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PARTICLE BEAMS, TOOLS FOR MODERN SCIENCEHans-H. Braun, CERN
History and Physics Principles of Particle AcceleratorsOriginsFrom Zyklotron to Synchrotron Defocusing + Focusing = FocusingParticle Colliders
An Overview of Accelerator ApplicationsSynchrotron Radiation, from Nuisance to Bright LightBeams for MedicineParticle Accelerators for Particle Physics
Introduction to Linear e+/e- Colliders and CLICLinear Colliders - Motivation and ConceptTechnical Challenges for Linear CollidersCLIC
5th Particle Physics Workshop
National Centre for Physics
Quaid-i-Azam University Campus, Islamabad
PARTICLE BEAMS, TOOLS FOR MODERN SCIENCEHans-H. Braun, CERN
1st LectureHistory and Physics Principles of Particle Accelerators
o Origins
o From Zyklotron to Synchrotron
o Defocusing + Focusing = Focusing
o Particle Colliders
5th Particle Physics Workshop
National Centre for Physics
Quaid-i-Azam University Campus, Islamabad
One of the first particle beam set-up’s
The Rutherford-Geiger-Marsden Experiment (1906-1913)
Showed that the Thomson (or Plum Pudding) model of the atom is wrong !Atoms consists of extremely small nucleus of positive electric charge, carrying almost all the mass of the atoms. The nucleus is surrounded by a diffuse cloud of almost weightless electrons with negative charged.
Origins
(Marsden didn’t get a stamp)
Rutherford experiment startedinterest in subatomic length scales
Ernest Rutherford cajoled for years British industry to push development of high voltage sources as replacement for the α-emitters in his experiments.
Why ?
• Higher flux of particles
• Particles of higher velocity ⇔ higher momentum ⇔ higher kinetic energy
Motivations for higher beam energies I
Theory of microscope:
Only objects larger than the wavelength λ of light can be resolved
Louis De Broglie 1923:
Particles have wave properties with wavelength given by
Uqmh
Emh
Ph
KIN 22===λ
106 107 108 10910-16
10-15
10-14
Accelerating Voltage (MV)
λ (m
)de Broglie wavelength of α particles vs. kinetic energy
strongest αsources
size of proton
Coulomb barrier for charged-particle reactions
++++
+electric
force
Motivations for higher beam energies II
Einstein* 1905: Energy equivalent to mass
E = m c2
⇒ Collisions of energetic particles can createnew particles, if kinetic energy is sufficient
*many stamps
Traces of particles produced in collision of gold atoms at 100 GeV
Motivations for higher beam energies III
Electrostatic Generators
Van de Graaff Generator, 1931
Limited to 20MV
by electrical sparking
Linear accelerator (Rolf Wideroe 1928)
Lengths of drift tubes follow increasing velocity
Particle gains energy at each gap, total acceleration NGAP ·VRF
Applied acceleration is N times higher than electric voltage !
fvL
21
=
… and half an RF period later
In 1928 voltage from RF oscillators was small and the linear accelerator,(or LINAC ) not competitive with electrostatic accelerators
RADAR technology boosted the development of RF sources duringWorld War II. This eventually made LINAC’s the accelerator ofchoice for many applications.
Wiederoe’s first LINAC
Fermilab proton linac (400MeV)
Inside proton linac
Electrically coupled TM010 resonant cavities
Condition for acceleration Δϕ = ω/c·d, with Δϕ the phase difference between adjacent cells
Electron LinacsBecause of higher particle velocity (≈c0), higher frequency (1.3-30 GHz) and different accelerating structure types.
Most common building block it traveling wave structure.
pulsed RFPowersource
d
RF load
Electric field RF wall currents
)structures ngaccelerati copperfor valueQ (typical
107,
bygiven lossPower
)405.2(2
)(2
W
Energy Stored
! oft independen
405.2 function, Bessel of
zero 1by given frequency Resonant
)sin()(
)cos()(
8
21
220
0
2
0 0
220
st
10
00
fQW
Q-P
JREd
dzddrrBcE
dRc
trJc
EB
trJEE
Z
d R
Z
c
cZ
⋅≈=
=
+=
=
−=
=
∫ ∫ ∫
ω
επ
φε
ω
ω
ω
ω
π
φ
ωφ
ω
mode"cavitybox "pill 010TM
EZ
Bφ
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.50
50
100
ω/c r
EZ (M
V/m
)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.50
0.1
0.2
Bφ (T
)
d
R
23
0
0
)(1
)(1
110
)cos21(
sin velocity Group
wavenumber
cosa21 relation Dispersion
;,,Ansatz
0
kda
kddadkdv
dk
eEeEeE
EaEEE
G
tii
tii
tii
iii
+==⇒
=
+=⇒
===
=″+″++″
−+
+−
+−
ωω
ϕϕ
ωω
ω
ϕωωϕω
resonators of chain Coupled
d
ω
ϕ
ELECTRONP vdk
v ===ϕ
ωω
ω0
i i+1i-1
3 GHz accelerating structure of CTF3
Input power 30 MWPulse length 1.5 μsLength 1 mBeam current 3.5 AAcceleration 9 MVFrequency 2.99855 GHz
SiC load
Damping slot
Dipole modes suppressed by slotted iris damping (first dipole’s Q factor < 20)and HOM frequency detuning
Cyclotron Lawrence & Livingston 1932
The same acceleration gaptraversed many times !
! velocity oft Independen
2
frequency Cyclotron m
Befπ
=
22 timeRevolution
y trajectorof Radius
Force lCentrifuga Force Lorentz2
Bem
vRT
BevmR
RvmBve
ππ==
=
=
=
R
Example: a typical proton Zyklotron
( ) MeV 77.86J10247.12
MHz 25.922
m 0.75T 1.7
112
=⋅==
==
==
−
PKIN m
RBeE
mBef
RB
π
⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛+=
=
20
0 1
? velocity oft Independen
2
frequency Cyclotron
cmEmm
mBef
KINeffective
π
⇒ Cyclotron principle works only for beam energies
EKIN m0 c2
For example for protons
EKIN 938 MeV
(with some tricks 600 MeV can be obtained)
Theory of relativity
E.M. McMillan V. Veksler
The Synchrotron
Proposed independently and simultaneously 1945by McMillan in the USA and Veksler in the USSR
N
S
Electromagnet ofvariable strength
RF electric field withvariable frequency f=g(t)
Beam on circular orbitwith constant radius
injection
extraction
accelerat
ion
injectiontime
mag
netic
fiel
d Magnetic cycle synchrotron
injection
extraction
accelerat
ion
injectiontime
mag
netic
fiel
d Magnetic cycle synchrotron
To make synchrotron work magnetic field, RF frequency and voltage have to be controlled following a system of coupled equations:
Taken relativistic mass increase into account !
22
42
42
22
)(1)(
2)(
1)()(
)(
cm(t)Ecmctv
Rπv(t)tf
cmcm(t)E
RecmtB
tfVedt
(t)dE
kin
kin
RFkin
+−=
=
−+
=
=
⇒ Synchrotron can be build for very high energies.For proton beams limits are given by achievable magnetic fieldand size.Largest synchrotron LHC at CERN (under construction),27km circumference, BMAX=8.3 T, EKIN=7.000.000 MeV
f(t) VRF
B(t)
EKIN(t)
Layout of an early proton synchrotron
Variation of parameters with time in a proton synchrotron
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1Time@sD
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
Eciteni
KVe
M
Proton Synchrotron, R=10m, VRF=10 kV, EKinetic at injection=10MeV
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1Time@sD
1
2
3
4
5
fnoitulove
R@zHMD
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1Time@sD
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
1.25
1.5
1.75
2
citengam
dleif@TD
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1Time@sD
5 ´ 107
1 ´ 108
1.5´ 108
2 ´ 108
2.5´ 108
3 ´ 108
elcitrapyticolev@m�sD
An electromagnet in quadrupole configurationwill have a similar effect on a particle beam.
However there is one big difference, considering the direction of Lorentz forceyou find that it focuses in one plane,but defocuses in the other !
In light optics an array of focusing lenses is used to keep light rays together
The action of each lens can be describedas an angle change of the trajectory
How to keep beam particles together ?
xΔφ
fx
−=Δφ
N
N S
S
iron yoke
coil
quadrupole magnet
1952 Courant, Snyder and Livingston propose “alternating gradient focusing”
focusing + defocusing = focusing
defocusing + focusing = focusing
Introduction of AG focusing had tremendous impact on beam quality and accelerator size and cost !
In turned out that Christofilos from Athens had filed an U.S. patent on this idea already in 1950, but nobody had noticed !
E. Courant H. Snyder
N. Christofilos
S. Livingston
Cell
FODO latticefor synchrotron
Quadrupolefocusing
Quadrupoledefocusing
Dipole (B=Bend)
Particle CollidersFrascati and Novosibirsk, 1961
B. Touschek*
Det
ecto
rs
Synchrotron
Reaction products
“Fixed target”
extracted beam
Detectors
Storage ring
Reaction products “Interaction point”
injection
extraction
acceleration
injectiontime
mag
netic
fiel
d Magnetic cycle synchrotron
time*with Lola
injection
storage
acceleration
mag
netic
fiel
d Magnetic cycle storage ring
A. Budker
What is the advantage of collider?
T
Xm
cmE 2
22
>2
2cmXE >
particle at rest of mass mT
beam particlewith energy E new particle
of mass mX
interaction
particle of clockwise beam with energy E new particle
of mass mX
interaction
particle of counterclockwisebeam with energy E
Fixed target Colliding beams
Conservation of energy and momentum
Same pages from Bruno Touscheks1960 notebook
e+/e-
e+/e-
e+/e-
e+/e-
e+/e-
e+/e-
e+/e-
e+/e-
e+/e-
e+/e-
e+/e-
e+/e-
e+/e-
p/pp/pp/p
e+/e-
e+/e-
e+/e-
e+/- /pe+/e-
e+/e-
e+/e-
e+/e-
e+/e-
p/p and Pb/Pb1961 VEP 1, Novosibirsk, USSR e-/e-
1971 ISR, CERN, Switzerland p/p2000 RHIC, Brookhaven, USA ion/ion
2007
DAΦNE
LNF Frascati500 MeV e+/e- collider
In the tunnel of the CERN SppS proton antiproton collider450.000 MeV, 7 km circumference
1967 Unified Theory of electromagnetic and weak interactionField quanta γ, W± and Z0
1979 Nobel price for Glashow, Weinberg, Salam
1983 Discovery of W± and Z0 at SppS /CERN
1984 Nobel price for Rubbia and van der Meer
UA1 detector
W event
SppS7 km
Electron, proton and ion sourcesVacuum systemsMagnet technology
Iron/copper magnetsFast pulsed ferrit magnetsSuperconducting magnetsPermanent magnets
RF power sources Accelerating RF structures
Normal conducting Superconducting
Cryogenic SystemsElectromagnetic sensorsHigh speed electronicsHigh precision electronicsElectric power systemsLarge scale precision alignmentLarge scale computer control systemsLaserTunnel construction techniques. . .
Accelerators
Enabling technologies for accelerators
Many technological developments were promoted by accelerator needs
Recommended literatureAccelerator physics generalH. Wiedemann, “Particle Accelerator Physics,” (2 volumes), Springer 1993K. Wille, “The Physics of Particle Accelerators : An Introduction,”Oxford University Press, 2001 S.Y. Lee, “Accelerator Physics,” World Scientific, 2004 A. Chao and M. Tigner (editors), “Handbook of Accelerator Physics and Engineering,”World Scientific, 1999T. Wangler, “RF Linear Accelerators,” John Wiley 1998M. Minty and F. Zimmermann, “Measurement and Control of Charged Particle Beams,”Springer 2003Accelerator key technologiesM.J. Smith and G. Phillips, “Power Klystrons Today,” John Wiley 1995M. Sedlacek, “Electron Physics of Vacuum and Gaseous Devices,” John Wiley 1996H. Padamsee, J. Knobloch, T. Hays, “RF Superconductivity for Accelerators,”Wiley 1998J. Tanabe, “Iron Dominated Magnets,” World Scientific 2005K. Mess, P. Schmüser, S. Wolff, “Superconducting Accelerator Magnets,”World Scientific, 1996
For more accelerator book references http://uspas.fnal.gov/book.html
PARTICLE BEAMS, TOOLS FOR MODERN SCIENCE Hans-H. Braun, CERN
2nd LectureExamples of Modern Applications and their Technological Challenges
o Synchrotron Radiation, from Nuisance to Bright Light
o Beams for Medicine
o Particle Accelerators for Particle Physics