national program on technology enhanced learning indian ... · 1. cognitive styles (lieberman,...

National Program on Technology Enhanced Learning Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur

International Business Communication Session 1: Introduction: Answers

1. Refer to slide 6: a. Stimulus-response b. Behavioral motivation c. Linking, development of higher mental processes, regulation of behavior d. To make sense of our worlds

2. Refer to slide 7: a. Content + medium +context + interpretation

3. Refer to slide 8: a. Source – medium – channel – receiver

4. Intrapersonal, interpersonal, and person to group 5. Slide 10 & 11:

a. Based on channel: i. Face to face

ii. Voice to voice iii. Face to voice iv. Written (including digital)

b. Based on level of interaction: i. Person to person

ii. Person to group c. Based on physical environment: Home, work etc.

6. The utterance – Bakhtin – emotional volitional aspect gives utterance its meaning 7. Refer to Slides 14-16: Squires model: Functions, Processes and Contingencies. and details of

each.


International Business Communication Session 2: Definitions and concepts: Answers

1. Refer to definition by Porter and Samovar on slide 6. 2. Intra- within the same culture; inter – with people from different cultures. 3. Slide 9: Everything – Race, religion, ideology, nationality, education, gender, profession

etc. 4. International refers to geo-political boundaries. 5. Because:

a. Impact of technology on interpersonal communication b. Mobility and migration c. Self-awareness d. Universality vs. relativity


International Business Communication Session 3: Communicative competence: Answers

1. Doing business with people from different cultures, ideologies and backgrounds etc.

requires one to understand interculturally and be able to express oneself interculturally.

2. Samovar and Porter (1994) Communicative Effectiveness Interpersonal understanding

Interpersonal understanding is a function of similarity of perceptual orientations, systems of belief and communicative styles Backlund (1977) : Components of competence: Linguistic competence, Possession of competence, Contextuality, Appropriateness, and Accomplishment

3. IABC study (2004) a. Clarity of purpose b. Effective interfaces c. Effective sharing of information d. Consistent communication behaviour of leaders


International Business Communication Session 4: Communicative competence (Contd.)

1. Interpretive competence includes:

a. Sizing up situations, people and relationships b. Scripts, self monitors and preconceived notions c. The implications of scripts, preconceived notions and perceptions of interpersonal

relationships on interpersonal interactions, especially at work. 2. The systems in relational competence in the integrative model of intercultural competence

proposed by the Spitzberg in 1994, are: a. Individual system includes those characteristics an individual may possess that

facilitate competent interaction in a normative social sense. b. Episodic system includes those features of a particular Actor that facilitate

competence impressions on the part of a specific Coactor in a specific episode of interaction.

c. Relational system includes those components that assist a person’s competence across the entire span of relationships rather than in just a given episode of interaction.


International Business Communication Session 5: Communicative competence (Contd.)

1. Episodic System (Spitzberg, 1994): Competence is episode specific, even if both

actors are the same. a. As the Actor’s communicative status increases, the Coactor’s impression of

the actor’s competence increases. The Actor’s communicative status is dependent upon

i. Increase in the Actor’s motivation, knowledge, and skills – positive reinforcement – increase in adaptation and refinement skill in interaction with the Coactor

ii. Contextual obstruction of the Actor’s performance – succeeding at communication despite contextual obstructions or handicaps

iii. Actor’s achievement of valued outcomes iv. Actor’s extant-attributed communicative status – you communicate

well because of who you are perceived to be. b. The Coactor’s impression of the Actor’s competence is a function of the

Actor’s fulfillment of the Coactor’s expectations, which depend upon i. The Actor’s fulfillment of positive Coactor expectancies

ii. The Actor’s normative violation of the Coactor’s negative expectancies

iii. The Actor’s fulfillment of the Coactor’s competence prototype expectancies

iv. The Actor’s normative reciprocity of positive effect and compensation of negative effect

2. Competence in the relational system includes: a. The level of communicative quality in an established relationship b. Index of the mutual adaptation and satisfaction achieved by a relationship

and depends upon

a. Mutual fulfillment of autonomy and intimacy b. Mutual attraction c. Mutual trust d. Access to social support e. Relational network integration


International Business Communication Session 6: Intercultural Communication

1. According to Johnson (2002),

a. Your identity is a consistent set of attitudes that defines who you are. b.Your self-schema is a generalization about the self, derived from past experience, that

organizes and guides your understanding of the information you learn about yourself from interacting with others.

c. Your gender identity is your fundamental sense of your maleness or femaleness. d.Your ethnic identity is your sense of belonging to one particular ethnic group. e. Self acceptance is a high regard for yourself, or conversely, a lack of cynicism about

yourself. 2. Identity is defined as an enactment of cultural communication

(Hecht, Collier, & Beau, 1993, in Collier, 1994) Cultural identity (Collier, 1994): The particular character of the group communication system that emerges in the particular situation. Social psychological perspective views identity a characteristic of the person and personality, and the self as centered in social roles and social practices. Communication perspective views identity as something that emerges when messages are exchanged between persons. Properties of cultural identity (Collier, 1994): 1. Self-perception:

a. Avowal: “This is who I am” b. Ascription: “This is who others think I am”

2. Modes of expression: a. Core symbols: central ideas and concepts and the everyday behaviors that

characterize membership in that cultural group. b. Labels: terms groups use to classify and interpret these core symbols c. Norms: standards for interpreting core symbols d. Individual, relational and communal forms of identity e. Enduring and changing property of identity f. Affective, cognitive, and behavioral components of identity g. Content and relationship h. Salience and intensity differences

Identity as a determinant of culture: If I am not for myself, who will be for me? But if I am only for myself, what am I? (Talmud) Basic Human Needs:

Join with others in a cooperative effort to achieve something great. Be a unique and separate individual who is valued and respected in one’s own right.


International Business Communication Session 7: Intercultural Communication (Contd.)

1. Cultural competence is the demonstrated ability to enact a cultural identity in a mutually

appropriate and effective manner. Intercultural competence is the reinforcement of culturally different identities that are salient in the particular situation.

2. According to Porter and Samovar (1994), culture is “The deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving.”

3. Sources of Difference (Collier, 1994; Pinderhughes, 1989; Martin & Nakayama,2001): Race Religion Ideology Nationality Ethnicity Appearance Personal artifacts Body structure (Height, weight, height-weight ratio) Behavioral style Gender Sexual identity Age Family constellation Socioeconomic status Educational (qualifications and system) Professional and personal experiences Occupation

4. According to Johnson (2002), the challenges posed by diversity are: a. Categorizing on the basis of inherited or acquired traits b. Prejudice c. Ethnocentrism d. Cultural conditioning e. Stereotypes f. Illusionary correlation and false consensus bias g. Discrimination


International Business Communication Session 8: Intercultural Communication (Contd.)

1. Edward T. Hall (1976, quoted in Samovar and Porter, 1994)

“ A High Context (HC) Communication or message is one in which most of the information is either in the physical context or internalized in the person while very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message.” “ A Low Context (LC) communication or message [is one in which] the mass of information is vested in the explicit code.”

2. Characteristics of HC communication (Bernstein, 1964, cited in Hall, 1994): a. Restricted code of intimacy – words and sentences collapse and are shortened. b. The code that one uses signals and is consistent with the situation. c. A shifting of code signals a shift in everything else that is to follow.

Characteristics of LC communication (Bernstein, 1964, cited in Hall, 1994)

a. Explicit vocabulary b. Highly articulated c. Highly specific code

3. According to Johanson and Vahlen, (1977) (cited in Magnusson et al.), ‘PD is “the sum of

factors preventing the flow of information from and to the market.” e.g. differences in language, education, business practices, industrial development and culture.’ Mulder (1976): Power Distance (PD): “The extent and acceptance of unequal distribution of power” Kostova (1996): Institutional Distance (ID): “The sum of differences on the three pillars (regulative, normative and cognitive environments)”


International Business Communication Session 9: Intercultural Communication: Thought and Speech

1. Cognitive styles (Lieberman, 1994)

Field-dependence/ Field-independence Field Dependence: Holistic perception of event Sensitivity to feelings and opinions of others in the group (Scarcella, 1990 in Lieberman, 1994) In essence, perceiving that one is an integral unit of and dependent upon one’s ‘context’ or ‘field’

Field Independence: Isolation of the details of the ‘field’ or context – compartmentalization or sequencing of various elements of the field in order to attribute their happening to logic or cause and effect Lack of emphasis on feelings or emotions

Reflectivity/ Impulsivity:

Reflectivity: o “Thinking about a problem” o Taking the time to be completely right than to be partially wrong o Mistakes are treated rather harshly o Grey areas are not acceptable: The solution is either right or wrong

Impulsivity: o Solve and move on o Being partially correct and moving on is more important than taking the time to

be absolutely correct (and missing out on opportunities for growth while doing so) o Grey areas in problem solving acceptable o (Damen, 1987 in Lieberman, 1994)

Tolerance/ intolerance of ambiguity

Tolerance of ambiguity: Accepting the grey areas in language, thought and behavior Bipolarity of language (Right or wrong, good or bad) – also dependent on context.

Encourages cause-effect thinking, and linearity (Korzybsky, 1921 in Lieberman, 1994)

Less tolerance of ambiguity where there is greater bipolarity in the structure and meaning of the language itself (Lieberman, 1994)


International Business Communication Session 10: Thought and Speech (Contd.)

1. Cultural and situational variations in patterns of thought (Condon and Yousef, 1975; Felder

and Silverman, 1988; Gregorc, 1979; and Pribram, 1949, in Lieberman, 1994): a. Universalistic: Universal application of concepts b. Nominalistic: Abstract terms exist, but abstract objects (e.g. morality, politeness etc.)

do not exist universally c. Hypothetical: Assumption based d. Intuitional: Gut feeling e. Organismic: Every concept is related to the other concept and is a constitutent part of

the whole. f. Dialectical: Using reasoned arguments to establish truth g. Temporal: Reasoning using time as the basis h. Axiomatic: Start with definitions, postulates, and common notions and establish the

truth according to those i. Affective: Feeling that one is true regardless of the evidence j. Inductive/ Deductive k. Analytic l. Global m. Sequential n. Concrete sequential: Reasoning based on reality and real tangible objects o. Abstract random: Creative, and reason by making connections that may not seem

evident, between real objects

2. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (1929): What we think about is strongly influenced by the language we think in because our vocabulary limits what we can think about and express. Applications of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis to the business environment: How people conceptualize their environment is determined by the language they use intrapersonally. When people are not very familiar with the language they are conducting business in, they will understand the concepts in a manner that is different than the manner in which native speakers of the language used for business, interpret the same concepts. Their frame of reference will be different. e.g. explanation of a concept like ERP to someone not familiar with it


International Business Communication Session 11: Translation as problematic discourse

1. Coincident meanings: Interpretations drawn in a similar manner by people who have similar

reasons for drawing the same interpretations from the same concept. 2. Changes of organizational contexts

a. Abuses of legitimate authority b. Increased environmental turbulence c. Organizational resistance movements by members with contradictory views Examples of organizational concepts evolving constantly: Vision and Mission statements

3. Translation factors into multi-lingual corporate environments in the following ways: a. We think in a language different from the one we speak in or conduct our business in b. Our language, and the response to the language we use in our work environments

determines how we frame our future inputs to the organization c. In an attempt to explain our thoughts and ideas to our peers, we tend to over-simplify

what we are saying d. Meaning is essentially embedded in context: Lack of familiarity with the context

results in inhibition of the accurate interpretation of meaning e. The challenges in all of the above are (Gray et al., 1985, in Banks & Banks, 1991):

i. Issues involving inaccuracies in carrying over referential meanings from one language to another

ii. Issues involving the loss of common socio-cultural contexts iii. Issues involving the change or sedimentation of power relationships


International Business Communication Session 12: Nonverbal communication

1. Nonverbal communication includes all behaviors, attributes, or objects (except words) that

communicate messages that have social meaning. (Angell, 2004) Some characteristics of nonverbal communication include (Angell, 2004; O’Rourke and Singh, 2006)

a. Its dynamic nature b. Its dependence largely on context and culture specificity c. Higher believability than verbal communication, and d. Ambiguity

2. Nonverbal behavior and nonverbal communication (Richmond & McCroskey, 2002)

3. The goals of nonverbal communication are (O’Rourke and Singh, 2006; Adler, Rosenfeld

and Proctor, 2004): a. Accenting b. Complementing c. Contradicting d. Repeating e. Regulating f. Substituting g. Deceiving

4. Nonverbal behaviours may support verbal behaviours in the following ways (Lewis, 1980):

a. Repeating: e.g. giving a person verbal instructions on how to reach a certain destination and then pointing in that direction

b. Contradicting: e.g. Shaking and perspiring heavily and stammering while making a speech in which you claim you are not nervous

c. Substituting: e.g. facial expressions or rigidity of body position which communicates a message without a word being spoken

Source

Receiver

Behaves to Send Message Behaves with no intent to send message

Interprets behavior as message Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal Communication

Does not interpret behavior as message

Nonverbal Behavior Nonverbal Behavior

d. Complementing: e.g. reflecting an attitude of embarrassment when admitting to a supervisor about your poor performance

e. Accenting: e.g. banging your hand on the desk every time you want to emphasize a point with an accompanying gaze

f. Relating and regulating: e.g. a head nod, eye movement, or shift in position which signals another person to continue to speak or stop speaking


International Business Communication Session 13: Barriers to communication

1. The reasons people face problems in intercultural communication are (Barna, 1994):

a. We can never know the state of mind (the attitudes, feelings and thoughts) of other people.

b. We depend on signals, which are frequently ambiguous, to inform us about the wishes and attitudes of other people.

c. We use our own coding system to decipher these signals. d. The way we decode the signals we receive depends on our own state of mind at the

time, and may be biased. These lead to:

a. Assumption of similarities b. Language differences c. Nonverbal misrepresentations d. Preconceptions and stereotypes e. Tendency to evaluate f. High anxiety

2. The psychological barriers to communication are:

a. Attitudinal barriers Perceptual barriers – Preconceptions, stereotypes, assumptions, associations

b. Emotional barriers c. Tendency to evaluate d. Personality differences – (introverts and extroverts)


International Business Communication Session 14: Barriers to communication (Contd.)

1. The organizational barriers to communication are (Lewis, 1980):

a. Organizational levels b. Faulty transmission of information c. Bypassing d. Blinderedness e. Defensiveness f. Managerial unconcern

2. The reasons for common communication problems in organizations are (Lewis, 1980): a. Managers use communication as a corrective process rather than as a preventative

process b. Managers take a solution orientation to communication problems rather than a causal

orientation c. Managers mistake information processing for communication d. Managers do not have accurate self-concepts of their role in the communication

process e. Managers do not recognize organizational communication as a functional area subject

to improvement and sophistication


International Business Communication Session 15: Barriers to communication (Contd.) and Listening

1. Listening = Filtered heard sounds + perception (which is biased and selective in nature)

2. Why do managers need to develop listening skills?

a. Understanding and developing competence in verbal, non-verbal and digital communication

b. Global villages c. Travel d. Personal lives e. International interactions f. Changing political scenario


International Business Communication Session 16: Listening

1. Some of the intrapersonal barriers to listening are:

a. Comparing (the speaker to yourself or others) b. Mind reading (the speaker) c. Rehearsing (what to say next) d. Filtering (selective listening) e. Judging f. Dreaming g. Identifying (with what is being presented) h. Advising (the speaker) i. Sparring (being quick to disagree) j. Being right (your inability to accept criticism) k. Derailing (changing the topic) l. Placating (agreeing with everything)

2. Some forms of ineffective listening include (Wood, 1998):

a. Pseudolistening: i. Pretending to listen, appearing attentive, but not really listening

ii. Problems: 1. For listener: nothing registers 2. For speaker: confusion about feedback from audience

b. Monopolizing

i. Hogging the scene by focussing on oneself instead of listening ii. Tactics:

1. Rerouting 2. Interrupting

c. Selective listening

i. Focusing on only particular parts of communication ii. Problems:

1. Misinterpretation 2. Incomplete understanding leading to confusion or bias

d. Defensive listening

i. Perceiving personal attacks, criticisms, or hostile undertones in communication where none is intended

ii. Problems: 1. Bias 2. Unnecessary stress leading to selective listening and related issues

e. Ambushing i. Selective listening for the specific purpose of gathering ammunition to use

in attacking a speaker ii. Problems:

1. Exact opposite of Defensive listening 2. Bias and misinterpretation

f. Literal listening

i. Listening for content vs. listening in context ii. Problem:

1. Misinterpretation

g. Emotional deafness i. The mental ‘tuning out’ that happens when the speaker uses terminology

that turns off the listener or uses words so embodied with feeling that the listener gets caught up in what is being said

ii. Factors affecting emotional deafness: 1. Level of involvement: High involvement leads to high bia which

leads to low likelihood of people wanting to listen 2. Defensiveness: stems from insecurity 3. Resentment of opposition 4. Clash of personalities


International Business Communication Session 17: Communication Rules

1. The different kinds of rules followed in spoken language are:

a. Phonological rules govern how sounds are combined to form words (Video clip – The Chaos)

b. Syntactic rules govern the way symbols can be arranged c. Pragmatic rules tell us what uses and interpretations of a message are appropriate

in a given context d. Coordinated Management of Meaning – We use rules at several levels to create

our own messages and interpret others’ statements.

2. Procedural rules determine how the speaker will carry out the communication event. Some of the procedural rules in interpersonal communication are:

a. Who initiates interactions? b. How are delays treated? c. What are the topics that are talked about and who among the interactants selects

the topics? d. How are topic changes handled? e. How are outside interruptions handled? f. How are interactions terminated? g. How frequently the interactants contact each other? and h. How satisfied the interactants are with the above mentioned rules?


International Business Communication Session 18: Interpersonal Communication

1. The different types of socialization processes in organizations are:

a. Collective vs. individual socialization process i. Collective socialization involves putting a group of recruits through a

common set of experiences together. ii. Individual socialization occurs when recruits are brought into the organization

in relative isolation from one another and put through a unique set of experiences

b. Formal vs. informal socialization process i. Formal socialization occurs when newcomers are segregated, in one form or

another, from regular organizational members ii. Informal socialization processes do not segregate the newcomer in any special

way or distinguish the newcomer’s role specifically but instead use the informal, laissez-faire socialization for recruits

c. Sequential vs. random socialization processes i. Sequential socialization is the degree to which the organization specifies a

certain set of steps to be completed in order to advance to the target role ii. Random socialization occurs when the sequence of steps leading to the target

role is unknown, ambiguous, or continually changing d. Fixed vs. variable socialization processes:

i. When an organization uses fixed socialization, it provides the newcomer with a precise timetable for when to expect progression to the target role.

ii. Variable socialization processes provide no real cues to the newcomer as to when to expect movement to the target role

e. Serial vs. disjunctive socialization processes i. If an organization uses serial socialization, it uses an experienced

organizational member, who occupies a similar role to the one the newcomer will occupy, to help “groom” the newcomer

ii. When the organization uses disjunctive socialization processes, no role models are available or are provided for the newcomer and the newcomer is left alone to discover the ins and outs of the position

f. Investiture vs. Divestiture Socialization Processes i. The investiture socialization tactic affirms the personal characteristics and

identity that the newcomer brings to the organization – “we like you the way you are”

ii. Divestiture socialization, however, seeks to deny and strip away certain personal characteristics of a newcomer – “we love you, you are perfect, now change”

2. The factors that affect superior-subordinate communication are: a. Openness/ closedness of supervisor subordinate communication (Redding, 1972, in

Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)

b. Influence: Pelz Effect (Pelz, 1952, in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011): Workers’ feelings of cooperation in work groups and or organizational control are positively influenced by their leader’s upward influence

c. Supervisors’ communication styles and related effectiveness d. Supervisor feedback e. Personal characteristics of supervisors and subordinates


International Business Communication Session 19: Interpersonal Communication (Contd.)

1. The interpersonal processes of assimilation in organizations are (Gaillard, Myers, and

Seibold, 2010 in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011): a. Becoming familiar and working with supervisors b. Becoming acquainted with co-workers c. Acculturating d. Being recognized e. Becoming involved f. Negotiating roles g. Developing job competency

2. Some ways in which employees may be recognized in an organization could be:

a. Informal recognition (Bullis and Back, 1989, in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011) b. Positive feedback

i. Credibility of supervisor (Cusella, 1987, and O’Reilly and Anderson, 1980, in in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)

ii. Feedback by coworkers (Moreland and Levine, 1982, 2001 in in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)

c. Emergent leadership (Fisher, 1986, in in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)

People who emerge as leaders informally through their interactions with the group. More to be covered in leadership communication

3. Some factors that affect how involved employees remain with their work are: a. Social information processing: Talk amongst employees: May start a chain reaction

either way (Caldwell & O’Reilly, 1982, in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011) b. Challenge of various activities c. Organizational expectations communicated formally or informally (George &

Bettenhausen, 1990, in Myers, Seibold & Park, 2011) d. Social comparison (Festinger, 1954, in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011) e. Identification with organization/ Citizenship (Meyer, 2004, in Myers, Seibold and

Park, 2011) f. Benefits of communication networks


International Business Communication Session 20: Communication Style

1. ‘Communication style’ refers to:

a. An individual’s tendency to communicate via unique patterns of combinations of code, content, and communication rules (Williams & Spiro, 1985)

b. Tonal coloring, the metamessage that contexualizes how listeners are expected to accept and interpret verbal messages. (Martin and Nakayama, 2000)

and a combination of the above in both language and nonverbal communication (Martin and Nakayama, 2000)

2. Some forms of communicative disposition may be: a. Argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness

i. Argumentativeness: 1. Involves an individual’s willingness to attack another’s arguments

while defending his or her own position (Infante & Rancer, 1982, in Daly, 2011)

2. Perceived to be constructive and an indication of the speaker’s resistance to persuasive attempts (Kazoleas, 1993, in Daly, 2011)

ii. Verbal aggressiveness: 1. Attacking the self-concept of others, attempting to cause

psychological pain (Infante & Wigley, 1986, in Daly, 2011) 2. Perceived to be indicative of dislike for others (Infante et al., 1992,

in Daly, 2011), dissatisfaction (Anderson & Martin, 1999 in Daly, 2011), low communication skills (Infante et al., 1984, in Daly, 2011), more physical aggression (Kassing, Pearce, & Infante, 2000 in Daly, 2011), defensiveness, and an unwillingness to accept mistakes (Rancer et al., 1992, in Daly, 2011)

3. Opposite of verbal benevolence (Kotowski et al, 2009 in Daly, 2011)

b. Communication apprehension: i. Alternatively labelled as reticence, social-communicative anxiety, shyness,

and social anxiety ii. Indicates less likelihood to talk in social settings (Garcia et al, 1991, in

Daly, 2011) , engagement in less eye contact (Garcia et al, 1991, in Daly, 2011) , lesser tendency to disclose information (Meleshko & Alden, 1993, in Daly, 2011), lesser conversational sensitivity (Daly et al., 1987, in Daly, 2011) , lesser likelihood to select occupations that require communication (Daly & McCroskey, 1975, in Daly, 2011), & less willingness to seek career advancement (McCroskey, 1979, in Daly, 2011)

c. Conflict d. Communicative and Social Competence and Skill:

i. Conversational sensitivity (Daly et al., 1987, in Daly, 2011)

1. Taps an individual’s ability to assess and respond to various communicative challenges

2. Factors: 3. Detecting meaning 4. Conversational memory 5. Conversational alternatives 6. Conversational imagination 7. Conversation enjoyment 8. Interpretation 9. Perceiving affinity


International Business Communication Session 21: Relational communication

1. The different stages in the development and analysis of relationships are (Gamble and

Gamble, 2002): a. Initiating: Icebreakers: Signals that impel us to initiate a conversation or tell us that

we have nothing to gain by interacting b. Experimenting: Probing the unknown: Casual and lacking in depth

Functions (Knapp, 1992, in Gamble & Gamble, 2002): i. Provides a process for uncovering integrating topics and openings for more

penetrating conversations ii. Can serve as audition for a future friendship or a way to increase the scope of

a current friendship iii. Provides a safe procedure for indicating who we are and how the other person

can come to know us better iv. Allows us to maintain a sense of community with our fellow human beings

c. Intensifying: Friendship/ comfortable collegiality i. More common ground

ii. More sharing iii. Better mutual understanding (comm. rules redefined) iv. Better prediction of each other’s behavior

Functions: Basis for collaboration and teamwork – ‘I’ becoming ‘we’ Alignment of comfort zones results in a more comfortable communication

climate in the workplace leading to reduction in friction/ conflict d. Integrating: Unification: Fusion of ‘I’ and ‘I’ into ‘We’

Functions: i. Perception by both members as a team

ii. Perceived inclusion into each other’s (professional) circles iii. Synchronous professional behaviors

e. Bonding: Announcement of commitment to each other e.g. mergers or contracts

i. Enhanced co-dependence ii. Possibility of communication rules being redefined leading to increase in

strain on relationship Function: ‘We’ is formalized indicating mutual professional commitments – now both are tied to the relationship and significant others know about it …

f. Differentiating: ‘We’ breaking up into an ‘I’ and an ‘I’ i. Emphasis on how both are a team and still are very different from each other

ii. Comfort zones start growing away from each other iii. Communication rules redefined yet again primarily due to the redefinition of

satisfaction of either party with existing rules Function

Signals uncoupling/ trouble in the relationship

g. Circumscribing: Only ‘safe’ communication occurs i. Decrease in quality and quantity of communication

ii. Dissatisfaction with comm. rules redefined in the previous stage continues but not talked about

iii. Acceptance by both parties that the end may be near iv. Communication becomes exhausting v. Relationship is usually ‘painful’ at this stage because of a perceived necessity

to keep up pretenses Function: This stage is usually the tipping point. Decision to repair or break the relationship is made at this stage depending upon the intensity of exhaustion and pain

h. Stagnating: Acceptance of the end i. Communication is at a standstill

ii. Pain and exhaustion much lesser if not completely over Functions:

Marks the time to start looking for a new relationship Spring cleaning of the decaying relationship. Cutting losses and figuring out

ways to move on. i. Avoiding: The disconnect becomes obvious to significant others

i. Unpleasantness creeps in ii. Active attempts to avoid interacting with each other

iii. Forced interaction usually leads to aggression against each other that is usually expressed in public as a defence mechanism to warn each other and significant others to not force this interaction

Function: Active and expressed conflict. Should be avoided as far as possible. Usually serves to create basis for termination of relationship.

j. Termination: End i. Pleasant/ unpleasant

ii. Cordial/ bitter iii. Short/ long drawn

Function: Time to wind up, close the file, archive, and move on

2. Relational/ Interactional Theory: (Watzlawick, Beavin, & Jackson, ‘67, in Ross & Anderson, ‘02)

a. Axiom 1: The impossibility of not communicating b. Axiom 2: The content and relationship levels of communication: Our talk reveals not

only what we think about our topics but our relation to each other c. Axiom 3: Our communication is filled with attempts to punctuate sequences of events

– that is, to identify openings, closings, starts stops, causes and effects d. Axiom 4: Messages can be

i. Digital: Based on arbitrary agreements (such as are found in language), OR ii. Analogic: Based on more immediate nonverbal relationships

e. Axiom 5: Symmetrical and complementary interaction

i. Schismogenesis: Two complementary positions grow progressively farther apart, each as a result of the other

ii. Confirmation: The capacity to be noticed and perceived in both actuality and potentiality

iii. Disconfirmation: One partner communicates as if the other doesn’t exist.


International Business Communication Session 22: Relational and Maintenance Communication

1. Coordinated Management of Meaning (CMM) Theory (Pearce and Cronen, 1980, in Ross &

Anderson, 2002) Assumes that that people don’t need the same basic understanding about their

situation in order to coordinate their behavior through rules Assumes heterogenous social order Analyzes communication episodes by looking for

Coherence Control: of the interactants over the situation Valence: the extent to which interactants like or dislike what happens

Identifies a hierarchy of contexts extending from intrapersonal content, through speech acts, contracts, and episodes, to life scripts.

Rules governing CMM: Constitutive: Organize actors’ hierarchies of meaning e.g. someone calling a

beautiful girl as beautiful will enhance her feeling of self worth on the inside but might be taken as vulgar by the girl depending on who calls her beautiful (Cronen et al., 1982, in Ross & Anderson, 2002)

Regulative: Regulation of the perceived meaning of what is said depending upon the situation e.g. ignoring a comment that was intended to be insulting – meaning changes.

2. Dialectical Theory (Baxter, 1988, 1990; Baxter & Montgomery, 1996; Cissna Cox & Bochner, 1990; Rawlins, 1992, in Ross & Anderson, 2000):

Relationships result from the interplay of perceived opposite forces or contradictions, and from how relational partners negotiate these ever-changing processes.

Relationships are not linear, but consist of oscillation between contradictory goals or desires. (Gamble & Gamble, 2002)

When opposing goals meet, dialectical tensions are created: Connection vs. autonomy Predictability vs. novelty Openness vs. privacy

3. Buber’s (1958 & 1965) Philosophical anthropology

I-Thou attitude is the tendency of a person (an individual with his/ her unique traits) to invite and allow dialogue with another unique individual. (Buber, 1958, in Ross & Anderson, 2000)

I-It attitude assumes that others can be treated as objects, as things that can be concisely described, measured, manipulated, and accounted for. (Buber, 1958, in Ross & Anderson, 2000)

Genuine dialogue: ‘Spoken or silent’ communication ‘where each of the participants really has in mind the other or others in their present and

particular being and turns to them with the intention of establishing a living mutual relation between him and them.

Technical dialogue: Appears to have a give and take quality but is actually designed only to achieve a specified end through objective communication

Monologue: a dominant voice divorced from the expectation of a response


International Business Communication Session 23: Organizational Communication

1. Scientific management theory (Taylor, 1913, 1947, in Ross & Anderson, 2000)

a. Organization as machine: Organizations or factories were big mechanisms that fitted together smaller and basically interchangeable mechanisms known as workers

b. Instead of demanding higher output or productivity of labor [I-It – Martin Buber], and to back those demands with pressures or threats, by matching men, tools, and the tasks they were required to perform, it was possible to increase productivity without placing increased physical burdens upon the men [possibly I-Though – Martin Buber???]

c. Limitation to this theory: Does not take into account the ‘rich uniqueness of the individual human person (Ross & Anderson, 2000)

2. Administrative Theory (Fayol, 1949, in Ross & Anderson, 2000) a. Application of scientific thinking to the work done by those who administer

managerial practices b. Fayol’s five part analysis of administrative science principles (suggested by

Eisenberg & Goodall, 1997, in Ross & Anderson, 2000) i. Planning: Anticipating a probable future

ii. Organizing: Creating clearly understood divisions of labor in hierarchical, or, in Fayol’s terms, ‘scalar’ form

iii. Commanding: Setting goals realistically iv. Coordinating: Relating diverse employees to each other’s interests, and to

those of the organization v. Controlling: Evaluation of work styles and subsequent rewards

3. Bureaucratic Theory (Baughman, 1989; Blau, 1956; Eisenberg & Goodall, 1997, in Ross &

Anderson, 2000) a. Bureaucracy is the rational structuring of organizational roles for maximum

efficiency (Weber, 1946, in Ross & Anderson, 2000) b. Assumptions about how organizations should be structured (Baughman, 1989;

Blau, 1956; Eisenberg & Goodall, 1997, in Ross & Anderson, 2000) i. Division of labor: creation of functional roles

ii. Clear explicit definitions of job responsibilities (members understand what is expected of them)

iii. Standardized procedures, well understood by all iv. Hierarchical structures of authority (responsibility to superiors and

coordination of subordinates) v. Technical competence as a criterion for selection of and rewards to

personnel vi. Management and other roles presumed to be ongoing responsibilities,

creating careers, barring ineffectivess (no capricious termination)


International Business Communication Session 24: Organizational Communication (Contd.)

1. Conversational Autonomy Theory (Taylor, 1995; Taylor, Cooren, Giroux, and Robichaud, 1996, in Ross & Anderson, 2000)

Organizations are self-organizing systems Communication produces organizations (Autonomous model) in which

organizations are seen as self-shaping: Each organization creates its own internal coherence through

conversations (an interactive flow of discourse, involving multiple participants in quasi-synchronized alteration of verbal and nonverbal expressions)

Conversation creates organization because it presumes an organized and cooperative interpretation

Organizations operate as a result of a pattern of these implicit understandings that cannot be seen or heard clearly in isolated statements

Internal disturbances in organizations serve to maintain the organizations and facilitate the shift potentially into a higher and more creative level of functioning

2. Organizational culture theory (Ross & Anderson, 2000) Culture (in terms of organizational communication): refers to the cohesive patterns of

making sense of the world that characterize a particular group of people in a particular time and place

Organizational culture: refers to the above in the context of a particular organization/ specific roles, norms, rituals, and storytelling practices that distinguish them from other organizations even in their own industry

Concepts in OC Theory o Emic knowing: The understanding, more or less from within the assumptions

of a cultural group, that you would achieve by knowing how an insider perceives as a member

o Etic knowing: Understanding about an organization by virtue of its connections with the outside world

o Ethnography: Studying an organization through immersion o Ritual: Familiar activities members of an organization engage in with each

other at regular intervals o Performance: Attempt to manage identities in public

Passion-related performances: Primary function is to give workers’ lives a dramatic interest that helps people adapt within the culture

Sociality performances: Maintain social roles and relationships within the organization

Organizational politics: Enact or demonstrate power relations. Who is helpful, controlling, regulative, subservient etc.

Enculturation: How new members are integrated into an ongoing social structure

Implications of OC Theory o Inclusivity o Prescription: More well defined expectations from members and the

organization – We are like this only … o Some theorists see it as a means to describe organizations as complex cultural

achievements o Other theorists want to use the concepts to diagnose organizational problems

and intervene as managers and consultants to resolve these problems/ improve these organizations


International Business Communication Session 25: Collaboration in Organizations

1. The term ‘Communication climate’ refers to the emotional tone of a relationship between

people who are interacting (Wood, 1998).

2. The distinct types of communication climate in organizations may be (Wood, 1998): a. Supportive climate, which is characterized by:

i. Collaboration and teamwork ii. High morale and motivation of employees which results in

1. Loyalty 2. Commitment 3. Efficiency 4. Low turnover

b. Defensive climate which is characterized by:

i. Intra and inter-organizational conflict ii. Low morale and motivation, which may result in

1. Feeling of instability 2. Manipulation 3. Lowered commitment and efficiency 4. Disloyalty

3. Some ways in which healthy communication climates may be created and sustained in

organizations could be (Wood, 1998): a. Accept and confirm others b. Affirm and assert yourself c. Respect diversity among people d. Time your conflict effectively:

i. Try to engage in conflict when both people are able to be fully present and mindful

ii. Be flexible about when you deal with differences iii. Try bracketing: Mark off peripheral issues for later discussion

e. Show grace (forgiveness/ putting other’s needs before ours) when appropriate

4. Collaboration refers to a process in which individuals strive to labor together (Stewart & Logan, 2002) Collaboration (Marshall, 1995) – a principle based process of working together that produces trust, integrity and breakthrough results by building true consensus, ownership and alignment in all aspects of the organization.


International Business Communication Session 26: Groups and Teams

1. Group: Three or more individuals who interact over time, depend on one another, and follow

shared rules of conduct to reach a common goal (Wood, 1998) Team: Special kind of group that is characterized by different and complimentary resources of members and by a strong sense of collective identity (Wood, 1998)

2. People may join groups for the following reasons (Seiler & Beall, 2005; Argyle, 1996, in Cathcart, Samovar & Henman, 1996):

a. Satisfaction of psychological and social needs (e.g. attention, affection, belongingness) (Seiler & Beall, 2005; Argyle, 1996, in Cathcart, Samovar & Henman, 1996)

b. Membership helps with the achievement of larger goals due to division of labor (Seiler & Beall, 2005; Argyle, 1996, in Cathcart, Samovar & Henman, 1996)

c. Provision of multiple sources of information and knowledge that might not be available to one individual that can aid the above (Seiler & Beall, 2005)

d. Meeting the need for security (Seiler & Beall, 2005) e. Contribution to an individual’s sense of positive social identity (Seiler & Beall,

2005) f. Social facilitation (Argyle, 1996)

3. Individualist & Collectivist Orientations: A comparison of small groups (Beebe &

Masterson, 2003, in Seiler and Beall, 2005)

Individualist Assumptions Collectivist Assumptions

Individuals make better decisions than groups do

The group’s decision should supersede individual decisions

Leaders and not the group members should do the planning

The group should do the planning

Individuals should be rewarded for their performance

Reward and recognition should be shared among group members

Competition among individual group members is good

Teamwork is more important than competition

The best way to get things done is to work with individuals as opposed to an entire group

The group is the best way to accomplish goals

Groups or teams are often perceived as a waste of time

The commitment to the group is strongest when the group reaches consensus


International Business Communication Session 27: Groups and Teams (Contd.)

1. Membership experience in workplace groups (Allcorn, 1996, in Cathcart, Samovar &

Henman, 1996)

Homogenized Institutionalized Autocratic Intentional

Members fear consequences of speaking out and taking action

Members fear consequences of speaking out in other than prescribed manner/ taking action without prior approval

Members fear consequences of speaking out/ taking action without explicit approval of leader

Members are eager to offer their point of view

Members feel helpless because they are attacked when they speak

Members feel helpless because they are attacked when they deviate

Members feel helpless because of leader’s inflexible attitude

Members feel safe because everyone is on equal footing

Security in being unnoticed

Safety in following rules

Unsafe and insecure because of leader’s unpredictability

Safe and secure because of equality

Members feel group has lost its purpose

Members feel they have lost their purpose in trying to follow rules

Individuals feel a loss of personal purpose to boss’s whims

Members feel a continued sense of purpose

Frustration: No direction of group

Frustration because of rigid institutional processes

Frustration because of inflexibility of leader

Frustrations openly discussed & solved

2. Social Loafing or Ringleman Effect (Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008) is the tendency of

people to work less hard in a group than they would individually Reasons why employees engage in social loafing are: Their individual contributions are less noticeable in a group They prefer to see others carry the workload

Some ways in which managers could deal with social loafing among their employees could be (Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008): Definition of roles and tasks to maximize individual interests Raising of accountability by making performance expectations clear and identifiable Tying individual rewards to their performance contributions to the group

3. Some factors that can influencing group effectiveness are (Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008): Diversity consensus dilemma: The tendency for the existence of diversity among group

members to make it harder for them to work together, even though the diversity itself expands the skills and perspectives available for problem solving

Status congruence: Occurs when a person’s position within the group is equivalent in status to positions the individual holds outside the group.

FIRO-B (Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation) Theory: Groups whose members have compatible needs are likely to be more effective than groups whose members are more incompatible.

Group Size: As a group becomes larger, more and more people are available to divide up the work and accomplish needed tasks

Group Dynamics: Activities, interactions and sentiments


International Business Communication Session 28: Teams and Compliance

1. The norms that can foster competent group interaction and the behaviours and roles they

manifest themselves in may be tabulated as follows (Burkel-Rothfuss, 1985)

Norms Communication Behaviors Relevant Roles

Basic communication competence category

Attending to process

Attending to/ commenting on the group’s method & communication

Manager Controlling

Accepting feelings

Owning feelings; acknowledging others’ feelings

Encourager Negotiator

Expressing

Adapting to feedback

Checking perceptions; seeking feedback

Negotiator Info manager

Symbolizing, Processing, Adapting

Objectively diagnosing problems

Coordinating information; systematically analyzing problems

Analyst

Negotiator

Symbolizing

Processing

Controlling

Sharing responsibility

Verbally and nonverbally participating; acknowledging responsibility for the group

Gatekeeper

Encourager

Symbolizing

Processing

Adapting

Controlling

Expressing

2. Minimizing power differences (Fiarhurst, 1993, in Modaff & DeWine, 2002)

a. Value congruence b. Non routine problem solving c. Inside markers d. Support e. Coaching

3. Maximizing power differences (Fairhurst, 1993, in Modaff & DeWine, 2002)

a. Performance monitoring b. Face threatening acts: Criticisms and rebuke c. Competitive conflict: Interruptions and non supportive statements d. Power games


International Business Communication Session 29: Persuasive Communication

1. Inartistic and artistic persuasive appeals (Anderson & Ross, 2002)

Inartistic means of persuasion: emphasizes the discovery of the facts of a given case that are largely external to the choices of the individuals concerned. They are simply 'found' in the situation or in the external inducements e.g. oaths & torture (Aristotle, 1954, in Anderson & Ross, 2002)

Artistic means of persuasion: Facts must speak for themselves; they must be interpreted and presented creatively in order for them to have an influence on an audience. (Aristotle, 1954, in Anderson & Ross, 2002)

2. Artistic proof: Choices rhetors make when they seek to persuade others. The different types of artistic proof may be

Ethos: 'Personal proof' or 'ethical proof' acquires its value from the person who presents it. Depends upon: Credibility: Speaker's reputation. Expertise Trustworthiness Dynamism: Auditors admire rhetors who have enthusiastic and animated

presentation styles Pathos: refers to the rhetorical use of messages that appeal to an audience's emotions

and passion. People believe what they want to believe, what they feel like believing. Misconceptions about the role of emotions in persuasive communication: (Hauser, 1986, in Anderson & Ross, 2002)

Emotions are not 'things' that can be stored up or expended like commodities They are better understood as judgments and interpretations, unique to each

individual, that develop as a result of a complex interplay of psychological and physiological factors

People believe that emotions come largely from outside the self. They are inner interpretations affectively tied to outer experiences, i.e. emotions in relation to something else outside the self (intentionality: we feel what we want to feel)

Logos: Persuasion should be based on logical arguments and reasons that a rhetor can present tot an audience. Information that is presented in a precise order and accompanied by statistical support, examples, and relevant testimony encourages listeners to arrive at a specific conclusion recommended by the rhetor. Syllogism: Form of logical reasoning that moves from major premise through

minor premise to conclusion. e.g. 'A' has a characteristic feature 'x'. 'B' is a subset of 'A'. Hence 'B' will also have the characteristic feature 'x'.

Enthymemes: One of the two premises is implicit. e.g. 'A' has a characteristic feature 'x'. This characteristic feature 'x' manifests itself in some form in 'B'. [Hence, the listeners assume, that 'B' must be a subset of 'A' in order for it to be exhibiting characterisitic, 'x'.

3. Compliance occurs when one person does what another person wants done 'to achieve a favorable reaction from the other. He may be interested in attaining certain specific rewards or in avoiding certain specific punishments that the influencing agent controls.' (Kelman, 1966, in Anderson & Ross, 2002)

4. Some of the strategies that may be used to gain compliance from the people we interact with

may be (Maxwell & Schmitt, 1967, in Anderson & Ross, 2002): Promise (we promise to reward others if they comply) Threat (we promise to punish others if they don't comply) Positive expertise (we suggest that we know that good things will happen if they

comply) Negative expertise (we suggest that we know that bad things will happen if they don't

comply) Liking (we act so as to be pleasant, helping them to decide to comply with someone

they like) Pre-giving (we give a reward before suggesting that they comply) Aversive stimulation (we continually punish them, so that their compliance will bring

relief) Debt (we suggest that they owe us compliance because of previous situations)


International Business Communication Session 30: Persuasive Communication (Contd.)

1. Foot-in-the-door Tactic (Canary, Cody & Manusov, 2000): The solicitor makes a small request to crack the door open so as to eventually get it open all the way. Suggestions for effective use of foot in the door (FITD) tactic

First request must be clearly smaller than the second request Second request cannot be so large that few people would comply, nor so trivial that

everyone would comply People cannot believe that external pressures led them to comply with the first request

because then they will not perceive their own personal involvement to be the cause of the compliance, and there will be no chance for a FITD

Employ tactics to ensure that people will make the appropriate self-perception of personal commitment to a cause.

Different solicitors can be used to elicit the FITD effect. People should be committed to the cause not the person

FITD tactic works over time. Make sure people remember their commitment to the first request when they receive the second request.

2. Models of compliance strategies (Canary, Cody & Manusov, 2000)

Indebtedness Theory (Bell, Cholerton, Davison, Fraczek, & Lauter, 1996; Greenberg, 1980; Greenberg & Westcott, 1983, in Canary, Cody & Manusov, 2000)

We come to feel indebted (a felt obligation to repay another, the psychological arousal, and the potential psychological discomfort due to inequity) to another person when that individual has extended us a benefit. We try to bring the situation back to equilibrium by repaying the person by complying.

Self-presentation theory: Impression management or monitoring of public image (as a result of complying with or denying a request)

Perceptual contrast theory: Based on anchoring and contrast theory discussed earlier

“That’s not all…” technique (Burger, 1986, in Canary, Cody & Manusov, 2000): Make the first request slightly tempting Top it with “Don’t act yet … because you will also receive …” e.g. ‘Buy One

Get One Free’ deals

3. Tools of persuasion (Sproule, 1980, in Lulofs, 1991) Claims: Things we want people to believe Evidence: Facts supporting the claims we make Arguments: Claims that are coupled with some evidence in support of them Reasoning: the way in which we connect claims to the evidence we offer supporting

those claims


International Business Communication Session 31: Conflict Resolution

1. Conflict is Disagreement between two or more people Basically a situation where the goals, values, interests, and perceptions of one individual

or group are incompatible with another individual or group. “A dynamic process that occurs between independent parties as they experience negative

emotional response to perceived disagreements & interference with the attainment of their goals.” (Harwick, 2004, in Roloff & Chiles, 2011)

How does a conflict start? (Peterson, 1983, in Modaff and DeWine, 2002)

A rebuff occurs when one person appeals to the other for a desired action and the other fails to respond as expected

An illegitimate demand is a request made by one person that is perceived by the other as unjust or outside of the normal range of requests

Criticisms are verbal or nonverbal acts performed by one person that are perceived by the other as unfavourable or demeaning

Cumulative annoyances occur when sheer repetition of instances of some activity performed by one person crosses a threshold of tolerance and becomes unacceptable to the other person

2. Some sources of conflict in the workplace include (Angell, 2007; O’Rourke & Singh, 2006; Schermerhorn, Hunt and Osborn, 2010):

a. Economic Conflict: A situation in which a movement of change in a situation makes at least one party worse off and the other party better off.

b. Interaction Conflict: Hostility caused by the reaction of each party to the behavior of the other.

c. Internal Conflict: Situation in which one party cannot make a decision because they are being pulled or pushed in two opposite directions at the same time.

d. Substantive Conflict is a fundamental disagreement over ends or goals to be pursued and the means for their accomplishment.

e. Emotional conflict involves interpersonal difficulties that arise over feelings of anger, mistrust, dislike, fear, resentment and the like.

f. Communication Conflict (Often a result of misunderstandings due to): i. Semantic Difficulties: Meanings are in people, not in words

ii. Ambiguity: Inadequate, unclear communication iii. Multiple Communication Channels: Introduction of bias into the

information and distortion of information as it travels from one channel to another.

g. Structural Conflict: Size, bureaucratic qualities, heterogeneity of staff, participation, reward systems, power, interdependence, domain ambiguities, and resource scarcity

h. Personality Behavior Conflict: Personality, Role Satisfaction and Status perception, and Personal Goals, Conflict styles


International Business Communication Session 32: Negotiation

1. Compliance resisting tactics (McLaughlin et al., 1980, in Canary, Cody & Manusov, 2000)

a. Non-negotiation strategy: Outright refusal to comply b. Negotiation strategy: Reluctant compromises c. Identity management strategies: Make the requester feel bad d. Justification resistance strategies: Justifying convincingly that the request cannot

be complied with

2. Negotiation is a skill that helps you get what you want from others without alienating them…. A process whereby people with different or even opposing needs can arrive at a fair agreement. (McKay, Davis & Fanning, 2009)

3. Stages of negotiation (McKay, Davis & Fanning, 2009; Dolan, 2006) a. Preparation:

i. Decide on goal ii. Decide on what is important: relationship or end result

iii. Range of acceptable solutions/ areas of compromise iv. Reservation price v. List your resources

vi. Know/ Find out the above for the opponent/ other party b. Discussion: with the other party regarding mutual interests and needs. Information

about the other party is taken at this stage. c. Proposal-counterproposal:

i. Real negotiation with offer and feedback (counteroffer) regarding acceptability

d. Agreement/ disagreement: forms the basis for future negotiations – satisfaction/ dissatisfaction with the process, result, & inter-party relationship

4. Distributive Negotiation (HBE, 2003, and Hocker & Wilmot, 2001) Characterized by win-lose. The seller’s goal is to negotiate as high a price as possible, the buyer’s goal is to negotiate

as low a price as possible. The less the other side knows about your weaknesses and real preferences, and the more

it knows about your bargaining strength, the better will be your position. Integrative Negotiations (HBE, 2003; Hocker & Wilmot, 2001)

Characterized by win – win. Buyer and seller are both willing to lose a little and gain a little Since the common goal is collaboration, openness regarding bargaining strength is

encouraged on both sides. Usually culminates in a long-term relationship

Succeeding at Distributive Negotiations (HBE) The first offer principle: Start right. Don’t disclose your options: Just make it clear that you have them. Zero in on their deal makers and breakers. Use the above information to make your first offer. Don’t overshoot.

Succeeding at Collaborative Negotiations (Hocker and Wilmot, 2000 & HBE)

Clearly lay down goals, limitations and resources available for mutual benefits Try to maximize returns for own client inducing any joint gains available Focus on common interests of the parties Try to understand the merits as objectively as possible Use non-confrontational debating techniques Remain open to persuasion on substance Be oriented to qualitative goals: A fair/ wise/ durable agreement, efficiently

negotiated


International Business Communication Session 33: Leadership

1. Leadership is:

The art of inducing subordinates to accomplish their assignments with zeal & confidence (Jennings, 1943, in Lewis, 1980)

A process by which people are directed, guided, & influenced in choosing & achieving goals (Haimann & Scott, 1974, in Lewis, 1980)

Organizationally useful behavior by one member of an organizational family toward another member or members of that same organizational family (Bowers & Seashore, 1971, in Lewis, 1980)

2. Authority is “The character of a communication (order) in a formal organization by virtue of which it is accepted by a contributor to or ‘member of the organization as governing the action he contributes; that is, as governing or determining what he does or is not to do so far as the organization is concerned.” (Barnard, 1938, in Modaff & DeWine, 2002)

3. The different types of power that may be exerted by superiors on their subordinates in organizations may include (Cathcart, Samovar & Henman, 1996): Legitimate power: Position power: result of official role of leader Coercive power: Power by instilling fear of negative consequences in the event of non-

compliance Reward power: Power by instilling motivation for positive rewards in the event of

compliance Expert power: Genuine expertise Referent power: Genuine respect for a person who is competent & trustworthy

4. Styles of leadership (Cathcart, Samovar & Henman, 1996; Lewis, 1980)

Exploitative-Authoritarian/ Autocratic Benevolent-Authoritarian: Treat followers like children – micromanage, but not to the

detriment of the followers Consultative-Democratic: Ask for & receive participative input from group, but maintain

the right to make the final decision Participative-democratic: Give some direction to group, but there is total participation &

decision by majority or consensus Laissez-faire: Exert little or no influence on the group. Members rely on each other for

direction

5. Psychological impact of leader’s communication style on subordinate Patronizing and condescending interaction: Undercutting of formal authority (Fairhurst,

1993, in Krone, Kramer & Sias, 2010) Interactive & personal, rather than competitive & distant: Accomplished through

interactive communication, challenging others to produce results, communication

openness, participative decision making, & effective boundary spanning. (Parker, 2001, in Krone, Kramer & Sias, 2010)

Abuse of power: Sexual impropriety (Claire, 1993 in Krone, Kramer & Sias, 2010), Verbal & nonverbal hostility (Tepper, 2000; Bies & Moag, 1986, in Krone, Kramer &

Sias, 2010) Abused employees are more likely to leave their jobs & report lower job & life satisfaction, lower commitment, greater work-family conflict & psychological distress


International Business Communication Session 34: Written Business Communication

1. Why writing? (Eyres, 2003)

a. Record b. Detail c. Documentation/ proof d. Aid to memory e. Reconstruction of past events f. Establishment of knowledge, notice, or intent of the organization or individual at

a relevant time

2. Specific challenges to written communication in international business Language to be used: Which and why? Bi/ Multilingualism? (Cassady & Wasson, 1994) Native readers vs. non-native readers (Charles, 2007) Translation vs. Interpretation: What did you say vs. what did you mean? (de

Vries, 1969) English?

Language of international communication (Cassady & Wasson, 1994; Kankaanranta & Planken, 2010; Kilpatrick, 1984; Neely, 2012; Odrakiewicz, 2010)

Perceived language of formal communication? (Kuiper, 2007) Interpretation of a foreign language: Does training help? (Charles and Marschan-

Peikkari, 2002) Review and revisitation of recorded written information provides opportunities

for multiple interpretations wherever possible - can be good or bad Channel Strategy and design of messages Culture and subcultural diversity (Victor, 1994):

Format of documents: Salutation, closing, signature, (Kankaanranta, 2006) date, margins, page numbers

Strategy for designing and interpreting messages Appropriateness of words/ style/ length Tone: Direct/ Indirect Diplomacy and courtesy (Kilpatrick, 1984) Communication networks: Shape, size, vertical vs. horizontal Gender issues : preference for dealing with men vs. women (Kilpatrick,

1984) Transactional culture: The new 'culture' or context that is created in and

through interactions between people from different cultures. (Bell, 1992, in Varner, 2000). Native to Native vs. Native to Non-Native vs. Non-Native to Non-Native.

3. Communicative purposes of written business messages include: Persuasion: Resume, cover-letter, business proposals, sales pitches, advertisements Direction: Orders, policies, rules and regulations Advice Giving Information: Reports, memos, notices, circulars, blogs, quotations and other

financial documents Seeking information: Inquiries, requests, calls for explanation Defending: Legal Acknowledgement and appreciation Idea generation

4. The factors one could consider before drafting a written message include (Lunsford, 2001):

Your task – analyze, classify, compare, contrast, define, describe, discuss or survey Your purpose – explain, summarize, persuade, recommend, entertain, refute etc. Your audience Your rhetorical stance Genre and language Specific online issues

5. The elements of good writing include (Fielden, 1964):

a. Readability: Complexity, abstractness, Sentence construction, paragraph construction according to:

i. Reader’s level ii. Familiarity of words

iii. Intended direction for reader iv. Focus of document

b. Correctness: i. Accuracy of information

ii. Mechanics 1. Grammar 2. Punctuation

iii. Format 1. Appearance 2. Standard writing style appropriate for document according to

company iv. Coherence:

1. Relationship of ideas to each other 2. Logical juxtaposition of ideas to each other

c. Thought i. Preparation

ii. Competence iii. Fidelity to document iv. Analysis

1. Thoroughness of examination of data 2. Ability to draw conclusions 3. Presentation of conclusions

4. Identification and justification of assumptions 5. Qualification of tenuous assertions 6. Biases


International Business Communication Session 35: Technology in International Business Communication

1. The criteria for the selection of computer mediated communication include (Modaff &

DeWine, 2002): a. Lack of non-verbal cues:

i. Social presence: Degree of sociability present in the use of the media (Modaff & DeWine, 2002)

ii. Media richness: Degree of formality and structure in the language, variety of language used, tone of voice and facial expressions (Donabedian, McKinnon, & Burns, 1998, Modaff & DeWine, 2002)

b. Speed of feedback (Modaff & DeWine, 2002) c. Accessibility d. Position in hierarchy e. Contingency theory: Degree of equivocality (degree to which a decision making

situation and information related to it are subject to multiple interpretations (Walther, 2011) ) or uncertainty in a situation, the need for quick feedback, and the personalness of the source may be better predictors (Steinfield, 1992, in Modaff & DeWine, 2002)

f. Degree of anonymity desired by the participants (Walther, 2010) g. Possibility of anonmity, pseudonymity, or nominal identification (Walther, 2010) h. Asynchronous composition of messages and varying time intervals before

interactive replies appear (Walther, 2010) i. Size of audience (Walther, 2010) j. The ability to lurk for answers without uttering a request (Nonnecke and Preece,

2001, in Walther, 2010)

2. Comparison of Human Human Interaction and Human Technology Interaction (Lee & Sundar, 2010)

a. Source of information: Computer vs. Human i. Social responses to computer technology:

1. Male voiced computers are perceived to be more proficient in technical subjects than female voiced ones (Nass et al., 1997, in Lee & Sundar, 2010)

2. People respond more positively to computers with personalities that match their own (Moon & Nass, 1996; Nass & Lee, 2001, in Lee & Sundar, 2010)

3. Flattery effects: Participants rated the computer and their own performance more positively when the computer produced praise (Fogg & Nass, 1997b, in Lee & Sundar, 2010)

ii. Computer as medium: 1. Intermedia comparisons: (MacLuhan 1964, in Lee & Sundar,

2010): Nature, uses, and effects of content are fundamentally shaped by the medium via which the content is experienced.

Use: Information (Flanagin & Metzger, 2001, in Lee & Sundar,

2010) Entertainment (Ferguson & Perse, 2000, Lee & Sundar, 2010) Social support – for both extroverts and introverts (Kraut et

al., 2002; Caplan, 2005, in Lee & Sundar, 2010) 2. Credibility:

Function of volume of use of medium (Johnson & Kaye, 2004; Stavrosity & Sundar, 2008; in Lee & Sundar, 2010)

Surface design aspects (Fogg et al., 2003, in Lee & Sundar, 2010)

Credibility markers: Seals & ratings (Fogg et al., 2003, in Lee & Sundar, 2010)

Cognitive effects: Print ads are remembered better than web ads (Sundar et al., 1998, in Lee & Sundar, 2010) Linear site designs promote factual learning, whereas nonlinear site designs involving hyperlinks led to better structuring of acquired information because the nature of their organization triggers the kind of info processing that mimics the associative nature of the human memory system (Coretese, Park & Dunwoody, 2004, in Lee & Sundar, 2004)

b. Variable centered approach: studying the role of various attributes rather than HTI as a whole (Nass & Mason, 1990, in Lee & Sundar, 2010)

1. Multimedia: Transmission of information in a single modality (text/ audio etc.) vs. simultaneous transmission through several modalities

2. Interactivity: User to user vs. user to system vs. user to documents (McMillan

2002, in Lee & Sundar, 2010) Functional interactivity (calling up various functions on a site) vs.

contingent interactivity (threading up of messages e.g. in a bulletin board (Sundar et al., in Lee & Sundar, 2010)

Interactivity as a product vs. interactivity as a process (Stromer-Galley, 2004, in Lee & Sundar, 2010)

c. Psychological effects of interactivity i. Manipulation check (Kalyanaramanam & Sundar, 2006; Liu & Shrum,

2002; Sundar & Kim, 2005, in Lee & Sundar, 2010) ii. Induction of a sense of telepresence (Coyle & Thorson, 2001, in Lee &

Sundar, 2010) iii. Need for orientation (Tremayne & Dunwoody, 2001, in Lee & Sundar,

2010) iv. Interactive devices on a site such as clicks & drags, tend to trigger

conscious processing of stimuli (Sundar & Constantin, 2004, in Lee & Sundar, 2010)

v. Higher interactivity can lead to: vi. Distraction, disorientation, cognitive overload, frustration, high

expectations (Bucy, 2004 b; Bucy & Tao, 2007; Sundar, 2000, in Lee & Sundar, 2010)

vii. High levels of engagement thereby forcing central processing and hence close scrutiny of content (Sundar, 2007 b, in Lee & Sundar, 2010)


International Business Communication Session 36: Moving to Another Culture

1. Relationships that may be formed between migrants and host communities include (Martin &

Nakayama, 2000): Assimilation:

i. The individual does not want to maintain an isolated cultural identity, but wants to maintain relationships with other groups in the new culture.

ii. Melting pot iii. Migrants take on the attributes of the host culture

Separation: i. Migrants willingly choose to retain their original culture & at the same

time avoid interaction with other groups. ii. Segregation: Separation forced upon immigrants by the host culture.

Integration: Occurs when the migrants have an interest in maintaining their original culture & also in maintaining daily interactions with other groups

e.g. Punjabis celebrating Lohri & Durga Puja in West Bengal Marginalization:

Occurs when the individual or group expresses little interest in maintaining cultural ties with either the dominant culture or the migrant culture. e.g. 2nd- 3rd generation Indian – Pakistani Americans

2. Culture shock is:

Relatively short-term feeling of disorientation, of discomfort due to the unfamiliarity of surroundings, the lack of familiar cues in the environment. Term coined by Kalvero Oberg in 1960 (Martin & Nakayama, 2000)

“Stress induced by all the behavioral expectation differences & the accompanying uncertainty with which the individual must cope.” (Black & Gregersen, 1991 in Sims & Schrader, 2004)

“An emotional & psychological reaction to the confusion, ambiguity, value conflicts, & hidden clashes that occur as a result of fundamentally different ways of perceiving the world & interacting socially between cultures: Disequilibrium.” (Solomon, 1994, in Sims & Schrader, 2004)

The factors affecting expatriate culture shock include (Sims & Schrader, 2004): Training Demographic characteristics Cultural personality characteristics Organizational support Technical competence

3. Cultural adaptation may be influenced by:

Individual influences: Gender, age, preparation, expectations (Ward, 1996, in Martin & Nakayama, 2000)

Context Receptivity of context (Kim, 1988, in Martin & Nakayama, 2000) Relative status & power between sojourner & host group (Gender, race

etc.) (Morris, 1960, in Martin & Nakayama, 2000) Socio-economic class

Outcomes of adaptation Psychological health (Berry et al., 1987, in Martin & Nakayama, 2000) Functional fitness: ability to function in daily life in many contexts (Ward,

1996, in Martin & Nakayama, 2000) & ability to learn new ways of living & behaving (Bochner, 1986, in Martin & Nakayama, 2000)

Intercultural identity (Adler, 1975, in Martin & Nakayama, 2000)


International Business Communication Session 37: Impatriation and Re-entry

1. What returnees offer their organization (Source: Storti,1997, in Martin & Nakayama, 1996)

Returnee may have invaluable knowledge of certain regions, countries, or markets with which the company or organization does business or competes

Returnee brings a different, perhaps unique perspective to issues, discussions & problem solving

Returnee is likely to be more flexible in dealing with others, & more open to new ideas, more likely to try something that hasn’t been tried before

Returnee has increased tolerance for different ideas, behaviors, & opinions &, hence, an increased ability to work with/ manage a culturally or ethnically diverse workforce

Returnee is more able to compromise, to be more humble & less rigid Returnee understands home culture better, can step outside it, & observe effectively

how it influences decisions & other organizational behavior Returnee has more self confidence, having survived & prospered in a challenging

environment

2. Reverse culture shock is the culture shock expatriates experience when they return to their home countries. The factors affecting the intensity of reverse culture shock include:

Perceptions about the homeland Perceptions about the significant others Interpretations – cannot be exactly similar to the ones before the stint abroad because

the stay abroad has added to the context Other’s perceptions about a foreign returned … Pace Time Lifestyle Communication styles Language – communicative lingerings - interchange between L1 & L2 (Sicola, 2005)

3. Repatriates may do the following to deal with reverse culture shock:

Recognize and acknowledge what is happening Discuss issues with similar others Stay in touch with the other side Research the issues bothering you & look for solutions Be flexible, and know that change is inevitable


International Business Communication Session 38: Crisis Communication

1. Crisis is “[a] major catastrophe that may occur either naturally or as a result of human error.

It can include tangible devastation, such as the destruction of lives or assets, or intangible devastation, such as the loss of an organization’s credibility. In the latter case, the loss of credibility may be the result of management’s response to tangible devastation or the result of human error.” (Argenti 1998 in Schultz 2006)

2. "A crisis communication strategy provides for the accurate, timely, coordinated, appropriate, and understandable release of business related information to the general public in times of potential and actual crises and emergencies that impact or have the potential to impact the business." (Mehra, 2012)

3. Typical confusions during crises (Pang, Cropp & Cameron, 2006)

Attitude of higher ups towards crisis communication vs. crisis management Expectations regarding the chain of command and the division that would coordinate the

crisis communication campaign Proactive, open, and detailed communication regarding crisis vs. restricted and limited

communication Role of line managers in carrying out crisis management procedures

4. Reputation management strategies (Coombs et al., 2010)

a. Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT): Reputation management efforts should only occur after addressing public safety, both physical & psychological

b. Corporate apologia: Genre encompassing reputation management strategies including apology, that explain how organizations explain their position during crises

i. Dissociation (Hearit, 1997, 1999, 2001, 2006; Hearit & Brown, 2004, in Coombs et al., 2010):

1. Opinion/ knowledge dissociation: Charges against organization have no merit & do not match the facts of the situation

2. Individual/ group dissociation: A few bad apples are bringing a bad name to the whole organization

3. Act/ essence dissociation: One bad act cannot be representative of the true nature of the entire organization

ii. Image repair theory (Benoit & Pang, 2008, in Coombs et al., 2010): Organizations have reputations (images) that are valuable to the corporation and warrant protection when threatened.

c. Strategies that may be used for image repair (Low, Varughese & Pang, 2010) Strategies used by nations to repair their image during crises (Benoit & Pang, 2008, in Low, Varughese & Pang, 2010)

Denial & shifting the blame Evasion of responsibility by shifting the blame to:

Provocation De-feasibility – lack of feasibility due to inadequate info & control Accident Good intention

Reducing offensiveness: Bolstering one’s positive traits Minimization of severity of situation Differentiation by suggesting that the event was less severe Transcendence: placing the situation at a higher level, with more

important concerns Attacking the accuser Compensation to the victims

Corrective action Mortification


International Business Communication Session 39: Communication Ethics

1. Teleological approaches to ethical human communication include (Anderson and Ross,

2002): Philosophical study of how goals & outcomes can shape human behavior People are proactive rather than reactive (Flew, 1984, in Anderson & Ross, 2002) Certain phenomena can be explained not by means of prior causes, but by ends of

aims, intentions or purposes (Flew, 1984, in Anderson & Ross, 2002) Consequentialist ethic: What ultimately happened determines whether you

consider it ethical or not, as opposed to the process involved. Utilitarianism: What is the ultimate result of a process going to be used for, and

whether that can be considered useful or not (John Stuart Mill, in Anderson & Ross, 2002)

Egalitarian approaches to ethical human communication may be described as follows (Anderson and Ross, 2002):

Evaluates communication using the criterion of equality: Have the conditions produced by the communication enhanced or hindered equal treatment for the individuals who are affected by it? (Anderson & Ross, 2002)

Egoistic ethic: Is the outcome of the communication event is good (or positive, helpful, or gratifying) for the person doing the evaluating, as opposed to good for everyone (Singer, 1996, in Anderson & Ross, 2002)

Veil of ignorance criterion in ensuring egalitarian consequences of communicative events: (Rawls, 1971, in Anderson & Ross, 2002): Dissociation of oneself while evaluating a communication event so that egoism does not creep in

2. Ethical guidelines for communication (Johannesen, 1990, in Anderson & Ross, 2002)

Authenticity Inclusion Confirmation of each other’s existence in & through dialogue Presentness: Dialogue partners “demonstrate willingness to become fully

involved with each other by taking time, avoiding distraction, being communicatively accessible, & risking attachment. One avoids being an onlooker who simply takes in what is presented or an observer who analyzes.” (Johannesen, 1990, in Anderson & Ross, 2002)

Spirit of mutual equality: Monologue vs. dialogue Supportive climate: Dialogue is more of a team effort than a transfer of

psychologized meanings from one individual to another


International Business Communication Session 40: Conclusion

1. Managers meet many different people coming from very different backgrounds.

Knowledge of the concepts covered in this series will help managers develop an understanding of and sensitivity to the different perspectives the people they interact with bring with them. This will, in turn, help managers see things from the point of view of the people they deal with, which will be useful for them in terms of aligning their comfort zones with the people who they work with and the people whose needs they serve through their business.

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