the cause of these diseases are inadequate environmental conditions favorable to the development of

parasites. For ectoparasites affecting poultry we can include:

- Red- mite

- Feather’s eater

- Itch mite

- Bird fleas

- Bed-bugs

- Mosquitoes

- Gnats

- Kuchma

- Flies

- Alphitobius diaperinus

Fighting is primarily preventive method, but we can also distinguish: mechanical, thermal, chemical and integrated methods.

In the term of prevention the control of the equipment used on the farm, drawpieces to eggs, young poultry should be carried on.

Mechanical methods are: vacuuming, washing with water or water with a good detergent solutions, the use of mineral carrier (silica, which

damage the cuticle layer of the surface of parasites).

For example, in the fight against red-mite thermal method is effective because in the temperature of 350C its development is limited. Chemical

methods are effective with proper selection of suitable mixing and execution of the operation. Liquidation of already present parasites is carried

out by a veterinarian prescribed means, not only by spraying, smearing or bird bath but also by proper disinfection of animal housing.

Diseases caused by internal parasites - These include all types of helminthiasis caused by intestinal nematodes, nematodes that attack the

respiratory system, tapeworms and flukes.

Short description - diseases caused by nematodes inhabit the intestines or in the case of the syngamosis by a nematode living in the trachea. Birds

infect from animals already infected or directly from the litter, feed and water. Nematodes cause general weakness of the body which increases

susceptibility to other diseases. Helminthic prevention is to maintain proper hygiene and cleanliness of premises and equipment decontamination,

isolation from the external environment and the periodic infection of herd.

Diseases caused by protozoa - one of the most common disease of poultry caused by parasitic protozoa of the genus Eimeria is coccidiosis.

There are seven main species affecting poultry, differing not only morphologically, but also in a place of parasitize in the alimentary canal,

pathogenicity and immunogenicity. Most cases of coccidiosis in birds are characterized by enteritis.

Short description - a disease caused by a protozoan of the genus Eimeria. Maintenance of poultry in unhygienic sanitary conditions and

overcrowding promotes the disease. The first symptoms in infected birds are associated with general weakness and loss of condition. Then there

is bloody diarrhea. Chronic form leads to the falls. Prevention comprises administering the coccidiostats vaccines or natural feed additives based

on herbs.

10.3 Diseases caused by nutritional mistakes

Gout - a kidney disorder, leading to increased levels of uric acid. This disease is caused by an excess of salts of heavy metals moldy feed, too

much protein and salt, mineral and vitamin deficiencies, lack of water, lack of exercise, colds, and other factors that cause renal failure.

Depending on the deposition of uric acid there can be distinguished three forms of gout: visceral, renal and arthritis. The first form is

characterized by dejection, comb and wattles bruises, diarrhea, rapid loss of weight, often violent death. The renal form is characterized by

swelling of the kidney and renal urate deposits in the ureters. It is now common in broilers. The symptoms of arthritis form like swelling of the

shoulder and leg joints, twisted fingers, difficult walk, associated with tenderness, usually has a chronic course and this form is a rare one.

Prevention and treatment of gout involves applying increased amounts of vitamins A and B12 in the diet, reducing the amount of protein ration

and improvement of environmental conditions.

Rickets - deficient disease that affects birds in age from 2 weeks to 6 months, caused by a deficiency of calcium and phosphorus, their

inadequate proportions and the lack of vitamin D3 and C. Symptoms in chickens are bristly and mat feathers, dry skin, digestive disorders, bone

deformities, lameness, emaciation, bedsores and uneven growth.

Prevention and treatment is to provide sunlight or administering synthetic preparations of vitamins D3 and C.

Peroza - a disease that causes abnormalities in the metabolism and of calcium and phosphorus economy. It usually appears between 4 and 12

weeks of broilers age. A special role is played here by a deficiency of manganese, choline, biotin, folic acid, niacin, vitamin B12, but the primary

factor is manganese deficiency. The first symptom of the disease is the indisposition to move and sitting on the jumps. Bird observation leads to

conclude ankle swelling, later followed by displacement of the articular cartilage of the Achilles tendon and unscrew the tibia. Sick birds have

difficulty in walking and therefore consume less feed and water.

The disease is most dangerous for young birds. In adult hens lack of manganese in the dose does not cause symptoms of peroza, but causes

changes in shell eggs, which becomes thinner and more fragile.

Treatment and prevention comprises administering to the increased amounts of manganese, calcium, phosphorus, and vitamins.

10.4 Bacterial diseases

Colibacillosis - is caused by Escherichia coli (enterohaemorrhagic), very resistant to environmental factors. This bacterium normally lives in the

intestines of healthy birds and in litter, water, fodder and

Short description - a bacterial disease caused by the rod of the colon that lives in the intestines of normal healthy animals. Outbreak of disease is

caused by inappropriate microclimate and excessive density. In young birds this disease goes with the inflammation of the respiratory and

digestive systems, egg laying is reduced. Treatment with antibiotics.

Salmonellosis - also known as paratyphoid, it is the most common disease of the gastrointestinal tract in slaughter poultry, it is also dangerous to

humans. In recent years in many countries there have been observed increasing number of cases of food poisoning caused by Salmonella, and

many outbreaks of diseases are associated with poultry products. Slaughter poultry and eggs are now considered as the main reservoir of the

bacteria.

Short description - a bacterial disease caused by Salmonella rod. Older chicks and adult birds are usually infected through the gastrointestinal

tract. The source of infection can be feed mixes not sufficient heat treated, re-infected final products, litter, water or asymptomatic carriers. The

chicks can be infected by the egg. The symptoms of salmonellosis are diarrhea, weakness, purulent conjunctivitis. Treatment with appropriately

selected antibiotics. Prevention is very important to prevent the proliferation of bacteria.

Pasteurellosis - a bacterial disease caused by Pasteurella multocida rod. Reasons of infection: food, water and carriers. Symptoms include:

apathy, bristly feathers, wings drooping, staggering, lack of appetite and thirst, mucous discharge from the mouth and nose bow, sometimes

diarrhea. In the acute form of the disease birds die, with no visible symptoms and changes in sectional. Treatment with appropriately selected

antibiotics.

Diseases caused by Clostridium rods – it can be ulcerative enteritis (Clostridium colinum), necrotic enteritis (Clostridium perfringens) and

botulism (Clostridium botulinum). These are diseases that pose a threat to public health related to the consumption of meat, which was treated

improperly.

Short description - bacterial disease, caused by the bacillus Clostridium causing inflammatory bowel disease, or in the case of botulism paralysis

of skeletal muscle. Intestinal disease occurs when two factors overlap: damaging the intestine (coccidia, nematodes) and the presence of a large

number of bacteria, particularly Clostridium. Treatment with antibiotics.

10.5 Viral diseases of poultry

Gumboro disease - viral disease, causes damage or destruction of Fabricius bags, resulting in a lack of resistance of birds that results in the

increase in mortality, lower growth, inhibition of growth. The best method of prevention is vaccination.

Mareka disease - The disease is very difficult to eliminate. Its control is mainly based on preventive vaccination combined with improved

methods of management and the introduction of genetically resistant to infection birds.

Short description - viral disease usually birds to 6 weeks are infected. Clinically it is characterized by leg, wings or tail paralysis and presence of

neoplastic changes in the internal organs. The best method of prevention is vaccination.

Newcastle disease - viral disease, infection usually occurs through contact with sick birds, through secretions from the respiratory tract

inflammation. A characteristic symptom is shortness of breath and loud, like crowing, wheezing of hens. Sometimes there is diarrhea, paresis of

the legs and wings, and in the case of adult egg laying hens, egg laying is reduced by 30 to 50%. Prevention is the use of appropriate vaccines

and vaccination programs.

Infectious laryngotracheitis - viral disease, infection occurs by inhalation. The image is dominated by a very strong disease symptoms

expressed in the respiratory tract. The mouth bow, larynx and trachea are formed greyish yellow, cheesy, easily separating the light plugs

clogging the airways. Prevention is based on the use of appropriate vaccinations.

10.6 Fungal diseases

Fungal infections are relatively common cause of disease and death in farm birds. Many factors causing fungal infections in these animals occur

in the environment as soil saprophytes. In contrast to mammals, birds rarely suffer from fungal infections of the skin. The most common problem

is the respiratory fungal infections caused by Aspergillus sp (aspergillosis) and Blastomycosis gastrointestinal tract (Candida spp - candidiasis).

Aspergillosis - the most common problem in birds are fungal infections of the respiratory system caused by Aspergillus sp. Air bags filling body

cavity are the perfect environment for fungal growth. This disease is caused mainly by poor environmental conditions, drop of resistance, long-

term taking antibiotics. Clinical signs of disease are mainly weakness, shortness of breath, neurological disorders, and sometimes diarrhea and

regurgitation of the will. Treatment with antifungal agents.

Candidiasis - Blastomycosis of gastrointestinal tract are caused by Candida spp. Candidiasis can cause skin lesions on the membrane of beak

and throat beak and esophagus and gastrointestinal tract. Typical symptoms include delayed emptying of will, lack of appetite, poor digestion of

food. Treatment is carried with antifungal agents.

10.7 Chicken feces

The color and texture of chicken fecal material can indicate the health status of the chicken’s digestive tract. The white pasty material that

commonly coats chicken fecal material is uric acid, the avian form of urine, and is normal (see picture below).

Some of the possible abnormal color and texture changes that can occur,

together with possible causes, are shown below. These are just possible causes

and not a definite cause. If you notice any abnormalities, notify your service

person as soon as possible.

Normal chicken manure

Appearance of Feces

Droppings with blood = coccidiosis

Greenish droppings = late stages of worms (or has eaten a lot of green vegetables if free-ranged)

White, milky runny droppings = worms, coccidiosis, Gumboro disease (Infectious Bursal Disease)

Brown runny droppings = E. coli infection

Clear or watery runny droppings = stress, Infectious Bronchitis

Yellow & foamy droppings = coccidiosis

Grayish white & running continuously = vent gleet (a chronic disease of the cloaca of domestic birds)

11. Disease prevention - precautions - veterinary care

Economic losses resulting from the massive falls of birds counted in thousands and the cost of treatment often determined the defeat in the

breeding, and even the need to close it down. Modern medical care of the poultry farms should be based on the principle of herd care, not only in

the treatment in case of illness (emergency operation), but also deal with the full range of prevention activities including a comprehensive

vaccination, counseling in breeding herd management assistance, counseling for the professional cleaning, disinfection and disinfestation of

poultry facilities against the "occupation", but also in the time where animals are there. Of course, you cannot fail to note that prevention and

veterinary surveillance of herd is an expensive project.

As mentioned in the previous chapter, poultry diseases are a serious threat and, as in other species of livestock a great importance should be put

to prevention.

Prevention is a set of practices and conducting operations aimed at preventing illness, disease risk of animals in the herd. In this regard, the

fundamental role is played by the same breeder, who must be a keen observer of his flock, so that he can in time and properly interpret the signals

given him by pets, read this special "kind of speech." It happens sometimes that the deviations from the standards are so minimal that it is

difficult to determine whether the birds are still healthy or already sick. Daily review of the flock leads to a routine, which eventually allows a

breeder to quickly and accurately identify a sick animal in time to enter the intervention and avoid large losses. Currently, it is rare that

domesticated birds are kept in their natural environments. Intensification of farming has caused the closure of poultry in the areas of livestock,

where they remain totally dependent on man. Thus, their behavior is the most reliable source of information about the degree of tolerance of

living conditions. Quantitative and qualitative assessment of behavioral responses deviations (abnormal behavior, with unexplained etiology,

which repeat very often with no apparent purpose) is an important indication of the need to modify the technological system.

The more individuals exhibit such behavior, the more urgent it is to make certain changes in the animals’ environment.

In every environment exists not only useful but also pathogens bacterial. Unfortunately we do not have the possibility of creating a sterile

environment for animals, so we have to take care of the amount of bacteria remained at a low, not invasive level. In nature, there is so-called

epidemiological chain that is necessary for cell infection.

What to do to stop the operation of such a chain?

First of all, we need to eliminate, or in some cases, reduce risk factors,

so those that can contribute to the development of the disease. These

are:

• stress

• inadequate environmental conditions,

• poor hygiene, both living and nutritional,

• lack of preventive vaccination calendar,

• dietary mistakes.

Epidemiological chain

The presence of germ

The presence of susceptible

animals

Contact with the animal

changes in

the hormonal

economy

increased

tension of

smooth

muscle tone

increased

peristalsis

senses

sharpening

rapid and

shallow

breathing

an increase in

muscle tone

increased

levels of

glucose in the

blood

increaed

heart rate

increase in

blood

pressure

Symptoms of

physiological

reactions

Stress - there are many definitions of stress, but the authors of the purposes of this study chose two of them:

“Stress is a set of related processes in the body and nervous system, representing an overall response of the animal to the stimulus or an

unusual, challenging, disturbing, threatening, unpleasant or harmful situations called stressors "

"Stress is the nonspecific response of the body to any demand placed on it"

Stress is the foundation of many diseases about which the reader could read in the previous chapter. It shows most of the adverse conditions of

life or permanent situation, which is the source (stressor), in which the solution is not possible. Response to stress is dependent on many factors.

One of them is individual characteristics. The same situation can

be a source of stress for a very strong animal, at the same time

without having a noticeable effect on the other. The reaction of

the body is also dependent on the preparation. A much stronger

response shows birds, whose bodies are exhausted, these with lack

of sleep, poor treatment, improperly carried out transport or

continuous stress from other sources.

Response to stress is composed of two types of reactions:

physiological and emotional.

Symptoms of physiological reactions are:

• increase in blood pressure,

• increased heart rate, increased levels of glucose in the

blood,

• an increase in muscle tone,

• rapid and shallow breathing,

• senses sharpening,

• increased peristalsis,

• increased tension of smooth muscle tone,

• changes in the hormonal economy.

aggression increased

alertness

anxiety

fears

Signs of

emotional

response

Signs of emotional response are:

• fears,

• anxiety,

• increased alertness,

• aggression.

Stress is not always a bad thing, sometimes even desirable, e.g. in life-

threatening situations, when an animal increases alertness and physical

fitness in preparation for attack or escape. In this case there are entirely

physiological changes in the body without negatively affecting the health. After the sudden, rapid growth, all parameters back to normal life. As

mentioned before sudden severe stress stimuli, as well as moderate stress, but long-term has adverse effects, even in these cases, the destructive

reaction of the body is much less favorable and leads to:

• cardiovascular disease.

• immunosuppression, or reduction of resistance,

• sleep disorders.

The first visible sign of birds stress that can be seen by a breeder are dilated diameters, tachypnea, increased tactile to the touch heart rate. Birds

are agitated, restless. Excessive exposure of birds to adverse external factors affect the disruption of homeostasis, or internal imbalance in the

body and helps to reduce the overall resistance, reduced productivity, increased morbidity, and even death.

What factors can cause stress?

In the mass breeding of birds there are so many factors causing stress that it is difficult to mention all, the most important are: inadequate

environmental conditions, e.g. too high or low temperature, the excess of harmful substances in the room, too much congestion, farm equipment

work, zootechnical treatments such as pruning beaks or vaccination, a sudden change in feed, inadequate transport, external parasites, etc.

It would seem that in the present era of progress in animal husbandry the technology is improved enough to maintain the conditions in which

birds should not feel any discomfort. Unfortunately, this is not so, and despite the elimination of certain groups of aggravating factors for

animals living in the wild, in the current farming systems, we are unable to eliminate physical, physiological and mental health factors with non-

optimal or extreme intensity that cause the so-called mass-rearing stress. Unfortunately, the rate of introduction of new farming technology

solutions far exceeded the rate of adaptation processes that birds undergo. Consequently, on the one hand they are exposed to the stimulus

system, the apparatus to which the nerve is not adjusted, on the other hand- without stimuli necessary to achieve the innate drives. In response to

sometimes rapid changes in the environment there are some specific patterns of behavior of birds. Going back to the domestication of birds we

must realize how vast environmental changes they had to get used to. For burying poultry to the natural patterns of behavior we include: the

movement, scratching, pecking, searching and retrieving food, spreading and flapping wings, ruffled feathers, sand and sun baths, sits eggs in the

nest, sitting on a perch. Lack of possibility of manifesting the patterns of behavior in intensive poultry housing systems, the majority of birds

leads to suffering both mentally and physically, resulting in abnormal forms of behavior or injuries and diseases. And so, in chickens with no

possibility of scratching and pecking food from the ground, there have been an increase in the frequency of abnormal behaviors manifested by

feather pecking from other birds. This habit is often found on farms where the birds are fed with pelleted feeds that are quickly eaten by them.

Under natural conditions, hens spend about 50% of the time for seeking and food intake. Boredom in cage encourages them to pluck the feathers

and it is like a pathological pattern of eating.

Behavioral disorders in poultry reared in intensive culture also lead to cannibalism but it has been described in the previous section.

As seen by these examples, depriving birds the possibility of manifesting their natural instincts, leads to stress manifested in a number of

abnormal behaviors, which are a way to compensate the deficiencies. Research has found that in intensive farming systems, such behavior is a

common phenomenon, comprising from 20 to 80% of the animals, and the time spent on the manifestation is between 7 and 75% of the

observation period.

These behaviors often lead to the deterioration of health, lower productivity, and in some cases can lead to death. This is called cause and effect

spiral.

To adverse environmental conditions animals react initially with the behavior to avoid risk on the basis of experience (e.g., withdrawal or

hugging). This is accompanied by short-term physiological responses (increased respiratory rate and heart rate, muscle tremors). If this doesn’t

bring help, there is a reaction that takes place with the participation of the nervous system. The cost of this reaction is much higher for the body,

which results in reduced growth and fertility, as well as deteriorated animal health.

death of the individual

reduced production

worsened health

behavioral anomalies

inadequate welfare

Inadequate environmental conditions - can also be the cause of many diseases of birds at the root, which is often stress. What we should pay

attention to?

microclimatic conditions - buildings where poultry are kept must be equipped with facilities to ensure appropriate microclimate conditions. One

of the most important factors is the efficient ventilation that allows a constant and controlled exchange of air in the room, with the intake and

exhaust devices. Proper work of ventilation is to bring the proper amount of fresh air and exhaust air lead together with excess water vapor,

noxious gases and excess heat generated by the birds. Air exchange is necessary because of the very high demand for oxygen. Per 1 kg of body

weight of poultry requirements for ventilation air are four times greater than that of cattle and 5-6 times higher than pigs. Unfortunately, in

practice, very often birds are kept in buildings completely unsuitable for this type of production, and excessive heat and stuffiness in the room

can contribute to the creation of the so-called heat stress.

Heat stress is the imbalance between the heat produced by the bird body, and its secretion into the environment. It can significantly reduce the

bird growth rate, egg production, feed intake and its utilization. The symptoms of heat stress are: reduced activity of birds, flapping wings,

panting, increased respiratory rate and increased mortality. The reason of reducing productivity is mainly the energy loss that the body needs to

use to lower body temperature and impaired acid-base balance. Birds give warm thanks to panting. Heat stress is also a factor that lowers the

immune system. Birds exposed to high temperatures lose more water in the urine than in the neutral temperature conditions. During the heat

water consumption increases, this may lead to diarrhea, also favored by changing the osmotic pressure in the intestine, which impedes the

absorption of water and nutrients (such as vitamins and ions). High temperature in the chicken coop also has a significant impact on the

reproduction of birds, because it reduces the quality of sperm, reduces fertilization and egg laying by the impact on the process of ovulation, and

also contributes to the decrease in the amount of calcium and bicarbonate, which results in the removal of thin shelled eggs.

What to do in case of heat stress? First of all, improve the operation of ventilation in the room to reduce the present temperature.

One of the most important substance used to assist the body in fighting against stress, is vitamin C. The administration of ascorbic acid reduces

the secretion of corticosterone (produced by the body in stressful situations), which long-term sustained high blood levels can be toxic to cells,

influencing negative impact on the health and productivity. Vitamin C supplement has a beneficial effect on egg production, improving the

quality of proteins, improving bone mineralization, and supporting normal immune processes.

Betaine is a substance that during heat stress helps to maintain energy balance of birds at the appropriate level, by increasing water retention in

the tissues, thus reducing the demand for energy needed to ion pump work. Saved energy can be used for growth and production. It also showed

that the betaine preferably affects the activity of the immune system during the process of disease. If symptom of heat stress is diarrhea, vitamin

supplement should be used to compensate their loss and assist the body's metabolism to maintain an appropriate level. This is especially

important in young and fast growing birds and also in in egg laying birds, which are most sensitive to their deficiencies. During hot weather birds

consume less feed, which may be the reason for the presence of calcium deficiency. Calcium deficiency triggers the release mechanism of bone

minerals and the appearance of increased blood levels of phosphate, calcium carbonate synthesis inhibitors. This contributes to the production of

smaller eggs in thin shell. The use of ions and additions of salt (ammonium chloride, sodium chloride) helps to maintain ion balance. This is very

important, during hot weather by panting, comes to removing of carbon dioxide from the body and to an increase in pH, as well as osmotic

pressure imbalances. The use of these substances also prevent the occurrence of such symptoms as weight loss, decreased heart rate, decreased

pressure, adrenal dysfunction, muscle weakness. Addition of sodium chloride also influences positively water intake, which enables the transfer

of heat from the body.

Another problem in the era of intensified poultry breeding is indoor air dust influencing the microclimate in the house. The dust content in the

air is increased at higher temperatures and low humidity, as well as with the rapid movement of air. Dust depends largely on the maintenance

system and the type of used litter. On dust particles and droplets suspended in the air there are always bacteria. The room is a kind of livestock

greenhouse in which microorganisms have suitable conditions for the development, which poses a threat to animals. The largest amount of

bacteria carried by the movement of air is usually in the occupied zone of birds. Dust affects the respiratory system that often leads to chronic

catarrhal bronchitis. In order to reduce dust in the facilities it should not be allowed to dry litter and lead to aerations. All internal surfaces should

be periodically clean from the accumulated dust.

An important role in maintaining health of birds is humidity of rooms. Both the high humidity in houses overheated as well as in chilled ones

lowers the resistance of birds that easily can have various diseases. This is due to the fact that pathogens require more humid environment for its

environment, which may affect the ease of moving towards aerogenic way of certain forms of microorganisms and thus to cause the spread of

disease. Too low moisture content at increased temperatures leads to frequent pneumonia. The composition of air in livestock rooms is

significantly different from the composition of the atmospheric air. As a result of animal respiration and fermentation processes occurring in the

feces, the air contains more CO2 and is polluted by NH3, H2S and other odorous compounds. Exceeding the recommended concentrations causes

deterioration of conditions in the building microclimate resulting in the irregularities in the functioning of bird’s organism. Most harmful to

poultry is exceeding the concentration of ammonia, which irritates the conjunctiva of the eyes and mucous membranes of the respiratory system.

Ammonia penetrates into the blood lowers the level of hemoglobin, increases the sensitivity of birds to bacterial and viral diseases.

Extremely detrimental effect on the bird’s body also has a hydrogen sulphide that can be absorbed through the skin. It infects the central nervous

system and causes inflammation of the conjunctiva. Also, staying longer in the air with increased carbon content can be dangerous and result in

bone demineralization.

The quality of litter also affects the development of the microclimate in the house. It should be dry, clean, odorless and free from impurities and

microbiological parameters with good productions. Among the microorganisms inhabiting the litter a dominant role is played by Escherichia coli

and Lactobacillus Enterococuss, Corynebacterium. These microbes do not have to be a cause illness if the litter is well maintained and dry then

they are destroyed by the numerous antagonistic saprophytic microorganisms.

A general recommendation for preventive maintenance also applies technology system maintenance. Animal injuries resulting from improper

adjustment of buildings, facilities and equipment for animal anatomy are called technopaties. The most common technopatie in poultry include

limb disorders that can occur in all species of poultry. They differ depending on the maintaining system: the cage or floor. In the floor system

limb disorders become apparent with the growth of birds and decreasing the area of floor that birds have at their disposal. Limitation of space

makes it impossible to significantly move and perform activities such as running, walking, spreading wings. The movement of birds is limited to

the approach to the pan and watering trough, and spends most of their time sitting. Such inaction contributes to abnormal development of the

skeleton. We see the problems with bird’s movement, lameness, severe pain, fractures of limbs, sores, injuries and ulcers of the skin on the feet,

ankle, and on the sternum. Fatigue in cages is a disorder occurring in layers in the first 2-3 months of production. Hens lose power in the legs

often section shows changes in bone caused by decalcification. The bones become soft and fragile. Deformation of sternum and ribs occurs, there

are changes in the breast rings, and to a lesser or greater extent, there is a degeneration of the myelin sheath of the spinal cord. Some researchers

have suggested that the reason for this disorder is the lack of phosphorus. Others put forward the supposition that it is caused by some unknown

dietary factor, or even lack of exercise, because the disease develops only in hens kept in cages.

For limb disorders arising from the welfare we can include fingers and feet injuries. In hens in battery cages the most common are: foot callosity,

many ruptures, uncontrolled overgrowth of claw and fracture or dislocation of the fingers.

Insufficient living and nutrition hygiene

Maintaining appropriate hygiene at poultry farms is very important. Acceptable range of preventive actions of birds is dedicated by the

protections against bacterial, viral and protozoa (coccidiosis) infections and against the invasion of gastrointestinal parasites (ascariasis) and

respiratory tract (syngamosis). Each farmer must apply appropriate prevention programs as a compulsory element of technology. Prevention is

primarily a general type of organizational, technical and zootechnical procedures that in vast majority should be carried by the breeder.

Before the adoption of chicks or adult birds to the building it is important to keep certain rules that allow the early elimination of the factors that

may lead to the development of the disease.

These rules include:

spray the litter with the insecticide product after previously reared birds,

remove pan and watering trough to another room for cleaning and disinfection,

sweep the ceiling, vents and walls of dust,

remove the litter from the previous farming,

wash the room with water with the detergent or sanitizer formulation (preferably hot water under pressure),

glue up every hole that may be the evidence of the presence of mice or rats,

perform disinfection (for this procedure can be used 2% solution of caustic soda, 4 - 5% solution of technical formalin),

re-spray with the insecticide product washed perches and nests,

whiten room with freshly prepared milk of lime ( 1 part of slaked lime + 3 parts of water),

spread new litter.

Maintaining these precautions we can make sure that birds will go to an environment where there is less chance of infection. If we maintain

adequate hygiene throughout the rearing period, we can expect good economic results.

You should also pay attention to hygiene at the time when the new birds are introduced to the herd, or when birds return from exhibitions.

Animals should be quarantined for at least two weeks, observing their behavior. When the breeders do not comply with this rule birds can bring

herd mallophagans to herd. With the suspicion during the quarantine period, birds should be carefully watched, especially their abdominal side,

as at this point begins the development of the parasites. Hens settled by mallophagans should be chemically treated. It is important to use time

between production cycles (at least weekly), which causes extinction of parasites which are not capable of such a long life without the host.

The cause of many serious diseases with a high mortality rate is inadequate food hygiene habits and frequent dietary errors. Hygienic quality of

the diet is a complex issue with a huge impact on the results of production and hence the profitability of production.

Work on ensuring hygienic poultry nutrition is a multi-step and plane operation. It begins in "the field" during the cultivation of fodder and ends

the moment the animal feed download. The aim is to obtain a food product with high quality and technology which is completely safe for the

consumer. During widely understood production we can distinguish several stages during which we can have significant impact on feed hygiene.

The first stage is the cultivation of crops for animal feed. The main threat here is the presence of fungi. Their existence at the plant material is

normal; however, excessive growth in conjunction with the production of mycotoxins is a harmful phenomenon primarily for the consumer of

animal products. Factors favoring the development of mold fungi in feed are the environmental conditions during the growing season of cereals,

their harvest and storage conditions, as well as processing and storage of semi-final and final products. This means that the agricultural products

are subject to contamination at any time during production. The negative effects of mycotoxins on animal organism are observed at high

accumulation of these metabolites in the body. However, these compounds gradually build up in animal tissues, and as a result are consumed by

humans being often the cause of cancer. The most effective way to reduce this problem is a management of plant material after harvest - from

proper drying, to create the conditions of storage.

Program for fighting against Salmonella in poultry herds, forces growers to draw attention to specific microbiological aspects of feed. Choosing

the right conditions of heat treatment of feed and microbiological control of feed components seem to be the simplest and most effective way to

ensure the hygienic quality of feed. It should be noted that microbiologically contaminated feed is the main cause of many diseases of the

digestive system. Not without significance is the microbiological quality of water used for watering the animals. It is not only the water itself, but

also the purity of the drinker line.

Not using the preventive vaccination calendar

In poultry we use live and inactivated vaccines. There are several ways of administration, namely:

spraying - multimolecules spray;

Using this method we can inoculate 1-day-old chicks in bet hatching and in nursery as well as older chicks and hens in the chickencoop.

Vaccination by spraying is performed using manual generators spray, knapsack spray, or automated spray generators. For the dissolution of the

vaccine cold pure water containing no chlorine and iron should be used. Highly preferred is the use of deionized water. After this action, the

chicks have to dry out.

sprinkling nose or eye;

The vaccines administered in this way are dissolved in a specific solvent or in physiological saline and administered by means of a standardized

dropper. One drop of the vaccine is administered from a height of few centimeters in the eye or nostril.

• Wing Web method;

Vaccination is based on piercing the membrane of the wing using the double needle. The needle is immersed in the vaccine so as to fill with the

two grooves and it pierces from the bottom the membrane of the wing.

• in drinking water;

The best way to dilute the vaccine is to use distilled water. The phial with the vaccine should be opened under water. Before vaccination the birds

should not have any access to water from 0.5 to 3 hours. After this time water can be given with diluted vaccine, preferably in such an amount

that will be drunk within 2 hours. Such practice is used to add to the water the skimmed milk powder (2 grams per 1 liter of water), which acts as

a stabilizer, so that the vaccine virus retains its activity longer. Chickens should have enough number of watering troughs so that 75% of the birds

drink the vaccine solution at the same time. With the system of droplet watering system vaccine should be administered to a small expansion

tanks, and if the water system is equipped with a metering device, it should be carefully emptied the whole system out of the water and then

introduced into the vaccine solution.

• the injection;

The injection is done intramuscularly or subcutaneously, and detailed instructions for preparation and use of vaccines are attached to each

package.

Unfortunately, despite vaccination, there are situations in which some part of the herd is not immune.

What could be the cause of breaking the resistance?

• poor quality of the vaccine but in practice it happens rarely,

• improper storage,

• poor application technique of the vaccine.

The cases of disease occur most frequently as a result of the use of live vaccines, so in this case it is particularly important to evaluate the

effectiveness of vaccination. Administration of vaccines in the drinking water or by spraying is technically difficult to perform because massive

application rarely allows providing an effective dose of the virus to all individuals in the herd. Therefore it is very important to monitor the

immune response after vaccination, which allows for assessment of the reliability and effectiveness of vaccinations performed and allows to take

appropriate corrective action in case of the failure of vaccination.

Prophylactic vaccination program on a poultry farm should be adapted to local disease threats. An effective vaccination program, which

guarantees a high degree of reduction of financial losses associated with morbidity and mortality of birds due to infectious agents, must be based

on a systematic analysis of the zoohygenic conditions on a farm and a great herd serological monitoring program.

What is the serological monitoring of the herd?

Serological monitoring is a new diagnostic method, used successfully in the most developed countries in the world and it is one of the main

weapons in the fight against diseases of poultry. This allows a useful tool for the monitoring of both the immune response in vaccinated birds,

and the diagnosis of the disease in the flock. In poultry serological monitoring means periodic testing of bird’s serum to determine the presence

of antibodies against viruses important in practice. Blood samples are collected from 23 birds in the flock (regardless of age), in specific

intervals.

The use of serological monitoring enables:

- determination the level of maternal antibodies, and thus an assessment of the vaccination in the parent flock and choose the optimum date for

vaccination during chick period,

- evaluation of the serological response after vaccination and determination of the optimal program of immunoprophylaxis,

- evaluation the effectiveness of the technique of injection

- recognition of diseases, especially in the subclinical course.

An important aspect is the poultry breeding is serological monitoring of chicks from the first week of life as their health and thereby proper

development depends largely on the immunization of mothers. Determining the level of maternal antibodies allows assessing vaccination

program in parental flocks and allows specifying the period of immunization of broilers. The breeder should also keep in mind that the period of

two weeks after vaccination with antibodies is a defenseless period for bird, because at that time so-called special prevention is needed because it

is the period of increased risk. It refers to the environment in which the birds are kept and also nutrition. The building in which the animals live

should be properly cleaned and disinfected. Hens and chicks should not be kept in the same rook because of the possibility of infection of chicks.

Birds should receive high-quality feed.

Poultry vaccination schedule

The exact poultry vaccination schedule depends on many factors such as risk of infecting by a particular disease, innate immunity, the type of

vaccine available, and the specificity of the area. Thus, one program cannot be recommended for every individual and should always be

discussed with a veterinarian who takes care of a farm.

Below there is an example of a vaccination program used in reproductive herds kept in laying and meat direction

Link to Polish version: http://www.ppr.pl/artykul-programy-szczepien-profilaktycznych-721-dzial-4.php

Link to English version: http://translate.google.pl/translate?hl=pl&sl=pl&tl=en&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ppr.pl%2Fartykul-programy-szczepien-

profilaktycznych-721-dzial-4.php

Reproductive herd towards laying hens

1 day - vaccination against Mereka disease, vaccination against Newcastle disease and infectious bronchitis,

14 - 18 days - vaccination against Gumboro disease,

4 weeks - vaccination against Gumboro disease,

5 weeks - vaccination against Newcastle disease and infectious bronchitis,

8 weeks - vaccination against Newcastle disease and infectious bronchitis,

10 weeks - vaccination against reovirus infection and infectious anemia,

11 weeks – vaccination against Gumboro disease,

12 weeks - vaccination against infections SHS,

14 weeks - vaccination against infectious encephalitis and spinal cord,

18-20 weeks - vaccination against infectious inflammation of the gills, Gumboro disease, Newcastle disease and lay drop syndrome

Reproductive herd towards meat production

1 week - vaccination against Mereka disease, vaccination against Newcastle disease and infectious bronchitis,

6-10 day - vaccination against reovirus infection,

14-16 day - vaccination against Gumboro disease,

21-23 day - vaccination against Gumboro disease,

4 weeks - vaccination against infectious bronchitis and Newcastle disease

5 weeks - vaccination against reovirus infections ,

7-8 weeks - vaccination against infectious bronchitis and Newcastle disease

10 weeks - vaccination against infectious anemia and reoviruses,

11 weeks - vaccination against Gumboro disease,

12 weeks - vaccination against infections of SHS,

14-15 weeks - vaccination against infectious encephalitis and spinal cord,

18-19 weeks – vaccination against Gumboro disease, Newcastle disease, infections, bronchitis, reovirus infections and lay drop syndrome.

Dietary mistakes

Dietary mistakes are source of many serious diseases of the digestive system, especially in fast-growing birds. They concern the shortage, but

also an overdose of vitamins, minerals, feed poorly balanced or feed contaminated with fungal toxins, pathogens or heavy metal salts. The main

purpose of feeding poultry herds is to provide easily available energy and the high-value protein, so that a short digestive tract of bird is able to

use all of the nutrients supplied. This process must take place in a continuous and even manner. Irregular eating often leads to nervousness,

competition for food, overeating and eating disorders. Adverse effect on the health of the birds has also frequent change in the diet. Rapid

changes in feed and feeding by a mixture of poor quality often lead to an increase in the number of Escherichia coli and Lactobacillus reduction.

It is followed by the increase in pH, which facilitates and promotes the proliferation of rods and favors the existence of colibacillosis. Good

results in such cases gives an introduction to the feed or water, organic acids (propionic acid, formic acid, phosphoric acid, citric acid, fumaric

acid) that have antibacterial activity, both in the feed mixture and in the gastrointestinal tract.

The inhibitory effect of growth of pathogenic microflora has also probiotics with the desirable intestinal microflora. Because in the poultry

production nutrition is the biggest part of the cost, nutritionists constantly look for new low-cost feed components, improving the nutritional

value of the feed enzymes or technology treatment. In the nutritional practice a big importance is put to adequate dietary balance, which must

correspond to the needs of the animal derived inter alia from the intensity of the production. A common mistake is poor balance of amino acids in

feed. High impact on the use of other nutrients is to provide a readily available energy. Thus, the suitable synchronization of energy and amino

acids affects their use.

Health monitoring on the farm

Health monitoring is carried to conduct regular surveys which aim is a correct assessment of the epizootic situation on the farm and the use of

preventive and prophylactic actions.

What are the components of proper monitoring?

Close cooperation of the breeder and veterinarian,

serological monitoring,

mortem examination,

monitoring of metabolic diseases,

monitoring of parasitic diseases.

Serological examination carried out regularly provides a quick and accurate diagnosis of disease allows you to select the optimum date for

vaccination during chick’s period and allows you to quickly evaluate the effectiveness of the technique of vaccination.

Mortem examination allows the diagnosis of the disease based on characteristic lesions associated to each disease. They should be carried out

routinely, preferably daily. Mortem examination also enables biopsy tissue and organs for further histopathological, microbio logical and

toxicological examination.

Monitoring of metabolic diseases or those resulting from the improper balance of the feed consists of periodic testing of feed samples in terms of

the content of nutrients, vitamins and minerals.

12. Food safety

Consumers want safe and nutritious food choices. Chicken is an excellent source of dietary protein but many consumers, rightly or wrongly,

associate poultry products with foodborne diseases, primarily Salmonella. Food safety involves those steps that are taken to reduce or eliminate

the potential for foodborne illness that can occur from contamination that may be introduced from the farm to the table.

Bacterial pathogens cause the majority of the food-borne illness. The following are some bacteria associated with chicken:

Salmonella Staphylococcus Clostridium perfringens Clostridium botulinum Campylobacter jejuni Listeria monocytogenes

Although E. coli is a commonly monitored organism in poultry processing plants, the principle reason for concern with E. coli is as an indirect

indicator of fecal contamination. The majority of E. coli isolates from poultry are relatively host adapted for birds and are not considered

potential human pathogens. However, poultry are highly susceptible to infection with E. coli O167:H7, a highly pathogenic organism causing

hemorrhagic enteritis in humans.

Research has clearly demonstrated that the reduction of microbial contamination of processed poultry requires identification of both pre- and

post-harvest critical control points where contamination may occur, and the implementation of integrated control programs.

To reduce bacterial contamination of processed chicken, it is important that the flock be negative for food-borne pathogens such as Salmonella

and Campylobacter. Research has clearly shown that flocks with low level Salmonella infections or where Salmonella was undetectable prior to

slaughter, could enter processing plants and remain essentially Salmonella free through the sequential stages of processing, prior to processing

the first contaminated/infected flock of the day. However, after the first Salmonella contaminate/infected flock was processed, carcasses from a

subsequent non-contaminated/ uninfected flock, were cross-contaminated during processing. This research clearly demonstrates the importance

of controlling live bird contamination/ infection.

13. Case study

The medium poultry farm

Case study goal: to provide information about the possibility of obtaining EU funds for the modernisation and expansion of the farms in order to

enhance the competitiveness and adaptation of farms to modern standards and conditions required by the provisions relating to animal welfare.

Company profile: poultry farm of medium size, located in the western part of Poland – Voivodeship: Wielkopolskie, carried out by a natural

person. Meat chicken, which are bred for reproductive purposes. Eggs are sold to chicken hatcheries. In the farm there are two henhouses with an

area of over 3500 m2 each.

Problem: the competitiveness of farms suffered due to lack of modern equipment and means of monitoring and management. Also animal

welfare conditions were only partially adapted to the existing legislation. For this reason, keeping the farm in the existing state was impossible

and changes were necessary.

In order to improve the situation contacted Agricultural Advisory Centre, where

with the help of advisors prepared a plan for the farm development and identified

possible ways to raise funds. A proposal to the Agency for Restructuring and

Modernisation of Agriculture was prepared. The project involved the purchase of a

computerized system for controlling microclimate, equipment for feeding and

watering the chickens, and automatic nests for eggs. The total project value was

over 180 000 €. After accepting the proposal obtained a grant of about 73 000 €

and started to invest.

Under the investment, a modern farm management system has been installed,

which comprises a control computer, ventilators, heaters, sprinklers, sensors and

automatic feeding and watering equipment. The farm owner has also equipped the

farm with a fodder silo and automatic egg-collecting nests. The management

system allows a complete control of the farm’s microclimate. A control computer

collects information transferred by thermometers and air humidity sensors. If necessary, it switches on ventilators, sprinklers and heaters; it also

controls the lighting. Automatic poultry feeding and watering equipment is also connected to the computer.

Modern automatic egg-collecting nests have reduced the losses resulting from

broken or dirty eggs. The modern farm management system has reduced labour

input on the part of farm managers. Information on conditions in the farm area,

i.e. temperature, air humidity, water and fodder consumption, is stored in

computer memory.

Introduced changes have helped to improve the results of economic calculation

by reducing energy consumption and losses of obtained products (eggs) and the

improvement of animal welfare.